Lec ms2

Materials Selection
for
Mechanical Design II
A Brief Overview of a Systematic

Methodology
Material and Shape Selection
Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Cambridge, Massachusetts Materials Systems Laboratory
©Jeremy Gregory and Randolph Kirchain, 2005 Materials Selection II – Slide 1
Method for Early Technology Screening
Design performance is
determined by the
combination of: Materials
Shape
Materials
Process
Process
Underlying principles of
selection are unchanged Shape
BUT, do not underestimate
impact of shape or the
limitation of process

©Jeremy Gregory and Randolph Kirchain, 2005 Materials Selection – Slide 2
Material and Shape Selection
Performance isn't just about materials - shape can
also play an important role
Shape can be optimized to maximize performance
for a given loading condition
Simple cross-sectional geometries are not always
optimal
Efficient Shapes like I-beams, tubes can be better
Shape is limited by material
Wood can be formed only so thin
Goal is to optimize both shape and material for a
given loading condition
Loading Conditions and Shape
Different loading F
σ= F F
conditions are A
Area A
δ Tension : Tie
enhanced by F
maximizing different σ=
My
I
geometric properties Area A moment I Bending : Beam
δ
Area for tension r

Tr T T
τ=
Second moment for J θ
Twisting : Shaft
compression and Area A polar moment J
bending nπ2 EI F F
Fcrit =
Polar moment for l2
Compression : Column
torsion Area A moment I
Figure by MIT OCW.

Shapes and Moments
t t
2ro 2ri
h h h
b 2ro b b
Area bh πr 2
π ( ro2 − ri 2 ) 2t ( h + b ) 2t ( h + b )
bh3 π π
Second
Moment 12 4
r4
4
( ro
4
− ri 4
) 1 3 ⎛ b⎞ 1 3 ⎛
h t ⎜1 + 3 ⎟
6 ⎝
b⎞
h t ⎜1 + 3 ⎟
h⎠ 6 ⎝ h⎠
Polar π π
( )
4
bh3 ⎛ b⎞ 2tb 2 h 2 ⎛ t ⎞ 2 3⎛ h⎞
⎜ 1 − 0.58 ⎟ r 4
r 4
− ri 4
⎜1 − ⎟ bt ⎜ 1 + 4 ⎟
Moment 3 ⎝ h⎠
2 2
o (h + b) ⎝ h ⎠ 3 ⎝ b⎠

Shape Factor Definition
Shape factor measures efficiency for a
mode of loading given an equivalent cross-
section
“Efficiency”: For a given loading condition,
section uses as little material as possible
Defined as 1 for a solid cross-section
Higher number is better, more efficient
S For elastic cases:
φ =
e φ = shape factor
S = stiffness of cross-section under question
So So = stiffness of reference solid cross-section

Shape Factor for Elastic Bending
S EI I
φ = =
e
B =
So EI o I o
Reference solid cross-section Compare sections
4 2
bo Ao of same area ⇒
bo Io = = Ao = A
12 12
bo
I 12 I
φ = = 2
e
B
Notice that shape factor is
dimensionless
Io A
I-Beam Elastic Bending Shape
t
Factor
t = 0.125
bo h h=3
b=1
bo b
Ao = bo2 A = 2t ( h + b )
bo = 1 A = 1 = Ao
Ao = 1 1 3 ⎛ b⎞
I = h t ⎜ 1 + 3 ⎟ = 1.125
For these dimensions, the shape
6 ⎝ h⎠
increased stiffness over 13 times while 12 I
using the same amount of material! φB = 2 = 13.5
e
A
Is this design possible in all materials?
Materials Limit Best Achievable Shape
Factor
Shape efficiency dependent on material
Constraints: manufacturing, material properties, local buckling
For example, can’t have thin sections of wood
Values in table determined empirically
Note: previous design not possible in polymers, wood (φeB)=13.5
Bending Torsion
Material (φ )
e
B max (φ )
e
T max
Structural Steels 65 25
Aluminum Alloys 44 31
GFRP and CFRP 39 26
Polymers 12 8
Woods 6 1
Shape Factors and Material Indices
Example: Bending Beam
Mass: m = AL ρ
F CEI
Bending Stiffenss: S = ≥
δ L3
I 12 I
Shape Factor: φBe = = 2
Io A
C E e 2
Replace I in Stiffness using φBe : S = φ A
3 B
12 L
1/ 2 ⎡ ⎤
⎛ 12 S ⎞ ρ
Eliminate A from mass using stiffness: m = ⎜ ⎟ L5 / 2 ⎢ ⎥
(⎢ φeE ) ⎥
1/ 2
⎝ C ⎠
⎣ B ⎦
(φBe E )
1/ 2
E1/ 2
Material Index: M = Previously: M =
ρ ρ

Shape Factors and Material Indices: Beams
Objective: Minimize Mass
Performance Metric: Mass
Stiffness
Loading Strength Limited
Limited
Tension E/ρ σf/ρ
Bending (φeBE)1/2/ρ (φfBσf)2/3/ρ
Torsion (φeTG)1/2/ρ (φfTσf)2/3/ρ
Maximize!

Shape Factors Affect Material Choice
Shape factors can Ceramics
dramatically improve
Composites
performance for a M with φ=1
given loading M with φ=10 Metals
condition
Woods
The optimal Polymers
combination of shape
Elastomers
and material leads to Foams
the best design

Example Problem: Bicycle Forks
Photos of bicycle forks removed for copyright reasons.
Bicycle forks need to be lightweight

Primary constraint can be stiffness or
strength
Toughness and cost can be other
constraints
Bicycle Forks: Problem Definition
Function:
Forks - support Objective: m = AL ρ
bending loads Mym FLym
Constraint: σ = = ≤σ f
Objective: L I I
Minimize mass Free Variables:
Constraints: F π r4
Solid Tube: A = π r 2
I=
Length specified 4
Must not fail Hollow Tube: A ≈ 2π rt I ≈ π r 3t
(strength constraint)
4 πZ I
Free variables: Shape: φ = 3/ 2
B
f
Z=
A ym
Material
Area: Tube radius OR
thickness OR shape
Material Indices: Shape specified
Free variable definition important
Solid Section Hollow Section Hollow Section
Free Variable: Area Free Variable: Radius Free Variable: Thickness
Mym Mym Mym
σ= ≤σ f σ= ≤σ f σ= ≤σ f
I I I
4 FL FL FL
σf ≥ 3 σf ≥ 2 σf ≥ 2
πr πr t πr t
Solve for r: Solve for r: Solve for t :
⎛ 4 FL ⎞
1/ 3
⎛ FL ⎞
1/ 2
FL
t=
r =⎜ r =⎜
⎜ πσ f ⎟⎟ ⎜ π tσ f ⎟⎟ π r 2σ f
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
Substitute into m:
Substitute into m: Substitute into m:
L2 ⎡ ρ ⎤
⎡ ρ ⎤ ⎡ ρ ⎤ m = 2F ⎢ ⎥
( )
1/ 2
m = π 1/ 3 ( 4 F ) L2 / 3 ⎢ 2 / 3 ⎥ m = ( 4π F ) L3t
2/3 1/ 2
⎢ 1/ 2 ⎥ r ⎢⎣ σ f ⎥⎦
⎢⎣ σ f ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ σ f ⎥⎦
⎡σ f ⎤
⎡ σ 2f / 3 ⎤ ⎡ σ 1/f 2 ⎤ Maximize: M = ⎢ ⎥
Maximize: M = ⎢ ⎥ Maximize: M = ⎢ ⎥ ⎣ ρ ⎦
⎢⎣ ρ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ ρ ⎥⎦
Material Index with Shape Free
FLym FL FL 4 π Substitute into m:
σf ≥ = = f 3/ 2
I Z φB A ⎡ ⎤
ρ
( )
2/3
5/ 3 ⎢ ⎥
Solve for A: m= 4 πF L
⎛ FL 4 π ⎞
2/3 (
⎢ φ f σ 2/3 ⎥
⎣ B f ⎦ )
A=⎜ f ⎟⎟
⎜ φB σ f
⎝ ⎠ Maximize: M = ⎢ B f(
⎡ φ f σ 2/3 ⎤
⎥ )
⎢ ρ ⎥
⎣ ⎦

Material indices with shape factors change
material selection
* **
Material σf (MPa) ρ (Mg/m3) φ fB σf2/3/ρ (φfBσf)2/3/ρ
Spruce (Norwegian) 80 0.51 1 36 36
Bamboo 120 0.7 2.2 35 59
Steel (Reynolds 531) 880 7.82 7.5 12 45
Alu (6061-T6) 250 2.7 5.9 15 48
Titanium 6-4 955 4.42 5.9 22 72
Magnesium AZ 61 165 1.8 4.25 17 44
CFRP 375 1.5 4.25 35 91
*Material Index w/out shape factor **Material Index with shape factor

Strength Constraint
Age-hardening w rought Al-alloys Medium carbon steel
Titanium alloys
1e9 CFRP, epoxy m atrix (isotropic)
Wrought m agnesium alloys
Hardw ood: oak, along grain

Tensile Strength (Pa)
1e8
Softw ood: pine, along grain
Bam boo
1e7
1e6
100 1000 10000

Density (kg/m^3)
Chart from the CES EduPack 2005, Granta Design Limited, Cambridge, UK. (c) __________
Granta Design. Courtesy of Granta Design Limited. Used with permission.

Stiffness Constraint
Medium carbon steel
Age-hardening w rought Al-alloys
CFRP, epoxy m atrix (isotropic)
1e11
Wrought m agnesium alloys
Hardw ood: oak, along grain
Bam boo
1e10
Young's Modulus (Pa)
Softw ood: pine, along grain
1e9
1e8
1e7
1e6
100 1000 10000

Density (kg/m^3)
Chart from the CES EduPack 2005, Granta Design Limited, Cambridge, UK. (c) __________
Granta Design. Courtesy of Granta Design Limited. Used with permission.

Example of Material Selection including
Shape: Floor Joists
Wood beam Steel I-beam
Material for floor joists

Density (g/cm3) ~0.58 ~7.9
Modulus (GPa) ~10 ~210
Material Cost ($/kg) ~$0.90 ~$0.65
φeB 2.0-2.2 15-25
* E1/2/Cmρ ~6.1 ~2.8
** (φeBE)1/2/Cmρ ~8.8 ~12.6
*Material Index w/out shape factor **Material Index with shape factor

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Materials Selection

A Brief Overview of a Systematic

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

 Area for tension r

Figure by MIT OCW.

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Performance Metric: Mass

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

given loading M with φ=10 Metals

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Photos of bicycle forks removed for copyright reasons.

 Bicycle forks need to be lightweight

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

1e9 CFRP, epoxy m atrix (isotropic)

Wrought m agnesium alloys

Hardw ood: oak, along grain

100 1000 10000

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Softw ood: pine, along grain

100 1000 10000

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Material for floor joists

** (φeBE)1/2/Cmρ ~8.8 ~12.6

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Area for tension r

Bicycle forks need to be lightweight