"New Man," Eternal Woman: Expressionist Responses to German Feminism

Author(s): Barbara D. Wright

Source: The German Quarterly, Vol. 60, No. 4 (Autumn, 1987), pp. 582-599
Published by: Blackwell Publishing on behalf of the American Association of Teachers of German
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BARBARA D. WRIGHT
of Connecticut
University

"New Man," Eternal Woman:

Expressionist Responses to German Feminism

Despite the enduringpopularityof Expressionismin criticalcircles,

surprisinglyfew feministinterpretationsof the movementhave appeared
in recentyears. One happyexceptionto the rule is MaikeLeffers'article
on CarlSternheim,in whichshe concludesthat the dramatist"versuchte
. . . die Epoche des 'neuen Menschen' in seiner Zeit anbrechen zu lassen,
ohne besondereBerticksichtigung der Frau"(Hiippauf,145). Anotheris
MarionAdams'surveyof a selectionof Expressionistpoets anddramatists.
She notes the almostobligatoryExpressionistlinkingof womenwith sex-
uality,the typecastingof womenin the rolesof prostitute,motheror sister,
and the tendencytowarda more or less overt misogyny;she concludes
that in relationto the women'smovementof their day, "dieHaltungder
Expressionisten[blieb]konservativ"(Htippauf,120).
In this paperI wouldlike to makemy own contributionto that small
body of feministliteratureon Expressionism,to underscorethe sound-
ness of Leffer'sand Adams'observations,and to take their analysisat
least two steps further.However,I will use theoreticalratherthan liter-
ary texts, and I will providenot literaryanalysisbut an analysisof the
theoreticalcontext in whichliteraryworkswere conceived.Drawingon
the nonfictionprose publishedin Expressionistmagazinesbetween 1910
and 1920, I wouldlike to demonstratefirst that in the view of most-
thoughnot all- Expressionistessayists, the relationshipbetween male
andfemale,between"Mensch"and"Weib," was necessarilypolarized.For
many,it was deeplyhostileas well. Second,I will discussthe politicaland
socialrole of womenthat followedfromthe Expressionistdefinitionof her
nature.Whilethe Expressionistattitudetowardwomenis indeedfor the
mostpart"conservative," it is conservativeinits ownuniqueandcharacteris-
tic way.

582
 WRIGHT:Expressionism and German Feminism 583

The discussion begins with a description of the interactions between

Expressionism and ethical idealism and the role of the "new man" in the
Expressionist theoretical framework. Much of Expressionism is concerned
with "das Wesentliche"; thus it comes as no surprise that in theoretical
pieces, writers are most interested in examining the "nature"of male and
female and in defining the "ideal"or essential Man and Woman.The domin-
ant tendency in Expressionist circles is to define the two sexes as polar
opposites, which, moreover, function in highly distinct male and female
social spheres. I will then survey Expressionist positions on such issues as
female suffrage and women's access to education, work or birth control;
and I will conclude with Expressionist views on the "appropriate"role of
women in a postrevolutionary society. It should become clear that the
conceptualframeworkof which the "newman"was a part literallydemanded
as his complementary opposite an "eternal"- or in our view, a very tradi-
tional- kind of woman. In other words, the "new man" simply cannot be
adequately understood without "woman."Before plunging in, however, I
feel obliged to explain my focus on theoretical materials rather than "liter-
ature."
I have never been happywith the tendency of literary criticism to concen-
trate on "literary"texts to the exclusion of other kinds of documents. In
the case of Expressionism, where there is such a wealth of theoretical
material, this bias seems to make even less sense than usual. Yet even in
Vietta and Kemper'sExpressionismus(1983), a book which I greatly admire,
we read:

... es ist altbekannt,daB literarischeTexte zumeist

'mehrwissen'als die theoretischenAul3erungen ihrerVer-
fasser.Ja,beivielenAutorenherrschtein geradezugrotes-
kes MiBverh~iltnis zwischenSelbstverstlindnis
undliterari-
scher Produktion,zwischenTheorieund Dichtung,und
der verlockendeWeg, von den zumeisteinfacherenund
geglitteten theoretischenAuBerungenauszugehen,er-
weist sich [oft] ... als Irrweg.(27-28)
While this may be true for individual authors, it seems to me that if we
are in pursuitof a more general understandingof the Expressionistphenome-
non, it is not only allowable but imperative to look at the nonfiction prose
that in a very tangible way provided the backdropfor individualefforts.
Expressionism, after all, is characterized by a unique degree of self-con-
scious theorizing about its meanings and implications, and much of this
theorizing went on in the pages of the movement's"littlemagazines."These
periodicals, above all Die Aktion and Der Sturm, offered a focus for the
loose and overlappingcliques of Expressionist artists and enthusiasts; they
provided a forum for engagement in public life; and they were the major
medium for quickcirculationand testing of new ideas. The criticalliterature
has tended to regard the magazines primarily as proving grounds for the
584 THE GERMANQUARTERLY Fall1987

"real"artists andpoets who graduatedfromtheir pages to reputablepub-

lishersandinternationalexhibitions;in fact, however,the bulkof the jour-
nals'pageswas fillednot withpoetryor graphicsbutwithnonfictionprose:
editorialsand "glosses,"manifestoes,polemics,programsandsocialcom-
mentaries.The articlesthatreachedprinthadsurvivedthe editorialproc-
ess, so we can assumethat each of them was judgedin some way to fall
within the boundsof Expressionistdebate, even if the authorwasn'ta
"real"Expressionistor the articlesdidn'tprovidethe last word.The mag-
azinesoffereda settingin whichauthorsandreaderscouldgropetogether
towarda "functional coherence"of assumptionsandprecepts;the rangeof
these articles suggests both the extent and the limits of Expressionist
possibility.These effortsmeritourattentionnot as a substituteforliterary
analysisbut as a legitimatecomplementto it, if for no other reasonthan
that Expressioniststhemselvesfoundthis materialso compelling.
But now backto the mainpoint. "Therelationshipbetweenphilosophy
andpoliticsin Germanyhas alwaysbeen remarkably intimate"(xx), writes
ThomasWilleyin his bookon Neo-Kantianism and Germanhistoryfrom
1860to 1914,andwe cancertainlysaythe sameforthe relationship between
philosophyand Germanart. Expressionism,however,occupiesa special
placein this tradition.Science,politics,anda personalexperienceof alien-
ationfromthe phenomenalworldall contribute,in the perceptionof many
Expressionists,to a growingtensionbetweenwhat is and what oughtto
be. As a defensivereactionagainsttheirown "Ichdissoziation" (Vietta)and
as a way to restore some degree of meaningand control,Expressionism
turnsto Neo-Kantianism, the familiarandpowerfulcriticaltheoryof knowl-
edge whichhas contributedto the crisis butwhichalso seems to offerthe
means for overcomingit. It is in the encounterwith Kantand Neo-Kan-
tianismthat the Expressionist"newman"is born.
Kant'sphilosophy hadhadtwoaims:he wishedto insistontheauthorityof
scienceyet at the sametimepreservemoralautonomy. ThusKantwas con-
cernedonthe onehandto constructa criticaltheoryof scientificknowledge,
andonthe otherhandto elaborateanethicalsystem.Atthe foundation ofhis
ethicalsystem was the humanpersonnot as meansbut as his or her own
end.The problemwasthatbythe endof the nineteenthcentury,the balance
betweenthese two aimshadbeen lost: scientificknowledgeseemedon the
verge of completelyeclipsingethicalknowledge.At this point, Hermann
Cohen,founderandleaderof the Marburgschoolof Neo-Kantianism, went
backto whathe consideredKant'smajorinnovation: the conceptualgenera-
tionof the objectofexperience.According to Cohen,anobjectwas"present"
for the cognitivesubjectonly in so far as it was "thought":"Die Sterne
sindnichtam Himmelsondernin den Lehrbiichern derAstronomie," as he
once phrasedit (Noak,146).Cohenheldthathis "Prinzipdes Ursprungs,"
according to which thought generated being (or more precisely, the human
perceptionof being), was valid not only for scientific knowledge but also for
 WRIGHT:Expressionism and German Feminism 585

ethics andaestheticsas well. He heldfurtherthatanyassertiongainedits

status as "true"by virtue of its systematicposition(or "functional coher-
ence")in a bodyof universallaws, each of whichrequiresthe others.
In Cohen'sethics, the primacyof thoughtin generatingthe objectof
cognitionwastranslatedintotheprimacyofethicalconsciousnessindefining
the courseof social,politicalandeconomicdevelopment.The ultimategoal
of Cohen'sethics, as it hadbeen for Kant, was the free individualin the
just society. He wrote: "Die Correlationvon Individuum und Allheit(ist)
das eigentlicheProblemder Ethik. ... Das ethische Subjektmu18...
zugleichAllheitundIndividuum sein"(Lubbe,339). Atthis point,in Cohen's
unity of all human beings in true "Menschheit" and in the ethical will
directeduponthis ideal,we beginto glimpsea foreshadowing of the Expres-
sionistapproachto the problemof integratingethics with other formsof
knowledge.Nor did Cohenfail to drawthe practicalconsequencesof his
ethics: he criticizedthe SecondReichfor beinga "Machtstaat" insteadof
a "Rechtsstaat," and he accusedcapitalismof reducingworkersto means
ratherthanallowingthemto realizetheirown ends. The consequencesof
Cohen'sethics were socialist-but emphaticallynot Marxist,for Cohen
demandedreformnot from the materialistbase up, but from an ethical
insight,fromthe "top,"down. Here, too, we find an anticipation of later
Expressionistpositions.
HansNatorp,Cohen'sstudentandcolleague,tooka moreperson-oriented
approach to problemsof being,cognition,ethicsandtruth.Natorpidentified
"will"as the primeimpulseforthe realizationof the ethical."Menschenbil-
dung"- the nurturingof the humancapacityto striveforthe highestgood,
foroneselfandforthe entirehumancommunity,throughthe unityof reason
and will- became one of Natorp'sspecial concerns. Natorpofferedno
causalexplanationfor politicalor economicevents, as Marxismdid, but
rathera normative"lawof the Idea."However,this idea was subjectto
modification as experiencewith socialrealitymightdictate.Again,themes
we encounteramongthe Expressionistsare anticipated here:the centrality
of the cognitivesubject,cultivationof ethicalconsciousnessand will, and
the necessity of a normativeidealto guide socialchange.
InExpressionistranksjustafewyearslater,thereareliterallydozenswho
have receivedformaltrainingin philosophyandcountlessmorewho have
been exposed to contemporaryproblemsin philosophyat secondor third
hand.Inthe briefbiographies of contributorsto DieAktionthatare included
in the Krausreprint,some thirtyauthorsare citedas havingstudiedphilos-
ophy,includingJohannesR. Becher,GottfriedBenn, SalomoFriedlaender,
KurtHiller,Jakobvan Hoddis,OskarKanehl,RudolfKayser,RobertMusil,
AnselmRuest,ReneSchickele,andCarlSternheim.Anevenlargernumber
studiedlawandGermanliterature,bothfieldsthatwereheavilyinfluenced
by philosophical trends of the day. Hans Staudinger, son of MarburgNeo-
KantianFranzStaudinger,also was a contributortoDieAktion (Wright,84).
586 THE GERMANQUARTERLY Fall1987

In their fight against the prevailingideologies of the day, Expressionists

share the same foes with Neo-Kantianism: positivism and materialism.
But Expressionists find the Neo-Kantian "criticalmethod,"which merely
attempts to define the limits of human knowledge rather than declaring
absolutes, far too timid. Moreover, in his definition of reason, Natorp had
included not only speculative reason along with intuitions and affects; he
had also included "lower"faculties such as technical know-how. Expres-
sionists, however,remain skepticalof the ethical significance of lower levels
of reason or "Verstand."
According to the Expressionist view, ethical reason consists purely in
"Vernunft,"which includes speculative ratio as well as intuitions, passions
and volitions but specifically excludes the lower faculties which perceive
phenomena and apply such mental categories as cause and effect to them.
Natorphad viewed the various levels of will, theoretical reason and practical
reason as formingan integral whole under the rubricof the highest purpose:
"Menschenbildung."Expressionists, however, divorce the "highest" or
explicitly ethical levels of reason and will from their lower levels, and this
in turn has two results: the "ethical"becomes isolated from the empirical
reality which had provided the control factor in critical idealism; and "Wil-
lensbildung,""Menschenbildung," becomes a far more irrational, subjective
and affectively colored process than it had ever been for Natorp.
In Neo-Kantian critical idealism, the relationshipof ethics to empirical
reality was a two-way street: the "facts" of science and society led to
knowledge about the ideal and the ethical, and these insights in turn could
be used to define the teleological course of empiricalreality.The philosophi-
cal generationof reality always stood subject, as mere hypothesis, to control
and revision according to new insights derived from additional"facts."Ex-
pressionists, however, become far less "critical"and far more "ideal."They
deny the usefulness both of factual knowledge and of lower levels of reason
to their ethics, pride themselves on their freedom from any sort of "scien-
tific" influence, and prescribe the ethical course of empirical reality uni-
laterally. In other words, Expressionists and Neo-Kantians come to under-
stand the notion of "activity"in radicallydifferent ways: Cohen and Natorp
hadinsisted that philosophyand empiricalreality must interact,both theoret-
ically and practically; but Expressionists, having learned the primacy of
thoughtover empiricalreality without its corollary,the measuringof thought
against reality, drift towardever greater abstractionand isolation. Forthem,
"activity"is purer, more ethical, more powerful, the less it has to do with
empirical reality.
As a result of this split, Expressionism takes a starkly dualistic view of
both human beings and "the world.""Humanity"takes absolute precedence
over external reality; thus Franz Werfel declares "Die Welt faingtim Men-
schen an" (Der Weltfreund),while LudwigRubinerannounces "dashumano-
zentrische Bewul3tsein"(Der Mensch in der Mitte). At the same time, the
 WRIGHT:Expressionism and German Feminism 587

most important characteristic of human beings is precisely that quality

which sets them apart from physical nature or empirical reality: "Geist."
"Geist"in the Expressionist context can be best understood as a mutation
of the faculty Neo-Kantians had called "critical consciousness." Expres-
sionists argue that if consciousness shapes reality, then an altered conscious-
ness must necessarily change the world; if consciousness confines itself to
the "highest"and "purest"levels of reason and will, it must follow that the
ensuing change will be supremely ethical and desirable. But not all human
beings possess such a wise and powerful "Geist"; on the contrary, it is
something one must struggle to achieve by freeing oneself from the particu-
larity of everyday human existence. "Geist" is only fully realized in "der
neue Mensch."
Thus the "new man" represents "Geist" against nature and dynamic
"will" against the apathy of inert matter. He rejects "civilization"as he
calls for true "culture,"and he rejects the superficialityof modern "Gesell-
schaft" as he calls instead for a true human "Gemeinschaft."He is the
exponent of the ethical absolute locked in combat against historicism, psy-
chologism, and ethical relativism. He is active, critical and creative-in
contrast to the bourgeois philistine, a mindless and passive consumer of
goods and culture. The Expressionists' "new man" is also supremely
"manly"in his opposition to the "effeminacy"of Art Nouveau or Impres-
sionism. In fact, it becomes clear as we read Expressionist essayists that
one of the most fundamental dualities in their conceptual system is that
between "Mensch" and "Weib."Through her traditionalassociation with
nature and matter, woman becomes identified with that lower level of being
which the "new man" is out to transform and dominate through the sup-
posedly ineluctible power of his "Geist" und "Wille."
The exploration of woman's supposedly elusive and mysterious nature
is a favoritetopic of Expressionist essayists, particularlyin the earlier years
of the movement from about 1911 to 1914. A good part of their interest
stems from their clear perception of the need for reform in numerous areas
of contact between the sexes. But although the influence of the bourgeois
women'smovementin general and of the suffragists in particularis reflected
in the pages of these magazines, the majorityof articles stands in open or
implicit disagreement with the goals of the women's movement, even in
DieAktion, which hadcommitted itself more clearlythan any other magazine
to progressive politics.
For the most part, Expressionist contributorsunderstandthe relationship
between women's position as prostitute or housewife, her lack of economic
freedom, and capitalist notions of property. Most also reject the time-
honored equation of sex with sin, and thus the obligatorypairing of woman
with sexual sinfulness. But they continue to view women as essentially
sexual beings, and they continue to feel ambivalence about their own par-
ticipation in the sexual act, which in its sheer physicality threatens to
588 THE GERMANQUARTERLY Fall1987

compromise"Geistigkeit." At the same time, manyof the qualitiesExpres-

sionistsvalue most highlyin themselvesare preciselythe same qualities
typicallyassignedto the maleof the species in westernEuropeanthought.
The "Geist"and"Wille"of Expressionism,its intensely"ethical"impulse,
its politicalambitions-all are specificallymale-identifiedqualities,and
seldomis theattemptmadeto showthese applicable inanywayto women.
The Expressionistgenerationreachesadulthoodduringthe heightof the
Germanwomen'smovement.Debateson the appropriate role of womenin
publiclife havebeen in progressfor overone hundredyears, andfeminist-
inspiredorganizationalactivitiesandlobbyinghavebeenat an intensepitch
forroughlya quarterof a century.However,these youngmendo notreflect
the influence of Mill's The Subjectionof Womenor Bebel's Die Frau und
derSozialismus;nordo theyappearto be acquaintedwiththe workof Clara
Zetkin,MinnaCaueror HeleneLang.Instead,the pages of Expressionist
periodicalsare full of the views of Nietzsche,WeiningerandFreud.Many
a youngauthordrawsthe conclusionthatby blurringthe cleardistinctions
betweenmaleandfemalespheres,the women'smovement,farfromrepre-
sentinga changefor the better,is merelycontributing to the sicknessand
"decadence" of contemporary civilization.
The theoreticaldiscussionof the "newman"seeks to discoveranddefine
the sources of the spiritualimpulseby means of whichman can develop
his "Geist,"activatehis "Wille," exercisedominanceoverempiricalreality,
andestablishcontactwith "dasWesen."The entiredebateis basedon the
assumptionthatsuchan impulseexists, andthatmanhasan ethicalrespon-
sibilityto followit. Verydifferentassumptionsbecomeoperative,however,
whenwe turn to the theoreticaldiscussionsof woman'snaturewhichtake
placesimultaneously. Whereasman'swholeraisond'etreis to emancipate
himself from all materialbeing, woman'sdistinguishingcharacteristicis
her identitywith the worldof natureand naturalprocesses, particularly
sexuality and reproduction; and it becomes her specialresponsibilityto
maintainthis identity.Of course, the identification of womanwith nature
can be used as an argumentfor women'swholeness,inner harmonyand
moralsuperiority,as hascommonlybeen doneparticularly since Rousseau.
But the Expressionistrelationshipto empiricalreality,as we haveseen, is
too problematical to allowthatlineof reasoningto prevail.Instead,a harshly
suspicious attitudetowardthe materialworldas a realmof mereappearance
anddelusionis transferredto woman,legitimizedbyNietzsche'spreoccupa-
tion with feminine"Putz."
The notionthat womenpossess appearancebutno true essence is sub-
sequentlypursuedby a numberof contributors to Expressionistmagazines.
For example,FranzBlei argues that womanisn't reallyone with nature;
it's merelyan illusion,"dasgr63te Kunststfickder Frauvor dem Mann"
("Vonder Keuschheit,"Die Aktion, 1913). Richard Fuchs ("Der Rang der
Geschlechter,"Der Sturm, 1911/12)explains: "Die Vollendungdes Weibes
 WRIGHT: Expressionism and German Feminism 589

bleibtdie leiblicheErscheinung.Das Wesendes Mannesentziehtsich bis-

weilendenBlickenallerinderZeitLebenden.InneresundAuBeresist inbei-
denGeschlechtern nichteinmalumgekehrtproportional."KarlKraus,admit-
tedly not a textbookExpressionistbuta frequentcontributornevertheless
to DerSturmandeditorof Die Fackel,goes so faras to claimthatwoman's
allure is entirely the productof male fantasy:"Phantasieantsthesiert,
machthiiBlicheHinde schonund ein Weibbegehrenswert"("Perversitit,"
Der Sturm,1910).ForOttoWeininger,manwas "etwas,"woman"nichts";
for CarlDallagothe antithesisis "Fiille"versus"Leere"("OttoWeininger
und sein Werk,"Der Brenner,1912);and FranzBlei sees the male/female
relationshipas "air"rushinginto a "vacuum"("Vonder Keuschheit").
Woman,beingclose to natureor at least seemingso, is also closelyre-
latedto othernaturalphenomena- animals,for example,with whomshe
appearsin manyessays to havemore in commonthan with the males of
her own species. This theme, too, hadbeen anticipatedby Nietzsche,who
hadviewedwomenvariouslyas cats or birdsor "bestenFallesKilhe"(Also
sprachZarathustra).In a sketch entitled "Pubertit" (Der Sturm, 1911), the
youngprotagonistcomes to the realizationthat in the sex act, "derFrau
muBdas Tierischemit dem Menschlichenvergoltenwerden."In another
eroticreverie,Parisvon Gtiterslohreminiscesaboutone of his pastloves:
"Sosehr TypusBestie, daBsie sich selbst als ihr Programbegriff' ("Zwi-
schen der Liebe,"Die Aktion,1914).The same authordescribesthe soul
of a younggirl as "durchsichtig ... wie der Willeeines jungenTieres."It
is an attractiveimage for a less attractivethought:woman, like dumb
animals,is lackinginhumanconsciousness- in starkcontrastto the intense
consciousnessand heroicwill of man.
"Das Geschlechtist die Genialitiitdes Weibes,"writes RichardFuchs
("DieLehrprobedes Mannes,"DerSturm,1911/12),butman'sgeniusis of
an entirelydifferentorder.Man lays claim to an exclusivemonopolyon
"Geist,"the sourceof all ethics, cultureandpersonaldevelopment."Indivi-
dualititist die Eigenschaft,die vom Manneverlangtwird,"writes Fuchs,
and "zu Sch6pfungender Wirtschafts-und der Geistesweltgenuigtder
Mann"("DerRangder Geschlechter"). Whereas"Geist"endowsmanwith
dynamism and will to change, woman's lackof it isolatesher frommoral
or culturaldevelopmentandrendersher beingstatic:"KeinBuchderWelt
indertdas Wesender Natur"("Orientoder Occident?" Der Sturm, 1913).
Similarly,Paris von sees
Giitersloh romanticunion between the sexes as
fraught with danger,inherently instableand ultimatelycompromising for
the man,forit signifiesa unionofthe male,"dasStrebend-Unvollkommene,"
with "dasFertige."Womandemands"ichm6chteja zu meinemOrganismus
sagen"("Zwischender Liebe").
No need for von Giiterslohto worry aboutthe female "Schicksale,die alle
ich . .. iiberreiten, pliindernund triibenwerde,"for without consciousness,
women, like dumb animals, are incapableof deep and humansuffering- or
590 THE GERMANQUARTERLY Fall1987

so Alfred Wolfensteinargues in the pages of Die Aktion. Between 1910and

1920, Wolfenstein published several volumes of Expressionist poetry, and
he workedfor a time with FranzPfemfert on DieAktion. He also championed
the rights of male homosexuals. Men, Wolfensteinwrites, are great individu-
als who like parallellines can only touch one another "inder Unendlichkeit"
("Toast auf die Damen,"Die Aktion, 1912). Contact is possible only with
women, who are like things, static, materialand superficial,without passion,
"Erlebnisse,"or "Weltfreude."After criticizing female passivity and slave
mentality (another debt to Nietzsche), Wolfenstein concludes by arguing
that even though women are incapable of suicide (they're too dull-witted
and insensitive), still, women die more easily than men: "Denn sie wissen
so scharf nicht den fundamentalen Unterschied von Dasein und Totsein.
Sie sind zwischen Geburt und Leben ebensosehr tot wie lebendig ... weil
sie dem Sinn des Lebens wohlgemut die Ruickseitezuwenden (sie sind von
allen Seiten Ruickseite)."
The question of dominance and submission between the sexes in the
sexual encounter is another subject of ongoing concern. While Franz Blei
and RichardFuchs see the sexual encounter as woman's hour of triumph,
others disagree. For example, in RudolfLeonhard's"Enzio und das Weib"
(Neue Blatter fir Kunst und Dichtung, 1918), a sexual encounter allows a
man to reassert his superiority under the most dismal of circumstances.
Leonhard was an Expressionist poet with radical sympathies. A friend of
Johannes R. Becher and WalterHasenclever,he greatly admired Karl Lieb-
knecht and joined the Berlin "Rat geistiger Arbeiter" in 1919. Like Kurt
Hiller and Alred Wolfenstein, Leonhardwas a critic of state persecution of
homosexuality. In Leonhard's sketch, which appears to be a rape fantasy,
"das Weib" remains nameless and faceless throughout. She assumes an
abjectly helpless and adoring posture: "sie kauert,""jammert,"and Enzio
finds her "schluchzend."Though Enzio is blind and imprisoned, he is still
able at least to exert sexual dominance over "das Weib,"who in spite of
verbal protest is immediately aroused by his touch- suggesting that like
any other woman she longs to be ravished, even if she is unconscious of it
herself. Enzio, on the other hand, feels "freed"by the encounter.
KarlKraustakes a differentandrathermore radicalline vis-a-vis women's
sexuality and the power that potentially could flow from it. Kraus' goal is
not merely to master woman in the sex act, but rather to eliminate her
from it altogether. In this way, man can free himself from this last remaining
form of dependence on woman. In one of the earliest issues of Der Sturm,
("Perversitat,"1910), Kraus attacks Wilhelmine Germanyfor its misguided
legal sanctions and social tabus against homosexuality, arguing that "ac-
quired homosexuality" (in markedcontrast to "bornhomosexuality")is the
sign and the right of ethically and aesthetically superior men. Progresssive
as Kraus' campaign against paragraph175 is, its roots lie at least in part
in a thoroughgoingmisogyny.
 Expressionism and German Feminism
WRIGHT: 591

Male contributionsto the debateon women'snatureare frequent,and

almostany discussionof sex in general,of the institutionof marriage,or
of state interferencein privateaffairsalso includesa discussionof wom-
en's characterand its presumedothernessfrommen's. Contributions by
womenare a rare occurrence.Sometimesthey serve to corroboratethe
maleview;thus GreteMeisel-Hesslooksforwardto the daywhenwoman's
economicpositionwill be reformedandshe will be ableto be "sch6n,nur
sch6n,""Weib,nurWeib," "invollerHarmoniemitdenGesetzendereigenen
Natur"("DerAsthetunddie Frauenfrage," DieAktion,1911).OnlyHedwig
Dohm disagrees drasticallywith prevailingopinion,rejectingthe entire
male/femaledualismas "verstaubteGemeinsplitze"and"geistigeGassen-
hauer"("Feindliche Schwestern," DieAktion,1914).Oneof the outstanding
feministsof the 19thcentury,Dohm(1833-1919) is alreadyin her eighties
whenher livelyandspiritedarticlesbegin to appearin DieAktion,andin
1917a protestagainstthe war,entitled"DerMi8brauch des Todes, Senile
Impressionen" is publishedin the RoterHahnseries.
Dohmattackshead-onthebiologicaldeterminismthatmostExpressionist
essayists subscribeto, arguingthatthe seeminglyabsolutevalue"nature"
is in fact a highlyrelativeandhistoricallyconditionednotion:"Immerhabe
sie es mit derNatur... jeder[legt]seine Anschauungen derNaturin den
Mund. . ... Was ist natuirlich,was unnatfirlich?Gab es doch Zeiten, wie
EngelundTeufel,HimmelundH11leunanfechtbare Wirklichkeitenwaren;
ja, die meistengeistigenErrungenschaften sindEinbrtiche in vermeintliche
Naturgesetze"("Feindliche Schwestern"). Whatis recognizedas merelyrel-
ative becomes immediatelysusceptibleto change. Once the fundamental
principleof divisionbetweenthe sexes is calledintoquestion,the entiresys-
tem of ancillaryantithesesbegins to crumble,as Dohmdemonstratesin a
particularlywittydialogue:"0, ichweiB,ichweiB,auswendigwei8ichEure
mtinnischenAltgliubigkeiten: Das WeibNatur-der MannKultur.Sie hat
Instinkte,er dielogischeVernunft.ErGottsucher,sie Mannsucher. ErKopf,
sie Herz.... Ihrfiberhfiuftunsjaso mitGefifihlen, einWunder, wir
daB noch
nichtan Herzverfettung draufgegangen sind("DieSuffragettes," DieAktion,
1913).Unfortunately, however,Dohm'spassionateargumentsfall on deaf
ears; thoughFranzPfemfertis clearlysympathetictowardher work,there
is noevidenceofherinfluenceonotherwriterspublishing inDieAktion.
But while the Germanwomen'smovementdoes not influenceExpres-
sionists'view of women'snature,the movementdoes figureas a frequent
topic in Expressionistperiodicals.Objectionsto the women'smovement
closelyparallelNietzsche'scritique:contributorsarguethatthe movement
is a productof culturaldecadence,that womenare incapableof knowing
what is reallygood for them, and that it is the faultof unmanlymen that
the movement has come into existence at all. Thus the anonymous author
of an article published in Der lose Vogel("Die neuen Minner," 1912) argues
that women have never been so badly off "inwardly"as since they won
592 THE GERMANQUARTERLY Fall1987

their"external"rights- andtherebyloosenedtheirelementalgripon "na-

ture."Anotherfrequenttheme is the supposedfutilityof all this female
effort. AlfredWolfenstein,for example,insists that no matterwhat may
happenin publiclife, inwardlywomenare destinedto slavery:"M6gendie
StaatendrauBenimmer freier werden-im Innerender Frauenbesteht
ewig Sklavenverfassung" ("Toastaufdie Damen").Elsewherethe women's
movementis diagnosedas "denTriebder Massen,""demKlassenhaBder
Minner nachgeahmt" ("DieLehrprobedes Mannes").ForExpressionists
at pains to protect "Geist"and individualityfrom contaminationwith
"Masse,"this judgmentputs the women'smovementbeneathcontempt.
Amongall the Expressionistessayists, ErichMiihsammost vigorously
supportsthe women'smovementandits aims. A writer,anarchist,"Caf6-
hausliterat" andsocialrevolutionary, Mfihsamis a fixtureof Bohemianlife
in BerlinandMunich.Duringthe Expressionistdecadehe publisheswidely,
edits the Expressionist-anarchist magazineKain from 1911to 1915,and
becomesa close friendof GustavLandauer. Hisparticipation in the ill-fated
Bavarian"R~iterepublik" is followedby five years'imprisonment.In 1934
Mtihsamis murderedin the Oranienburg concentrationcamp. Mtihsam
speaks to the argumentthat the rise of womensignifies the decline of
culture. The argumentassumes that Germanyhas a culturein the first
place that is worth trying to maintain.Mfihsam,however,disagrees:he
sees "culture"as an idealto strivefor,but he fails to findit realizedeven
in the seeminglymostprogressivefactionsof Germansociety."WoKnech-
tungist, Zwang,Gewalt,DogmaundDunkel,"he writes, "herrschtUnkul-
tur"("Kultur undFrauenbewegung," Kain, 1913).Themosthorrificexample
of "Unkultur," in Miihsam'sview, is contemporarytreatmentof women:
"DerbeschlimendsteVorwurf,der gegen die wiirdeloseUnkulturdieses
vom mechanischenErfindungsgeistbesessenen Zeitalterszu erhebenist,
betrifftdie Behandlungder weiblichenHailftederMenschheit." The closing
phrase is significant:Mtihsam,in contrastto most essayists, does not
regardwomenas a distinctsub- or super-species,but simplyas one half
of the humanrace.
Suffrageis the centralissue of the bourgeoiswomen'smovementduring
the Expressionistdecade,andthe periodicalsdo notignoreit. Its defenders
includeErichMiihsam,AlfredKerrandFranzPfemfert,as wellas Hedwig
DohmandMarieHolzer.However,that support,at leaston the partof the
men, is not entirelyunequivocal.AlfredKerris reveredby the younger
generationof Expressionistactivists, includingKurt Hiller and Ludwig
Rubiner,as a model litterateurengage.Writingin Pan ("DieK5iltewelle,"
1914/1915), Kerrtakes the argumentthat suffragereflects culturaldeca-
denceandturnsit intoa parodyof itself:"IhreForderung,FrauCuriesolle
beidenWahlendasgleicheRechthaben,wie ein analphabetischer, vertatter-
ter, alkoholischerKlosettscheurer, das ist das unverkennbareMerkmaleiner
weibisch-kranken Gesinnung einer degenerierten Zeit. Das walte Gott."
 WRIGHT: Expressionism and German Feminism 593

Yet even Kerr cannot resist a reference to the supposedly comical effect
of the suffragists, "welche die Haltung wackerer Hydinenergibt" ("Votes
for Women,"Pan, 1912/1913).Erich Muihsamdenounces female disenfran-
chisement as "brutal, dumm, gemein und in hohem Masse empirend"; at
the same time, however, Miihsam regrets publicly that women pour so
much energy into this struggle for "Rechte, die keine Rechte sind" and he
urges them to attend instead to the more "urgent" struggle for sexual
emancipation in their personal lives ("Die Stimmrechtsamazonen,"Kain,
1911/1912).In a similar vein, Kurt Hiller praises Helene St6cker precisely
because she is not workingfor suffrage but for something "moreimportant,"
namely sexual emancipation ("Helene St6cker: Geschlechtspsychologie,"
Zeit-Echo, 1915/1916).Although the circles of artists and writers around
the Expressionist periodicals include a number of important women, these
women do not come to the defense of the women's movement or suffrage,
at least not in the pages of the periodicals.
Meanwhile, in the supposedly apoliticalSturm, Herwarth Waldenpub-
lishes Paul Scheerbart's "Emanzipations-Novellette,"a piece calculated to
reduce the women's movement to absurdity. Scheerbart is not an Expres-
sionist, but he enjoys great popularityamong Expressionist literati and his
works appear in literally dozens of issues of Der Sturm. In the "Emanzipa-
tions-Novellette" the following exchange takes place:
"Papa," rief Hedwig,"Diegro8eEmanzipation ist da. Wie
ich michfreue!"
"Woist sie denn?"fragteder Papa will man
sich... emanzipieren?" .... "Wovon
"VonunseremSonnensystem," sagte Hedwig.
It is no coincidence that the young woman'sname is Hedwig Bohl, echoing
the name of feminist Hedwig Dohm; the point of the parody, of course, is
to demonstrate the futility and absurdityof attempts at emancipationfrom
the male principleand the culture it has created, symbolicallyrepresented
by the sun and the solar system.
The voices openly opposed to female suffrage are a good deal less
ambivalent about where they stand. The fiercest opposition comes from
the Austrian periodicals Der Brenner and Die Fackel. For example, in 1914
Die Fackel,edited by KarlKraus, prints "Momentanphotographien
kimpfen-
der Suffragetten"which are captioned "Der letzte Schrei der Wollust."On
the facing page, the magazine carries three short articles bearing the triple
message of housewifely stupidity,the idiocy of the women'smovement, and
the intellectual inferiority of a female writer. Kraus'spoint is blunt enough:
the suffrage movement is merely the productof sex-starved imbeciles who
should be wrestling in bed instead of in the street outside Buckingham
Palace. Two years earlier, Kraus is incensed, not merely that educated
women are demanding the vote, but that there should be such a thing as
594 THE GERMANQUARTERLY Fall1987

"hochkultivierteenglische Frauen, Missionirinnen, Wissenschaftlerinnen,

Kiinstlerinnen, von der UniversitditGraduierte"in the first place ("Brief
einer Suffragette an eine Bordellwirtin der Freiheit,"Die Fackel, 1912).
Indeed, Kraus seems to begrudge women literacyitself: "UndTinte braucht
so eine, um unflkitigeBriefe an jene zu schreiben, die, wie ich, von der
Tragik einer monstr6sen Zeit ergriffen sind."
In additionto suffrage, the German women'smovement fights for equal
treatment for women under the law; for access to higher education and the
professions; for equal pay for equal work; and for an end to discrimination
in public and private spheres. In spite of their self-proclaimed position at
the vangard of social change, the Expressionist essayists show uniformly
little interest in these issues. For young men seeking to escapea career in
a typical bourgeois profession, it is simply incomprehensiblethat women
should actually be fighting for access to those same professions. The fact
that women do want access demonstrates, for some, the tendency of women
to behave as "Affendes Mannes"; for others it suggests that the woman's
movement is in collusion with the bourgeoisie; and it confirms the common
prejudice that women lack the "Geist" and "Wille"to pursue a "higher"
calling. In the view of many Expressionists, the prototype of the women
who manages to remain true to her "feminine"essence (as the "new man"
is true to his) and who suffers social reprobationfor it (as Expressionist
artists do) is the prostitute, not the university student.
The one area in which Expressionist periodicals do show an interest is
in the legal treatment of issues related to sexuality. Thus Expressionist
periodicals strongly support decriminalizationof abortion, increased avail-
ability of contraceptives, and reform of divorce laws, as well as equal rights
and state support for illegitimate children. All such changes are judged by
the mostly male authors as more important for women- in keeping with
women's overwhelmingly sexual nature and primarily reproductive func-
tion- than any right to study or vote. Not coincidentally,such changes are
also in the interest of males seeking greater sexual freedom.
Expressionist essayists and intellectuals not only construct their iden-
tities as men out of the dichotomy between the sexes; in addition, their
understanding of art and the artist rests upon the same sexual division.
Every man may regard himself as an "artist"in his relationshipto women,
if to nothing else: "Wie das Kunstwerk dem Kiinstler n~ihersteht als der
Fremde denkt, so die Frau... dem Manne" ("Orient oder Occident").
Just as a man creates a woman out of the medium of the girl, so too artists
create on a higher level, both in relation to women and in relation to the
mediumof their art. Thus PaulHatvani,who supplies a numberof theoretical
interpretationsof the new art, explains the relationshipof content to form, of
the "contained"to the "giverof form,"by means of an analogy to the sexes:
Nichtsistreiner,moralischer,
ethischerals dieDarstellung
des Elementaren. NurdasElementist durchbloles Dasein
 WRIGHT:Expressionism and German Feminism 595

wirkend:so erffilltes sichin einer Idee derWeiblichkeit.

Der Mannschafft-das Weibist; der Mannbeweistsich
der Weltdurchdas Bewul3tsein- das Weibwirdvon der
Weltbewiesen.So erhilt der Expressionismus eine sinn-
liche Bezuiglichkeit
zum Geschlecht.("Versuchfiberden
Expressionismus," Die Aktion,1917).

It is noteworthy, moreover, that according to Hatvani the artist exists in

an eternal opposition to the content of his art, and this not only defines
him as artist but enables him, indeed forces him, to attain a heightened
degree of masculinity: "Und da der Kiinstler doch im ewigen Gegensatz
zum Stoffe lebt, wird dieser weibliche Stoff des expressionistischen
Kiinstlers ein Urquell seiner erh6hten Mdinnlichkeit"("Spracherotik,"Der
Sturm, 1912).
Conversely, women's practice of Expressionist art becomes synony-
mous with the cheapening and popularizationof the movement. Kasimir
Edschmid, for example, who is considered by his contemporaries one of
the most important critics and interpreters of Expressionism, vents his
disgust with the progress of the movement in the following terms: "0 Ihr
JungfrauenvonKotzschenbroda, UlmundGnesen,die IhrstattSchlummer-
rollenundHolzschnitzereien Eureunverstandene deutscheSchwermutnun
in abstraktenLandschaftenund gedreiecktenVisionendem erschreckten
undahnungslosenPublikumeurerHeimatvorweist,wie sehrhabtIhr(wie
die meisten alle) mi8verstanden!"
("Standdes Expressionismus" [1920],
Raabe,174).
Withthe end of the war andthe revolution,there is suddenlyrenewed
interest in women's issues in the pages of Expressionist magazines. The
question arises as to what role women may play in the revolutionand what
position they shouldoccupyin the new order.Before the revolution,feminists
had demanded civil rights, better education, access to professions and the
rightto workwithoutsexualdiscrimination.
Maleintellectualsopposedto
the goalsof the movementarguedthatdisenfranchisement
was a privilege,
not a privation; they regarded the desire for education and careers as
misguided;andthey continuedto warnthat women'sentry into the public
sphere would do violence to her unique "nature."These views prevail after
November 1918as well: the consensus reflected in Expressionist magazines
is that women are to hold a place in the new society commensurate with
their special status as lovers and/or mothers, one that will safeguard and
reward their "otherness."
Not that there aren't alternatives. In 1916, Lu Mirten publishes a highly
Expressionistic essay in which she attempts to combine the hitherto mas-
culine notion of "Geist" with the feminine principle of creativity and join
the dynamic longing of the will with the potential for manifestationinherent
in motherhood. Marten refuses to consign women to "nature" or some
static and unchanging realm of material being; instead she declares "der
596 THE GERMANQUARTERLY Fall1987

Geist im Mutterrecht,"and she promises that out of this spirit will come
a democratic, egalitarian and tolerant society, committed to the welfare of
all ("Geburtder Miltter,"Die weissenBlitter 1916). However,other (male)
Expressionists like Otto Freundlich are not receptive to the notion of
spiritual rebirth through the action of women; instead, Freundlichargues
that with his "mannlicherGeistespotenz,"man must transcend his physical
birth through a second, spiritualrebirth-one that will sever once and for
all his connection to the female: "Jeder... muf3teeinmal im stillen die
Nabelschnurzerrissen haben, die ihn mit den alten Miittern verband"("Das
kommende Reich,"Die Aktion, 1917).
Mirten's assessment of the role women can play in social and political
change remains unique in its optimism; only a few weeks after the end of
the war, women begin to express their disappointmentwith the course of
events. Anna Siemsen laments that newly-franchised women have done
nothing to stop the conflict and bloodshed of civil war, and she asks why
women, now the majorityof the electorate, have not forced the government
to disarm ("Andie Frauen,"Das Forum, 1919).The answer lies in the pages
of DieAktion, where CharlotteKlein observes that women are an essentially
conservative electorate, divided, moreover,by class interests ("Frauenwahl-
recht und Demokratie,"Die Aktion, 1918). Meanwhile a host of males such
as Franz Blei ridicule "die Kom6die des Stimmzettels" ("Die Btichse der
Pandora,"Die Rettung, 1919) and call for the creation of a new "erotic
culture" in which women will be spared integration into the state but
allowed to remain true to their "anarchic"nature. Raoul Hausmann calls
for the "Aufl6sungdes btirgerlichenFrauentypus"(DieErde, 1919),rejection
of the intellectual "mlinnlicherFrauentypus,"and the creation of a "new
woman."At this juncture in history, he argues, women no longer need to
choose between the role of mother and prostitute; instead, they are free
to recognize the "Gleichzeitigkeitvon Mutterschaftstriebund dirnenhafter
Einstellung"and can joyfully accept the fact that they are both! Editha von
Miinchhausen,meanwhile, advocates that women'seducationfocus on care
of children and the household; she opposes female employmentoutside the
home, and she recommends that men be given preference over women in
hiring because male unemploymentposes a greater risk to the state. Along
with equal rights for illegitimate children, legal abortion, and easing of
divorce laws, she calls for a new system of franchisement: every woman
should be granted an additionalvote for each minor child in her care ("Das
neue Recht der Frau,"Der Revolutiondr,1919).
The general picture which emerges is that of a "new woman"who will
found a "new family" and usher in a return to matriarchy of sorts, all
Hedwig Dohm's attempts to demystify motherhoodnotwithstanding.In this
new social organizationwomen will be "liberated"from other cares so that
they can devote themselves fully to their unique "womanly"functions;men,
concomitantly,are to be relieved of all burdens and responsibilities within
 WRIGHT: Expressionism and German Feminism 597

the new family and thus freed to pursue theirunique"spirituality" and

"individuality."Just as sexual fidelitywas in
insignificant premonogamous
times, so too it will playa minimalrole in postmonogamous times. The
doublestandardwhichaccompanied will
monogamousmarriage disappear,
and with it the need for a class of professionalprostitutes.Divorcewill
becomea simplematterof mutualconsent,once the economicmotivations
to get marriedand stay marriedhave been eliminated.The necessary
economicfoundationfor this new orderis state supportboth to women
who exercise their duties as loversand mothers,and to their dependent
children.However,thoughwomenwill be emancipatedin this way from
dependenceon an individualmale for support,they remaindependenton
a collectivemale, the state; for it, alongwith cultureandthe economy,is
to remainan essentiallymalepreserve.In short, the womanof the utopian
Expressionistfutureis notto be liberatedfromidentification withhersexual
functions;on the contrary,she is to be "liberated" fromeverythingthat
preventsher frombeingexclusively identifiedwith sexual functions.
Wheredoes all of this leaveus?Certainlywitha schematicandpolarized
pictureofappropriate maleandfemalespheres- andonethatis surprisingly
consistentwith male Expressionists'aversionto bourgeoismoralityand
familylife. Of course there are dissentingvoices over the decade:Franz
PfemfertandErichMtihsamcallingfor suffrage,HerwarthWaldenon the
economicsof contraception,andHedwigDohmor GreteMeisel-Hessrep-
resentingthe bourgeoiswomen'smovement.Their voices are heardwith
regularity,if not great frequency,in Die Aktion,Der Sturm, and other
journals.These articles,flankedandrelativizedas theyare by moretradi-
tionalorevenradicallyconservativepieces, serveto heightenourawareness
of the contradictions andinconsistenciesin the Expressionistvisionof social
change.Philosophically, Expressionismaims for universality,for the abso-
lutevalidityof theirmaleandfemaleIdeal;butwiththe deliberateexclusion
of anycontrolfactor,anymeasurementagainstempiricalreality,the result
is more clichethanideal. Politically,Expressionismhas highambitionsto
remakesociety in its own image;but in practicethe movementdevalues
politicalinstrumentssuch as suffrage,scorns alliancewith the women's
movement,andwindsup isolatedwitha solutionto the "womanquestion"
sharedby no other groupon the politicalspectrum.(Cohenand Natorp,
incidentally,had been extremely sympatheticto both the socialist and
bourgeoiswomen'smovementsin Germany.)Whilecallingon men to con-
quernature,most contributorsdemandthatwomensurrenderthemselves
whollyto nature.Andwhilerejectingfeministemancipation, theyprescribe
sexualemancipation forwomenandmenalike,littlerecognizingits dubious
value for women who remain without civil rights, legal protectionor
economicindependence.Whilenone of these tendenciesshouldautomati-
cally be read into literary texts, an understandingof the theoretical debate
can hopefully aid in literary analysis.
598 THE GERMAN QUARTERLY Fall1987

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The NORTH AMERICANHEINE SOCIETY invites you to join its membership.

The purpose of the society is to share and disseminate informationabout Heinrich
Heine, to encourage the study of his life and times, and to aid communication
among all those interested in his work. The society sponsors Heine Sessions at the
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will organize a major national Heine Conference.
The president of the Heine Society is Peter Uwe Hohendahl, Cornell. Members of
the Board of Directors are Jost Hermand, Ernst Loeb, Jeffrey Sammons, Maria
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000

Concepts of History in German Film

is the title of an interdisciplinary,internationalsymposiumto be heldat the University

of Illinois at Chicago, Oct. 20-22, 1988. Proposals for 20-minute papers are invited
on topics such as: Identity Formationand Historical Subjects in German Cinema;
History as Metaphor for the Present in German Cinema; Historical Revisionismin
German Cinema; History and German Cinema in the Age of Neo-Conservatism;
Modernity and the Portrayalof History in German Cinema; History and Film/Cul-
tural Policy; German Cinemaas Agent of History; German History in OtherNations'
Cinema. Abstracts of 250-300 words should be sent by Jan. 15, 1988, to Dr Bruce
Murray or Dr ChristopherWickham,German Dept. (MIC 189). Univ. of Illinois at
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