Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION
2. EVE'S FAULT ?
3. EVE'S LEGACY
4. SHAMEFUL DAUGHTERS ?
5. FEMALE EDUCATION ?
6. UNCLEAN IMPURE WOMAN ?
7. BEARING WITNESS
8. ADULTERY
9. VOWS
10. WIFE'S PROPERTY ?
11. DIVORCE
12. MOTHERS
13. FEMALE INHERITANCE ?
14. PLIGHT OF WIDOWS
15. POLYGAMY
16. THE VEIL
17. EPILOGUE
and Not es
1. INTRODUCTION
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Judaism in t he Old Test ament then in Christ ianity and t hen in the
Quran"; "all religions are pat riarchal because t hey st em from
pat riarchal societ ies"; and "veiling of women is not a specifically
Islamic practice but an ancient cultural herit age wit h analogies in
sist er religions". The part icipant s could not bear sitt ing around
while t heir fait hs were being equated with Islam. Thus, Dr. Saadawi
received a barrage of criticism. "Dr. Saadawi's comments are
unaccept able. Her answers reveal a lack of underst anding about
ot her people's faiths," declared Bernice Dubois of the World
Movement of Mot hers. "I must protest " said panellist Alice Shalvi of
Israel women's net work, "t here is no concept ion of the veil in
Judaism." The article att ributed t hese furious protests to t he strong
t endency in t he West to scapegoat Islam for practices that are
just as much a part of the West 's own cult ural herit age. "Christ ian
and Jewish feminist s were not going t o sit around being discussed
in t he same cat egory as t hose wicked Muslims," wrot e Gwynne
Dyer.
I would like to emphasize in t his int roduct ion t hat my purpose for
t his study is not t o denigrat e Judaism or Christ ianit y. As Muslims, we
believe in t he divine origins of both. No one can be a Muslim
wit hout believing in Moses and Jesus as great prophet s of God. My
goal is only t o vindicat e Islam and pay a tribut e, long overdue in
t he West , t o t he final trut hful Message from God t o t he human
race. I would also like to emphasize t hat I concerned myself only
wit h Doctrine. That is, my concern is, mainly, t he position of women
in t he t hree religions as it appears in t heir original sources not as
pract ised by t heir millions of followers in the world t oday. Therefore,
most of t he evidence cit ed comes from the Quran, t he sayings of
Prophet Muhammad, t he Bible, t he Talmud, and t he sayings of
some of t he most influent ial Church Fathers whose views have
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2. EVE'S FAULT ?
The t hree religions agree on one basic fact : Both women and men
are creat ed by God, The Creat or of t he whole universe. However,
disagreement start s soon aft er t he creat ion of the first man,
Adam, and t he first woman, Eve. The Judaeo-Christ ian
concept ion of the creat ion of Adam and Eve is narrat ed in detail
in Genesis 2:4-3:24. God prohibit ed both of t hem from eating the
fruit s of the forbidden t ree. The serpent seduced Eve t o eat from it
and Eve, in t urn, seduced Adam t o eat wit h her. When God
rebuked Adam for what he did, he put all t he blame on Eve, "The
woman you put here with me --she gave me some fruit from the
t ree and I at e it." Consequently, God said t o Eve:
"I will great ly increase your pains in childbearing; wit h pain you
will give birt h t o children. Your desire will be for your husband and
he will rule over you."
To Adam He said:
"Because you list ened t o your wife and at e from t he t ree ....
Cursed is t he ground because of you; t hrough painful t oil you will
eat of it all t he days of your life..."
"O Adam dwell wit h your wife in t he Garden and enjoy as you
wish but approach not t his t ree or you run int o harm and
t ransgression. Then Sat an whispered t o t hem in order t o reveal t o
t hem t heir shame t hat was hidden from t hem and he said: 'Your
Lord only forbade you t his t ree lest you become angels or such
beings as live forever.' And he swore t o t hem bot h t hat he was
t heir sincere adviser. So by deceit he brought t hem t o t heir fall:
when t hey t ast ed t he t ree t heir shame became manifest t o
t hem and t hey began t o sew t oget her t he leaves of t he Garden
over t heir bodies. And t heir Lord called unt o t hem: 'Did I not
forbid you t hat t ree and t ell you t hat Sat an was your avowed
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enemy?' They said: 'Our Lord we have wronged our own souls and if
You forgive us not and best ow not upon us Your Mercy, we shall
cert ainly be lost ' " (7:19:23).
3. EVE'S LEGACY
"I find more bit t er t han deat h t he woman who is a snare, whose
heart is a t rap and whose hands are chains. The man who pleases
God will escape her, but t he sinner she will ensnare....while I was
st ill searching but not finding, I found one upright man among a
t housand but not one upright woman among t hem all"
(Ecclesiast es 7:26-28).
The Biblical Eve has played a far bigger role in Christ ianit y t han in
Judaism. Her sin has been pivot al t o t he whole Christian fait h
because the Christian concept ion of t he reason for t he mission of
Jesus Christ on Earth st ems from Eve's disobedience t o God. She
had sinned and t hen seduced Adam t o follow her suit.
Consequent ly, God expelled bot h of t hem from Heaven t o Earth,
which had been cursed because of them. They bequeathed t heir
sin, which had not been forgiven by God, t o all t heir descendant s
and, t hus, all humans are born in sin. In order t o purify human
beings from their 'original sin', God had t o sacrifice Jesus, who is
considered t o be t he Son of God, on t he cross. Therefore, Eve is
responsible for her own mist ake, her husband's sin, t he original sin of
all humanit y, and t he deat h of t he Son of God. In ot her words, one
woman acting on her own caused t he fall of humanit y. 5 What
about her daught ers? They are sinners like her and have t o be
t reated as such. List en to t he severe tone of St . Paul in t he New
Testament :
"A woman should learn in quiet ness and full submission. I don't
permit a woman t o t each or t o have aut horit y over a man; she
must be silent . For Adam was formed first , t hen Eve. And Adam
was not t he one deceived; it was t he woman who was deceived
and became a sinner" (I Timot hy 2:11-14).
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St. Tert ullian was even more blunt t han St . Paul, while he was
t alking to his 'best beloved sisters' in the fait h, he said: 6
"Do you not know t hat you are each an Eve? The sent ence of God
on t his sex of yours lives in t his age: t he guilt must of necessit y live
t oo. You are t he Devil's gat eway: You are t he unsealer of t he
forbidden t ree: You are t he first desert er of t he divine law: You
are she who persuaded him whom t he devil was not valiant
enough t o at t ack. You dest royed so easily God's image, man. On
account of your desert even t he Son of God had t o die."
Finally, t he renowned reformer Martin Lut her could not see any
benefit from a woman but bringing int o the world as many
children as possible regardless of any side effect s:
"If t hey become t ired or even die, t hat does not mat t er. Let
t hem die in childbirt h, t hat 's why t hey are t here"
If we now t urn our at t ent ion to what t he Quran has to say about
women, we will soon realize t hat t he Islamic concept ion of women
is radically different from t he Judaeo-Christian one. Let t he Quran
speak for it self:
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"For Muslim men and women, for believing men and women, for
devout men and women, for t rue men and women, for men and
women who are pat ient , for men and women who humble
t hemselves, for men and women who give in charit y, for men
and women who fast , for men and women who guard t heir
chast it y, and for men and women who engage much in Allah's
praise-- For t hem all has Allah prepared forgiveness and great
reward" (33:35).
"The believers, men and women, are prot ect ors, one of anot her:
t hey enjoin what is just , and forbid what is evil, t hey observe
regular prayers, pract ise regular charit y, and obey Allah and His
Messenger. On t hem will Allah pour His Mercy: for Allah is Exalt ed
in power, Wise" (9:71).
"And t heir Lord answered t hem: Truly I will never cause t o be lost
t he work of any of you, Be you a male or female, you are members
one of anot her" (3:195).
4. SHAMEFUL DAUGHTERS ?
"A man who educat es his son will be t he envy of his enemy."
(Ecclesiast icus 30:3)
"Keep a headst rong daught er under firm cont rol, or she will abuse
any indulgence she receives. Keep a st rict wat ch on her
shameless eye, do not be surprised if she disgraces you"
(Ecclesiast icus 26:10-11).
It has to be ment ioned t hat t his sinist er crime would have never
st opped in Arabia were it not for the power of t he scathing terms
t he Quran used t o condemn t his pract ice (16:59, 43:17, 81:8-9). The
Quran, moreover, makes no distinct ion bet ween boys and girls. In
contrast t o t he Bible, t he Quran considers t he birth of a female as
a gift and a blessing from God, the same as the birth of a male.
The Quran even mentions t he gift of t he female birth first :
"Whoever maint ains t wo girls t ill t hey at t ain mat urit y, he and I
will come on t he Resurrect ion Day like t his; and he joined his
fingers" (Muslim).
5. FEMALE EDUCATION ?
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How can a woman learn if she is not allowed t o speak? How can a
woman grow intellectually if she is obliged t o be in a st at e of full
submission? How can she broaden her horizons if her one and only
source of informat ion is her husband at home?
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Jewish laws and regulat ions concerning menstruat ing women are
ext remely rest rict ive. The Old Test ament considers any
menst ruat ing woman as unclean and impure. Moreover, her
impurit y "infect s" others as well. Anyone or anyt hing she t ouches
becomes unclean for a day:
"Our Rabbis t aught :....if a menst ruant woman passes bet ween
t wo (men), if it is at t he beginning of her menses she will slay one
of t hem, and if it is at t he end of her menses she will cause st rife
bet ween t hem" (bPes. 111a.)
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7. BEARING WITNESS
If a man accuses his wife of unchast it y, her test imony will not be
considered at all according to t he Bible. The accused wife has t o
be subjected t o a t rial by ordeal. In t his t rial, the wife faces a
complex and humiliat ing rit ual which was supposed t o prove her
guilt or innocence (Num. 5:11-31). If she is found guilt y after t his
ordeal, she will be sent enced t o deat h. If she is found not guilt y,
her husband will be innocent of any wrongdoing.
"If a man t akes a wife and, aft er lying wit h her, dislikes her and
slanders her and gives her a bad name, saying, 'I married t his
woman, but when I approached her, I did not find proof of her
virginit y,' t hen t he girl's fat her and mot her shall bring proof t hat
she was a virgin t o t he t own elders at t he gat e. The girl's fat her
will say t o t he elders, 'I gave my daught er in marriage t o t his
man, but he dislikes her. Now he has slandered her and said I did
not find your daught er t o be a virgin. But here is t he proof of my
daught er's virginit y.' Then her parent s shall display t he clot h
before t he elders of t he t own, and t he elders shall t ake t he man
and punish him. They shall fine him a hundred shekels of silver and
give t hem t o t he girl's fat her, because t his man has given an
Israelit e virgin a bad name. She shall cont inue t o be his wife; he
must not divorce her as long as he lives. If, however, t he charge is
t rue and no proof of t he girl's virginit y can be found, she shall be
brought t o t he door of her fat her's house and t here t he men of
t he t own shall st one her t o deat h. She has done a disgraceful
t hing in Israel by being promiscuous while st ill in her fat her's house.
You must purge t he evil from among you." (Deut eronomy 22:13-21)
8. ADULTERY
Adult ery is considered a sin in all religions. The Bible decrees the
deat h sentence for bot h the adult erer and t he adulteress (Lev.
20:10). Islam also equally punishes both t he adult erer and the
adult eress (24:2). However, t he Quranic definition of adult ery is
very different from t he Biblical definit ion. Adult ery, according t o
t he Quran, is the involvement of a married man or a married
woman in an ext ramarit al affair. The Bible only considers the
ext ramarit al affair of a married woman as adult ery (Levit icus 20:10,
Deut eronomy 22:22, Proverbs 6:20-7:27).
"If a man is found sleeping wit h anot her man's wife, bot h t he
man who slept wit h her and t he woman must die. You must
purge t he evil from Israel" (Deut . 22:22).
"If a man commit s adult ery wit h anot her man's wife bot h t he
adult erer and t he adult eress must be put t o deat h" (Lev. 20:10).
man who has ext ramarital affairs wit h unmarried women is not an
adult erer and t he unmarried women involved wit h him are not
adult eresses. The crime of adultery is commit t ed only when a man,
whet her married or single, sleeps wit h a married woman. In t his
case t he man is considered adult erer, even if he is not married,
and t he woman is considered adult eress. In short , adult ery is any
illicit sexual int ercourse involving a married woman. The
ext ramarit al affair of a married man is not per se a crime in the
Bible. Why is t he dual moral st andard? According t o
Encyclopaedia Judaica, the wife was considered t o be the
husband's possession and adult ery const it ut ed a violat ion of the
husband's exclusive right t o her; t he wife as t he husband's
possession had no such right t o him. 15 That is, if a man had sexual
int ercourse wit h a married woman, he would be violating the
propert y of anot her man and, t hus, he should be punished.
" And among His signs is t hat He creat ed for you mat es from
among yourselves, t hat you may dwell in t ranquillit y wit h t hem
and He has put love and mercy bet ween your heart s: verily in
t hat are signs for t hose who reflect " (30:21).
9. VOWS
"But if her fat her forbids her when he hears about it , none of her
vows or t he pledges by which she obligat ed herself will st and
....Her husband may confirm or nullify any vow she makes or any
sworn pledge t o deny herself" (Num. 30:2-15)
"He [God] will call you t o account for your deliberat e oat hs: for
expiat ion, feed t en indigent persons, on a scale of t he average
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WOMEN persons,
IN ISLAM on aINscale
VERSUS WOMEN T… of t he average
The Jewish t radit ion regarding t he husband's role towards his wife
st ems from t he concept ion that he owns her as he owns his slave.
19 This conception has been t he reason behind t he double
st andard in t he laws of adultery and behind the husband's ability
t o annul his wife's vows. This conception has also been responsible
for denying t he wife any control over her propert y or her earnings.
As soon as a Jewish woman got married, she complet ely lost any
control over her propert y and earnings to her husband. Jewish
Rabbis assert ed t he husband's right t o his wife's propert y as a
corollary of his possession of her: "Since one has come into the
possession of t he woman does it not follow t hat he should come
int o t he possession of her propert y t oo?", and "Since he has
acquired the woman should he not acquire also her property?" 20
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acquired the woman should he not acquire also her property?" 20
Thus, marriage caused t he richest woman t o become pract ically
penniless. The Talmud describes t he financial situation of a wife as
follows:
"How can a woman have anyt hing; what ever is hers belongs t o
her husband? What is his is his and what is hers is also his...... Her
earnings and what she may find in t he st reet s are also his. The
household art icles, even t he crumbs of bread on t he t able, are
his. Should she invit e a guest t o her house and feed him, she
would be st ealing from her husband..." (San. 71a, Git . 62a)
Christ ianit y, unt il recent ly, has followed t he same Jewish t radit ion.
Bot h religious and civil aut horities in t he Christian Roman Empire
(aft er Const ant ine) required a propert y agreement as a condition
for recognizing the marriage. Families offered t heir daught ers
increasing dowries and, as a result , men tended to marry earlier
while families postponed t heir daught ers' marriages until later t han
had been cust omary. 23 Under Canon law, a wife was ent it led t o
rest it ution of her dowry if t he marriage was annulled unless she was
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rest it ution of her dowry if t he marriage was annulled unless she was
guilty of adultery. In this case, she forfeited her right t o t he dowry
which remained in her husband's hands. 24 Under Canon and civil
law a married woman in Christ ian Europe and America had lost
her property right s until lat e nineteenth and early t went iet h
centuries. For example, women's rights under English law were
compiled and published in 1632. These 'right s' included: "That
which the husband hat h is his own. That which the wife hath is the
husband's." 25 The wife not only lost her propert y upon marriage,
she lost her personalit y as well. No act of her was of legal value. Her
husband could repudiat e any sale or gift made by her as being of
no binding legal value. The person wit h whom she had any
contract was held as a criminal for part icipat ing in a fraud.
Moreover, she could not sue or be sued in her own name, nor
could she sue her own husband. 26 A married woman was
pract ically t reated as an infant in the eyes of t he law. The wife
simply belonged t o her husband and t herefore she lost her
propert y, her legal personalit y, and her family name. 27
The wife's propert y and earnings are under her full cont rol and for
her use alone since her, and t he children's, maint enance is her
husband's responsibilit y. 30 No mat ter how rich t he wife might be,
she is not obliged to act as a co-provider for the family unless she
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11. DIVORCE
opinions:
"The school of Shammai held t hat a man should not divorce his
wife unless he has found her guilt y of some sexual misconduct ,
while t he school of Hillel say he may divorce her even if she has
merely spoiled a dish for him. Rabbi Akiba says he may divorce her
even if he simply finds anot her woman more beaut iful t han she"
(Git t in 90a-b).
"A bad wife brings humiliat ion, downcast looks, and a wounded
heart . Slack of hand and weak of knee is t he man whose wife
fails t o make him happy. Woman is t he origin of sin, and it is
t hrough her t hat we all die. Do not leave a leaky cist ern t o drip or
allow a bad wife t o say what she likes. If she does not accept your
cont rol, divorce her and send her away" (Ecclesiast icus 25:25).
The Talmud has recorded several specific act ions by wives which
obliged t heir husbands t o divorce t hem: "If she at e in t he st reet, if
she drank greedily in t he st reet , if she suckled in t he st reet, in every
case Rabbi Meir says t hat she must leave her husband" (Git . 89a).
The Talmud has also made it mandatory t o divorce a barren wife
(who bore no children in a period of t en years): "Our Rabbis
t aught : If a man t ook a wife and lived wit h her for ten years and
she bore no child, he shall divorce her" (Y eb. 64a).
"But if you decide t o t ake one wife in place of anot her, even if
you had given t he lat t er a whole t reasure for dower, t ake not t he
least bit of it back; Would you t ake it by slander and a manifest
wrong?" (4:20).
t o keep his wife while she chooses to leave him. The Quran has
inst ructed Muslim men not t o take back any of t he gifts t hey have
given to t heir wives except in t he case of t he wife choosing t o
dissolve t he marriage:
"It is not lawful for you (Men) t o t ake back any of your gift s except
when bot h part ies fear t hat t hey would be unable t o keep t he
limit s ordained by Allah. There is no blame on eit her of t hem if she
give somet hing for her freedom. These are t he limit s ordained by
Allah so do not t ransgress t hem" (2:229).
Let us now focus our att ention on how Islam discourages divorce.
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Let us now focus our att ention on how Islam discourages divorce.
A Muslim man should not divorce his wife just because he dislikes
her. The Quran instruct s Muslim men t o be kind t o their wives even
in cases of lukewarm emotions or feelings of dislike:
"Live wit h t hem (your wives) on a foot ing of kindness and equit y. If
you dislike t hem it may be t hat you dislike somet hing in which
Allah has placed a great deal of good" (4:19).
The Prophet has also emphasized t hat t he best Muslims are those
who are best to t heir wives:
"The believers who show t he most perfect fait h are t hose who
have t he best charact er and t he best of you are t hose who are
best t o t heir wives" (Tirmidt hi).
"As t o t hose women on whose part you fear disloyalt y and ill-
conduct , (1) Admonish t hem, (2) refuse t o share t heir beds, (3)
beat t hem; but if t hey ret urn t o obedience seek not against
t hem means of annoyance: For Allah is Most High, Great . (4) If you
fear a break bet ween t hem, appoint t wo arbit ers, one from his
family and t he ot her from hers; If t hey wish for peace, Allah will
cause t heir reconciliat ion" (4:34-35).
The first t hree are to be tried first . If they fail, t hen the help of the
families concerned should be sought . It has t o be not ed, in the
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light of t he above verses, that beat ing t he rebellious wife is a
t emporary measure that is resort ed to as t hird in line in cases of
ext reme necessit y in hopes that it might remedy t he wrongdoing
of t he wife. If it does, the husband is not allowed by any means t o
continue any annoyance t o the wife as explicit ly ment ioned in the
verse. If it does not, the husband is st ill not allowed t o use t his
measure any longer and t he final avenue of t he family-assist ed
reconciliat ion has to be explored.
"In case t hey are guilt y of open lewdness you may leave t hem
alone in t heir beds and inflict slight punishment . If t hey are
obedient t o you, do not seek against t hem any means of
annoyance" (Tirmidt hi)
"Those who do so (beat t heir wives) are not t he best among you"
(Abu Dawood).
"I went t o t he Prophet and said: Abul Jahm and Mu'awiah have
proposed t o marry me. The Prophet (by way of advice) said: As t o
Mu'awiah he is very poor and Abul Jahm is accust omed t o
beat ing women" (Muslim).
"If a wife fears cruelt y or desert ion on her husband's part , t here is
no blame on t hem if t hey arrange an amicable set t lement
bet ween t hemselves; and such set t lement is best " (4:128).
To sum up, Islam offers Muslim married couples much viable advice
t o save t heir marriages in cases of t rouble and t ension. If one of
t he part ners is jeopardizing t he mat rimonial relat ionship, t he ot her
partner is advised by the Quran t o do what ever possible and
effect ive in order t o save t his sacred bond. If all t he measures fail,
Islam allows t he part ners to separat e peacefully and amicably.
12. MOTHERS
"If anyone comes t o me and does not hat e his fat her and
mot her, his wife and children, his brot hers and sist ers--yes, even
his own life--he can not be my disciple" (Luke 14:26).
"Then Jesus' mot her and brot hers arrived. St anding out side, t hey
sent someone t o call him. A crowd was sit t ing around him and
t hey t old him, 'Your mot her and brot hers are out side looking for
you.' 'Who are my mot her and my brot hers?' he asked. Then he
looked at t hose seat ed in a circle around him and said,' Here are
my mot her and my brot hers! Whoever does God's will is my
brot her and sist er and mot her.' " (Mark 3:31-35)
One might argue that Jesus was trying to t each his audience an
import ant lesson t hat religious ties are no less import ant t han
family ties. However, he could have t aught his list eners t he same
lesson wit hout showing such absolute indifference to his mot her.
The same disrespect ful at t it ude is depict ed when he refused t o
endorse a st at ement made by a member of his audience blessing
his mother's role in giving birt h t o him and nursing him:
"Your Lord has decreed t hat you worship none but Him, And t hat
you be kind t o parent s. Whet her one or bot h of t hem at t ain old
age in your life, Say not t o t hem a word of cont empt , nor repel
t hem, But address t hem in t erms of honor. And out of kindness,
Lower t o t hem t he wing of humilit y, and say: 'My Lord! best ow on
t hem Your Mercy as t hey Cherished me in childhood' " (17:23-24).
"A man asked t he Prophet : 'Whom should I honor most ?' The
Prophet replied: 'Your mot her'. 'And who comes next ?' asked t he
man. The Prophet replied: 'Your mot her'. 'And who comes next ?'
asked t he man. The Prophet replied: 'Your mot her!'. 'And who
comes next ?' asked t he man. The Prophet replied: 'Your fat her'"
(Bukhari and Muslim).
One of t he most import ant differences bet ween the Quran and
t he Bible is t heir at t itude towards female inherit ance of the
propert y of a deceased relat ive. The Biblical att it ude has been
succinct ly described by Rabbi Epst ein: "The cont inuous and
unbroken t radit ion since t he Biblical days gives t he female
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unbroken t radit ion since t he Biblical days gives t he female
The Biblical rules of inherit ance are out lined in Numbers 27:1-11. A
wife is given no share in her husband's est ate, while he is her first
heir, even before her sons. A daughter can inherit only if no male
heirs exist . A mother is not an heir at all while the fat her is. Widows
and daught ers, in case male children remained, were at the
mercy of t he male heirs for provision. That is why widows and
orphan girls were among t he most destit ut e members of the
Jewish society.
Christ ianit y has followed suit for long t ime. Both t he ecclesiast ical
and civil laws of Christendom barred daught ers from sharing wit h
t heir brothers in t he fat her's patrimony. Besides, wives were
deprived of any inherit ance right s. These iniquit ous laws survived
t ill lat e in t he last cent ury46.
Muslim mot hers, wives, daught ers, and sist ers had received
inherit ance rights thirt een hundred years before Europe
recognized t hat t hese right s even exist ed. The division of
inherit ance is a vast subject wit h an enormous amount of details
(4:7,11,12,176). The general rule is that t he female share is half the
male's except t he cases in which the mot her receives equal share
t o t hat of t he father. This general rule if t aken in isolation from
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t o t hat of t he father. This general rule if t aken in isolation from
ot her legislat ions concerning men and women may seem unfair. In
order t o underst and the rationale behind this rule, one must t ake
int o account t he fact t hat the financial obligat ions of men in
Islam far exceed t hose of women (see t he "Wife's propert y?"
sect ion). A bridegroom must provide his bride wit h a marriage gift .
This gift becomes her exclusive propert y and remains so even if she
is lat er divorced. The bride is under no obligat ion t o present any
gift s t o her groom. Moreover, t he Muslim husband is charged wit h
t he maint enance of his wife and children. The wife, on t he ot her
hand, is not obliged t o help him in this regard. Her propert y and
earnings are for her use alone except what she may volunt arily
offer her husband. Besides, one has t o realize that Islam
vehement ly advocat es family life. It st rongly encourages yout h t o
get married, discourages divorce, and does not regard celibacy as
a virt ue. Therefore, in a t ruly Islamic society, family life is the norm
and single life is t he rare exception. That is, almost all marriage-
aged women and men are married in an Islamic society. In light of
t hese facts, one would appreciate that Muslim men, in general,
have great er financial burdens than Muslim women and thus
inherit ance rules are meant to offset t his imbalance so t hat the
society lives free of all gender or class wars. After a simple
comparison bet ween t he financial right s and dut ies of Muslim
women, one British Muslim woman has concluded t hat Islam has
t reated women not only fairly but generously. 47
"Then Judah said t o Onan, 'Lie wit h your brot her's wife and fulfill
your dut y t o her as a brot her-in-law t o produce offspring for your
brot her' " (Genesis 38:8).
The pagan Arabs before Islam had similar practices. A widow was
considered a part of her husband's propert y to be inherited by his
male heirs and she was, usually, given in marriage t o the deceased
man's eldest son from another wife. The Quran scathingly
att acked and abolished t his degrading cust om:
"And marry not women whom your fat hers married--Except what
is past -- it was shameful, odious, and abominable cust om indeed"
(4:22).
"When you divorce women and t hey fulfil t heir t erms [t hree
menst ruat ion periods] eit her t ake t hem back on equit able t erms
or set t hem free on equit able t erms; But do not t ake t hem back
t o injure t hem or t o t ake undue advant age, If anyone does t hat ,
he wrongs his own soul. Do not t reat Allah's signs as a jest " (2:231).
"If any of you die and leave widows behind, t hey shall wait four
mont hs and t en days. When t hey have fulfilled t heir t erm, t here is
no blame on you if t hey dispose of t hemselves in a just manner"
(2:234).
"Those of you who die and leave widows should bequeat h for t heir
widows a year's maint enance and residence. But if t hey [t he
widows] leave (t he residence) t here is no blame on you for what
t hey just ly do wit h t hemselves" (2:240).
15. POLYGAMY
The Quran, t oo, allowed polygamy, but not wit hout restrictions:
"If you fear t hat you shall not be able t o deal just ly wit h t he
orphans, marry women of your choice, t wo or t hree or four; but if
you fear t hat you shall not be able t o deal just ly wit h t hem, t hen
only one" (4:3).
The Quran, cont rary t o the Bible, limit ed the maximum number of
wives t o four under t he st rict condit ion of treat ing the wives
equally and justly. It should not be underst ood t hat the Quran is
exhort ing the believers t o practice polygamy, or t hat polygamy is
considered as an ideal. In ot her words, the Quran has "tolerated"
or "allowed" polygamy, and no more, but why? Why is polygamy
permissible ? The answer is simple: there are places and times in
which there are compelling social and moral reasons for polygamy.
As t he above Quranic verse indicates, the issue of polygamy in
Islam cannot be understood apart from communit y obligat ions
t owards orphans and widows. Islam as a universal religion suit able
for all places and all t imes could not ignore these compelling
obligat ions.
The world today possesses more weapons of mass destruct ion t han
ever before and t he European churches might , sooner or later, be
obliged t o accept polygamy as t he only way out . Father Hillman
has t hought fully recognized this fact , "It is quit e conceivable t hat
t hese genocidal t echniques (nuclear, biological, chemical..) could
produce so drast ic an imbalance among t he sexes t hat plural
marriage would become a necessary means of survival....Then
contrary to previous cust om and law, an overriding nat ural and
moral inclination might arise in favour of polygamy. In such a
sit uat ion, t heologians and church leaders would quickly produce
weighty reasons and biblical texts t o just ify a new concept ion of
marriage." 64
Billy Graham, the eminent Christ ian evangelist has recognized t his
fact : "Christianity cannot compromise on t he quest ion of
polygamy. If present -day Christ ianit y cannot do so, it is t o it s own
det riment . Islam has permitt ed polygamy as a solut ion t o social ills
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det riment . Islam has permitt ed polygamy as a solut ion t o social ills
and has allowed a cert ain degree of lat it ude t o human nat ure
but only wit hin t he st rict ly defined framework of the law. Christ ian
count ries make a great show of monogamy, but act ually t hey
pract ice polygamy. No one is unaware of the part mist resses play
in West ern societ y. In this respect Islam is a fundament ally honest
religion, and permit s a Muslim t o marry a second wife if he must ,
but st rict ly forbids all clandest ine amat ory associat ions in order t o
safeguard t he moral probit y of the communit y." 75
St. Paul's rat ionale for veiling women is t hat t he veil represents a
sign of t he aut horit y of the man, who is t he image and glory of
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sign of t he aut horit y of the man, who is t he image and glory of
God, over t he woman who was created from and for man. St .
Tert ullian in his famous t reat ise 'On The Veiling Of Virgins' wrote,
"Young women, you wear your veils out on t he streets, so you
should wear t hem in t he church, you wear t hem when you are
among st rangers, t hen wear t hem among your brot hers..." Among
t he Canon laws of t he Cat holic church today, t here is a law t hat
requires women t o cover t heir heads in church. 82 Some Christ ian
denominat ions, such as the Amish and t he Mennonites for
example, keep t heir women veiled t o t he present day. The reason
for t he veil, as offered by t heir Church leaders, is t hat "The head
covering is a symbol of woman's subjection to t he man and t o
God", which is the same logic int roduced by St . Paul in t he New
Testament . 83
From all t he above evidence, it is obvious that Islam did not invent
t he head cover. However, Islam did endorse it. The Quran urges
t he believing men and women to lower their gaze and guard t heir
modest y and t hen urges the believing women t o ext end t heir
head covers t o cover the neck and t he bosom:
"Say t o t he believing men t hat t hey should lower t heir gaze and
guard t heir modest y......And say t o t he believing women t hat
t hey should lower t heir gaze and guard t heir modest y; t hat t hey
should not display t heir beaut y and ornament s except what
ordinarily appear t hereof; t hat t hey should draw t heir veils over
t heir bosoms...." (24:30,31).
The Quran is quite clear that t he veil is essent ial for modest y, but
why is modest y import ant? The Quran is st ill clear:
"O Prophet , t ell your wives and daught ers and t he believing
women t hat t hey should cast t heir out er garment s over t heir
bodies (when abroad) so t hat t hey should be known and not
molest ed" (33:59).
Compare t his st rict Quranic at t itude wit h the ext remely lax
punishment for rape in t he Bible:
One must ask a simple quest ion here, who is really punished? The
man who only paid a fine for rape, or t he girl who is forced t o marry
t he man who raped her and live wit h him unt il he dies? Anot her
quest ion t hat also should be asked is this: which is more prot ective
of women, t he Quranic st rict at titude or the Biblical lax at tit ude?
It is one of the great ironies of our world t oday that t he very same
headscarf revered as a sign of 'holiness' when worn for t he purpose
of showing the aut hority of man by Cat holic Nuns, is reviled as a
sign of 'oppression' when worn for t he purpose of prot ect ion by
Muslim women.
17. EPILOGUE
The one quest ion all the non-Muslims, who had read an earlier
version of t his st udy, had in common was: do Muslim women in the
Muslim world today receive t his noble treatment described here?
The answer, unfortunat ely, is: No. Since this question is inevit able in
any discussion concerning t he st atus of women in Islam, we have
t o elaborate on t he answer in order t o provide t he reader wit h the
complet e pict ure.
The societ ies t hat have digressed in t he first direct ion t reat women
according t o the customs and t radit ions inherited from t heir
forebears. These traditions usually deprive women of many right s
grant ed to t hem by Islam. Besides, women are treat ed according
t o standards far different from t hose applied t o men. This
discriminat ion pervades t he life of any female: she is received wit h
less joy at birt h than a boy; she is less likely to go to school; she
might be deprived any share of her family's inheritance; she is
under continuous surveillance in order not t o behave immodestly
while her brot her's immodest act s are t olerat ed; she might even
be killed for commit t ing what her male family members usually
boast of doing; she has very lit t le say in family affairs or community
int erests; she might not have full cont rol over her propert y and her
marriage gift s; and finally as a mot her she herself would prefer t o
produce boys so that she can at tain a higher st at us in her
community.
On the ot her hand, t here are Muslim societ ies (or certain classes
wit hin some societies) t hat have been swept over by the West ern
cult ure and way of life. These societies oft en imitate unthinkingly
what ever t hey receive from t he West and usually end up
adopt ing the worst fruit s of West ern civilizat ion. In t hese societies,
a t ypical "modern" woman's top priorit y in life is t o enhance her
physical beaut y. Therefore, she is often obsessed wit h her body's
shape, size, and weight. She t ends t o care more about her body
t han her mind and more about her charms than her int ellect . Her
abilit y to charm, at tract , and excit e is more valued in t he society
t han her educat ional achievement s, int ellect ual pursuit s, and
social work. One is not expect ed to find a copy of t he Quran in her
purse since it is full of cosmet ics that accompany her wherever she
goes. Her spirit ualit y has no room in a societ y preoccupied with her
att ractiveness. Therefore, she would spend her life striving more t o
realize her femininit y t han t o fulfil her humanit y.
endowed t o them by their Creat or. Then, all the necessary means
have t o be developed in order t o ensure t he proper
implement at ion of t he chart er. This charter is long overdue, but it
is bett er lat e t han never. If Muslims worldwide will not guarantee
t he full Islamic right s of t heir mot hers, wives, sist ers, and daught ers,
who else will ?
Furt hermore, we must have the courage t o confront our past and
reject outright t he tradit ions and cust oms of our forefat hers
whenever they cont ravene t he precept s of Islam. Did t he Quran
not severely crit icize t he pagan Arabs for blindly following the
t radit ions of their ancest ors? On the other hand, we have t o
develop a crit ical att it ude towards what ever we receive from the
West or from any other cult ure. Int eract ion wit h and learning from
ot her cult ures is an invaluable experience. The Quran has
succinct ly considered t his int eract ion as one of t he purposes of
creation: " O mankind We created you from a single pair of a male
and a female, and made you int o nat ions and t ribes, that you
may know each ot her" (49:13). It goes without saying, however,
t hat blind imit at ion of ot hers is a sure sign of an utt er lack of self-
est eem.
NOTES
pp. 52-62. See also Nancy van Vuuren, The Subversion of Women
as Pract iced by Churches, Wit ch-Hunters, and Ot her Sexist s
(Philadelphia: West minist er Press) pp. 28-30.
13. Lesley Hazlet on, Israeli Women The Realit y Behind t he Myt hs
(New York: Simon and Schust er, 1977) p. 41.
15. Jeffrey H. Togay, "Adult ery," Encyclopaedia Judaica, Vol. II, col.
313. Also, see Judit h Plaskow, Standing Again at Sinai: Judaism
from a Feminist Perspective (New Y ork: Harper & Row Publishers,
1990) pp. 170-177.
18. Mat ilda J. Gage, Woman, Church, and State (New York: Trut h
Seeker Company, 1893) p. 141.
22. Ibid., pp. 112-113. See also Priesand, op. cit., p. 15.
26. Mary Murray, The Law of the Fat her (London: Rout ledge, 1995)
p. 67.
29. Elsayyed Sabiq, Fiqh al Sunnah (Cairo: Darul Fatah lile'lam Al-
Arabi, 11t h edit ion, 1994), vol. 2, pp. 218-229.
31. Leila Badawi, "Islam", in Jean Holm and John Bowker, ed.,
Women in Religion (London: Pint er Publishers, 1994) p. 102.
36. Sabiq, op. cit ., pp. 318-329. See also Muhammad al Ghazali,
Qadaya al Mar'aa bin al Taqaleed al Rakida wal Wafida (Cairo:
Dar al Shorooq, 4th edit ion, 1992) pp. 178-180.
47. B. Aisha Lemu and Fat ima Heeren, Woman in Islam (London:
Islamic Foundat ion, 1978) p. 23.
57. Philip L. Kilbride, Plural Marriage For Our Times (West port, Conn.:
Bergin & Garvey, 1994) pp. 108-109.
60. John D'Emilio and Est elle B. Freedman, Int imat e Mat t ers: A
hist ory of Sexualit y in America (New York: Harper & Row Publishers,
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hist ory of Sexualit y in America (New York: Harper & Row Publishers,
1988) p. 87.
65. Nathan Hare and Julie Hare, ed., Crisis in Black Sexual Polit ics
(San Francisco: Black Think Tank, 1989) p. 25.
69. Ibid.
77. Ibid., pp. 316-317. Also see Swidler, op. cit ., pp. 121-123.
79. Susan W. Schneider, Jewish and Female (New York: Simon &
Schust er, 1984) p. 237.
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81. Alexandra Wright , "Judaism", in Holm and Bowker, ed., op. cit.,
pp. 128-129
83. Donald B. Kraybill, The riddle of the Amish Cult ure (Balt imore:
Johns Hopkins Universit y Press, 1989) p. 56.
84. Khalil Gibran, Thought s and Medit at ions (New York: Bantam
Books, 1960) p. 28.
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