Paper PS2-5

THE C3MR LIQUEFACTION CYCLE:

VERSATILITY FOR A FAST GROWING,
EVER CHANGING LNG INDUSTRY
Dr. Mark Pillarella
LNG Process Manager
Dr. Yu-Nan Liu
Technical Director, LNG
Joseph Petrowski
LNG Machinery Engineering Manager
Ronald Bower
Manager, LNG Product Design
Air Products and Chemicals, Inc.
Allentown, Pennsylvania

ABSTRACT

New LNG plants face a broader range of process requirements than ever before.
These requirements are being driven by worldwide growth in LNG demand and the
development of feed gas supplies in new and existing geographic locations. As a result,
facilities must be designed to meet a number of new challenges. For many years, the
propane pre-cooled mixed refrigerant (C3MR) process has remained the dominant
liquefaction cycle. The versatility of this cycle makes it well-suited to accommodate this
ever changing industry.

This paper describes the technology advancements in process, machinery, and the
main cryogenic heat exchanger that have played a key role in meeting the wider range of
process requirements.

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INTRODUCTION

In order to meet the rapid growth in LNG demand, new liquefaction facilities must be
designed to meet a number of challenges including (1) demand for larger train capacity,
(2) the desire to monetize natural gas resources in colder climates, (3) increased demand
in the U.S. and U.K. where a lower heating value and Wobbe Index are required. For
many years, the propane pre-cooled mixed refrigerant (C3MR) process has remained the
dominant liquefaction cycle in the LNG industry. The versatility of this cycle makes it
well-suited to accommodate this ever changing industry. Recent technology
advancements in natural gas liquefaction are playing a key role in meeting the industry’s
needs:
• Enhancements in Air Products’ main cryogenic heat exchangers (MCHEs) have
been coupled with advancements in refrigerant compressors and drivers to
significantly increase C3MR train capacity beyond 5 million tons per annum
(MTA) using a single MCHE. These same advancements applied to AP-XTM
process cycles (an extension of the C3MR cycle) can increase train capacity
beyond 10 MTA.

• Use of alternative pre-cooling fluids with the same cycle and equipment
configuration as for C3MR allow for productive utilization of this reliable and
efficient process in colder climates.

• Efficient integration of NGL/LPG recovery with the liquefaction process plays a

key role in achieving lower heating value LNG requirements for a variety of feed
conditions.

BACKGROUND

The majority of the world’s LNG is produced using C3MR technology. Capacity is
currently increasing at a very rapid rate and is projected to increase 10% per year over the
next five years with capacity doubling by 2015 [1].

A basic schematic of the C3MR process is shown in Figure 1. Natural gas from the
acid gas removal unit is dried and pre-cooled to about -35oC by propane. After pre-
cooling, it passes up through a tube circuit in the main cryogenic heat exchanger where it
is liquefied and sub-cooled to between -150oC to -162oC by mixed refrigerant (MR)
flowing down on the shell-side.

To pre-cool the natural gas, propane is compressed to a high enough pressure such
that it can be condensed by ambient air or cooling water. Liquid propane is then let down
in pressure in a series of stages, further reducing its temperature and allowing it to
provide refrigeration to the natural gas.

The propane is also used to pre-cool the mixed refrigerant which has been
compressed after exiting the bottom of the MCHE. After pre-cooling, the partially
condensed mixed refrigerant is separated in a high pressure separator. The vapor and
liquid streams pass through separate tube circuits in the MCHE where they are further
cooled, liquefied, and sub-cooled. The two sub-cooled streams are let down in pressure,
further reducing their temperatures. As the mixed refrigerant vaporizes and flows

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downward on the shell side of the MCHE, it provides refrigeration for liquefying and
sub-cooling the natural gas. The vaporized mixed refrigerant is then recompressed.

The use of a single component pre-cooling fluid with a staged pressure let-down
provides for an efficient, easy to control pre-cooling step. The use of a mixed refrigerant
for liquefaction and sub-cooling in a single exchanger permits boiling of the refrigerant
over a temperature range, leading to high efficiency when it is most crucial. In this way,
the C3MR cycle minimizes the number of equipment items and control loops while
maintaining the highest efficiency on the market. These advantages lead to minimal plant
complexity, easier operation, and high availability.

LNG

Propane

MR Vapor
Feed Propane
Pre-cooling

MR Liquid

Mixed Refrigerant

Figure 1: Propane Pre-Cooled Mixed Refrigerant (C3MR) Process

DESIGN FOR LARGER TRAIN CAPACITY

Figure 2 demonstrates the evolution of train sizes over the years by showing the train
capacity for a representative sample of LNG liquefaction facilities. From the 1960’s until
about 2000, train capacities increased from less than 0.5 MTA to about 3 MTA. Since
2000, train capacity has increased to about 5 MTA.

The industry is about to take a very substantial step towards increasing train capacity
with the implementation of the AP-XTM process in Qatar in early 2008. Six trains are
currently under construction, each with a nameplate capacity of 7.8 MTA. The AP-XTM
process is an extension of the C3MR process, maintaining its advantages as well as
allowing for a substantial increase in train capacity.

Other technological developments have been made which allow the C3MR cycle to
be extended beyond 5 MTA and the AP-XTM cycle beyond 8 MTA. These improvements

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include main exchanger enhancements as well as process/machinery integration

advancements.

11
10
9
8
T rain Size, M T A

7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020
Date of Commissioning

Figure 2: Increase in Liquefaction Train Capacity

The AP-XTM Process

The AP-XTM cycle (Figure 3) evolved from the C3MR process [2,3]. The schematic
within the dashed lines in Figure 3 is essentially the C3MR cycle. Propane is used for
pre-cooling natural gas, while natural gas is liquefied and partially sub-cooled in the
MCHE with a mixed refrigerant. However, final sub-cooling is not done in the MCHE
and the temperature exiting the exchanger is about -115oC rather than -150oC to -162oC.

The final stage of sub-cooling is done using a nitrogen expander loop. Nitrogen is
compressed to a high pressure and then cooled to near ambient temperature. The high
pressure nitrogen is then cooled with low pressure nitrogen returning to the compressor,
after which it is expanded to a lower pressure further reducing its temperature. The
nitrogen provides refrigeration for sub-cooling LNG. By using nitrogen to sub-cool LNG,
the percentage of the total refrigeration load on the upstream C3MR section is reduced,
allowing for greatly increased capacity in a single train without having to parallel major
equipment (e.g. refrigerant compressors and the main exchanger). By not having to
parallel the major equipment, difficulties in balancing flows are avoided, and economies
of scale on individual equipment are realized. Furthermore, nitrogen expander cycles are
easy to operate since they utilize a single component in a single phase.

Although the nitrogen expander system has not been used in baseload LNG
liquefaction, it has been used extensively in other cryogenic processes, including LNG
peak-shaving facilities. This experience has provided a basis for developing confidence in

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operability, flexibility, and reliability…minimizing risk while maintaining an efficiency

similar to that for the C3MR cycle.

LNG

Propane
Nitrogen
Expander
MCHE
Feed Propane
Pre-cooling

Mixed Refrigerant

Figure 3: AP-XTM Process

Main Exchanger Enhancements

Several enhancements have been made to the Air Products’ wound coil main
cryogenic heat exchanger. These consist of the capabilities to design, manufacture, and
ship MCHEs which are larger, operate at higher tube-side pressure, and are more fully
optimized for the specific process requirements. These improvements lead to larger
throughput while improving efficiency.

Larger Main Exchangers. Air Products has continually increased MCHE sizes to
keep up with market demand. Previously, the maximum exchanger diameter was 4.6
meters and the maximum exchanger weight was approximately 310 metric tons. This was
the maximum exchanger size necessary in order to achieve the required LNG train
production with the power available from the compressor drivers. As the market demand
for larger train capacity has developed, improvements have been made to the Air
Products’ manufacturing facility and shipping equipment as well as the rail transportation
route from the manufacturing facility to the shipping port.

With these enhancements, the maximum exchanger diameter increases to 5.0 meters,
and the exchanger weight increases to 430 metric tons. These larger exchangers play a
key role in increasing capacity of the C3MR train beyond 5 MTA and the capacity of the
AP-XTM train beyond 8 MTA. In addition, further increases in MCHE size are possible if
demanded by market needs.

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Tube-Side Design Pressure. Tube-side design pressure requirements have increased

from 76 barg to 83 barg, and the MCHE can be designed for even higher pressures.
Higher tube-side design pressure allows for higher operating pressures which results in
increased production and lower specific power for the same size MCHE. Figure 4 shows
the percentage increase in production and reduction in specific power as the feed pressure
is increased from 65 bara using a feed compressor. It includes the feed compressor power
as well as the propane and mixed refrigerant compressor powers. An increase in design
pressure from 76 barg to 83 barg is analogous to an increase in feed pressure from about
68 bara to 75 bara. For this example, production increases by about 3% while at the same
time reducing specific power.

12%
10%
8%
6% Production
4%
2%
0%
Specific Power
-2%
-4%
60 70 80 90 100
Feed Pressure, bara

Figure 4: Effect of Feed Pressure on Production and Specific Power

Design Optimization. Design of the wound coil heat exchanger is a sophisticated,

highly technical process. The internal geometry of the main exchanger impacts
performance. Number of tubes, length of tubes, winding angle, number of tube layers,
spacing between tube layers, etc. affect the heat transfer and pressure drop in the
exchanger and ultimately production. Over the years, Air Products has developed
sophisticated modeling and simulation tools to optimize the internal geometry of the
MCHE in order to maximize performance.

The process conditions towards the top of a bundle in the main exchanger are very
different from those towards the bottom. Thus, the optimal internal geometry in the upper
section of the bundle is different from that in the lower section. The design tools have
been used to assess the performance benefit of splitting the refrigeration duty provided by
one bundle into two bundles. This allows for increased optimization of the internal
geometry for the local process conditions, leading to improved heat transfer and enhanced
performance.

Process and Machinery Integration Advancements

SplitMR® Technology. Optimizing the process/machinery configuration has played

a major role in increasing LNG train capacity. Before 2003, the propane compressor and
the mixed refrigerant compressors were driven by separate drivers (typically gas turbine
drivers) as shown in Figure 5a. The propane compressor requires about one third of the

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total refrigeration power, with the balance being used for the mixed refrigerant
compressors. Since operators have a desire to use similar gas turbine drivers for
maintainability, this power split is not conducive to fully utilizing the available gas
turbine power.

By using SplitMR® technology in which a portion of the mixed refrigerant

compression requirement is driven by the same driver as used for propane compression
(Figure 5b), the power balance becomes evenly split. This allows for full utilization of
gas turbine power and increases train capacity for the same number of drivers and
compressors. At the time of the writing of this paper, there are four trains in operation
with this technology, RasGas Trains 3, 4, & 5 and Segas. There are also several other
trains currently under construction that will use this technology. In addition, this concept
of using one driver for multiple refrigeration services can be extended to include other
cycles in addition to the C3MR and AP-XTM processes.

a Power Split
GAS TURBINE PROPANE STARTER/
GENERATOR 1/3

GAS TURBINE STARTER/

LP MR MP MR HP MR HELPER 2/3

b Power Split
GAS TURBINE STARTER/
PROPANE HP MR HELPER 1/2

GAS TURBINE STARTER/

LP MR MP MR HELPER 1/2

Figure 5: (a) Separate Driver Configuration for Propane and MR Compressors

(b) SplitMR® Machinery Configuration

Propane Casing Arrangement. A four stage single casing propane compressor can
be utilized for C3MR train capacities up to about 5 MTA and AP-XTM train capacities up
to about 8 MTA. For higher train capacities, two casings may be required due to
aerodynamic constraints. There are several options. One option is to use two 50% units
which permits running at a reduced capacity if one unit must be taken offline.

Another option is to use a 1,4-2,3 split propane compressor casing in a series

arrangement as shown in Figure 6. Stages 1 and 4 are in the first casing and stages 2 and

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3 in the second casing. The inlet pressures to the four stages may be different than the
single casing compressor design and are adjusted to maximize efficiency. Note that the
discharges from the third and fourth stages are at the same pressure since they are
connected to a common condenser. Each stage would typically have multiple impellers.
This series arrangement minimizes the complexity of the suction piping and avoids the
potential for imbalances in compressor duties that can occur with parallel compression.

1 2 3 4

1 1 4 4 2 2 3 3

Figure 6: (a) Single Casing Propane Compressor

(b) 1,4-2,3 Split Casing Propane Compressor

Compressor Drivers. There are many compressor driver options available for the
C3MR and AP-XTM processes. They include steam turbines, gas turbines (e.g. Frame 5, 6,
7, 9 and aero-derivatives), and electric motors. Most of the C3MR projects being
executed today use Frame 7 gas turbines. They have an ISO power of approximately 86
MW at 3600 rpm. The power and efficiency is significantly improved over the smaller
Frame 5 and 6.

Frame 9 gas turbines are being used for the AP-XTM trains in Qatar. Although widely
used in the power generation industry, this will be the first application for LNG
liquefaction. The Frame 9 full load string tests for driving the propane, mixed refrigerant,
and nitrogen compressors have been completed successfully. Mechanical drive Frame 9
gas turbines can produce about 50% more power than the Frame 7. They are about 4%
more efficient over their speed range. Because they operate at a slower speed (3000 rpm),
compressors can be designed for more flow capacity than those for a Frame 7 before

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aerodynamic limits are reached. This allows for larger capacities without adding
equipment.

Although aero-derivative gas turbines have been proposed for baseload LNG services
for quite some time, they are still not widely used. They have smaller footprints than the
Frame 7 and 9 gas turbines, are more efficient, but require higher fuel gas pressure. There
is currently one LNG plant in operation using aero-derivative turbines.

Electric motors are used extensively as starter and helper motors for gas turbines.
They have also been used as the primary compressor driver for other process industries.
Electric motors are very efficient, but the efficiency of the power source must also be
taken into consideration when determining the overall efficiency. They typically have
higher availability due to less frequent maintenance and shorter outage requirements.
Also, compressor speed can be varied with a variable speed drive in order to optimize
performance for the prevailing ambient temperature.

DESIGN FOR COLDER CLIMATES

All of the technology advancements discussed thus far apply to operation in all
climates. However, operation in arctic climates poses additional challenges. The main
challenges from a process design standpoint are, of course, the low ambient temperatures
and the wide range of temperature extremes throughout the year. Average ambient
temperature over the year could be about 0oC, and the temperature can vary from -40oC to
30oC.

The low ambient temperatures lead to an atypical power split between the propane
compressor used for pre-cooling and the mixed refrigerant compressors used for
liquefaction and sub-cooling. Typically the power split is one third for pre-cooling and
two thirds for liquefaction and sub-cooling. At 0oC, this shifts to about one fourth for pre-
cooling and three fourths for liquefaction and sub-cooling. Also, this power split can vary
significantly due to the wide temperature extremes.

There are several options for modifying the C3MR process in order to maximize the
utilization of power available from the compressor drivers while maintaining efficient
and effective refrigerant compressor operation over the wide temperature range.

Compressor/Driver Configuration

For train capacities up to about 5 MTA, a single Frame 9 gas turbine driving both the
propane and MR compressors can be utilized. Since all of the refrigerant compressors are
on the same driver shaft, the maximum driver power can be better utilized as the power
split changes due to changing ambient temperature.

Further increases in capacity to as much as 7-7.5 MTA are possible if two drivers are
used, one for the propane compressors and one for the mixed refrigerant compressors.
Excess power from the propane driver can be sent to the power grid and additional power
required by the liquefaction driver can be drawn from the grid. The amount of power
transferred can vary with changes in ambient temperature.

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Using variable speed electric motors to drive the propane compressors can also
improve flexibility to accommodate temperature variations. For example, as ambient
temperature increases, compressor speed can be increased to shift the compressor curve
as shown in Figure 7. In this way, the compressor head vs. flow curve can be shifted to
best match the temperature changes.

Warmer Ambient Increasing

Compressor
Speed
Colder
Ambient
Compressor Head

Compressor Volumetric Flow

Figure 7: Effect of Compressor Speed on Head vs. Flow Curve

Alternative Pre-Cooling Fluids

Alternative pre-cooling fluids can be used to better balance the power split and
increase train capacity in colder climates. One option is to use the same cycle and
equipment configuration as for the C3MR process with propane replaced by propylene or
ethane. Two important properties to be considered when choosing a pre-cooling fluid are
boiling point and critical temperature. Boiling point indicates how cold the pre-cooling
fluid can get. The critical temperature indicates the temperature at which the liquid and
vapor phases can no longer be distinguished. At this point the pre-cooling fluid can no
longer provide refrigeration by boiling.

The boiling points and critical temperature for propane, propylene, and ethane are
shown in Table 1. Since propylene has a lower boiling point than propane it can pre-cool
to a lower temperature at the same pressure. This makes the power split between the pre-
cooling and MR more balanced. Since the critical temperature is substantially above
ambient, propylene is far from its critical point. By using propylene, capacity can be
increased 5-10% using the same MR compressors and MCHE. Ethane has a much lower
boiling point than both propane and propylene and can therefore pre-cool to an even
lower temperature. However, its critical temperature is closer to ambient, and ethane is

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better suited for water-cooled plants where daily and seasonal changes in ambient
temperature are less.

Table 1. Key Properties for Pre-Cooling Fluids

Propane Propylene Ethane

o o o
Critical Temperature 97 C 92 C 32 C
o o o
Normal Boiling Point -42 C -48 C -89 C

In dual mixed refrigerant (DMR) processes, a mixed refrigerant is used for pre-
cooling. The pre-cooling MR is heavier than the MR used for liquefaction and sub-
cooling. There are many variations of DMR processes [4,5,6,7,8,9]. The main advantage
of these cycles is that the pre-cooling mixed refrigerant composition can be adjusted on a
seasonal basis as the temperature changes.

DESIGN FOR LOWER HEATING VALUE AND WOBBE INDEX

The increased demand for LNG imports into the U.S. and U.K. requires liquefaction
that can efficiently produce LNG with lower heating value (HHV) and Wobbe Index.
Currently, the largest LNG market is in Asia where the HHV requirement is typically
greater than 1090 Btu/scf and the Wobbe Index greater than 1400 Btu/scf. In the U.S. and
U.K., HHV is typically less than 1075 Btu/scf and Wobbe Index less than 1390 Btu/scf.
In order to meet these specifications, more of the heavier hydrocarbons may need to be
extracted from the natural gas feed.

Hydrocarbon extraction schemes can be divided into two main categories: NGL/LPG
extraction before the liquefaction unit and extraction integrated with the liquefaction unit.
There are many process configurations for each. Figure 8 shows an example of NGL/LPG
extraction before liquefaction. The upstream expander plant section separates out the
heavier hydrocarbons, which are sent to the fractionation unit for further processing into
LPG products. Recompression of the natural gas after the expander plant and before the
liquefaction unit can lead to lower specific power and higher overall efficiency as
described previously (Tube-Side Design Pressure section).

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LNG

MR Vapor

Expander Propane
Plant Pre-cooling
MR Liquid
Fractionation

NGL / LPG
Products

Figure 8: Example of NGL/LPG Extraction before the Liquefaction Cycle

An example of NGL/LPG extraction integrated with the liquefaction section is shown

in Figure 9. A scrub column is used for the LPG extraction, and the scrub column
condenser duty is provided by condensing against mixed refrigerant in the warm bundle
of the main cryogenic heat exchanger. By using a mixed refrigerant, a lower scrub
column overhead temperature can be achieved (i.e. -70oC versus -35oC if propane is used).
This allows LNG to be produced with lower HHV and Wobbe Index. However, the
pressure in the scrub column must remain below the critical pressure in order to allow for
adequate liquid/vapor separation.

Extraction before liquefaction can result in higher LPG extraction but requires more
equipment. Also, high ethane extraction is possible. Integration of the NGL/LPG
extraction with liquefaction is simpler, requires less equipment, but typically results in
less LPG extraction and ethane extraction of less than 20%.

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LNG

MR Vapor

Feed Propane
Pre-cooling
MR Liquid

Mixed
Refrigerant Fractionation NGL / LPG Products

Figure 9: Example of NGL/LPG Extraction Integrated with the Liquefaction Cycle

SUMMARY

The C3MR liquefaction process has proven to be a reliable, economic, and efficient
method for liquefying natural gas. Today, new LNG plants face a broader range of
process requirements than ever before. Numerous technology advancements have been
made, allowing it to meet demands for larger train capacity, operation in colder climates,
and lower HHV LNG.

The demand for increased train capacity is being met through development of the
AP-XTM process as well as enhancements to the Air Products’ main cryogenic heat
exchanger and clever integration of the process with the compressors and drivers.

The demand to monetize natural gas in colder climates can be met by using
alternative pre-cooling fluids in the C3MR cycle to better utilize driver power. Optimal
driver/compressor configurations have been developed to accommodate wide temperature
swings in arctic climates.

The increasing demand for lower heating value LNG in the U.S. and U.K. is being
met through process optimization to extract hydrocarbons either upstream of the
liquefaction process or integrated with the liquefaction process.

Thus, as well as being the workhorse for LNG liquefaction over the past forty years,
the C3MR process has the versatility to meet current and future market demands for
capacity and product specifications amid a wide range of process conditions.

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REFERENCES CITED

1. “A Global Market”, LNG Industry, Autumn, 2006.

2. Roberts, M.R., Liu, Y., Bronfenbrenner, J.C., Petrowski, J.M., “Reducing LNG
Capital Cost in Today’s Competitive Environment”, PS2-6, The 14th International
Conference and Exhibition on Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG14), Doha, Qatar, 21-24
March, 2004.

3. Roberts, et. al., “Hybrid Cycle for the Production of Liquefied Natural Gas”,
US Patent 6,308,521.

4. Roberts, M.R., Agrawal, R., “Dual Mixed Refrigerant Cycle for Gas Liquefaction”,
US Patent 6,119,479.

5. Liu, Y., Pervier, J.W., “Dual Mixed Refrigerant Natural Gas Liquefaction”,
US Patent 4,545,795.

6. Newton, C.L., “Dual Mixed Refrigerant Natural Gas Liquefaction with Staged
Compression”, US Patent 4,525,185.

7. Garier, C., Paradowski, H., “Method and Plant for Liquefying a Gas with Low
Boiling Temperature”, US Patent 4,274,849.

8. Caetani, E., Paradowski, H., “Method of and System for Liquefying a Gas with Low
Boiling Temperature”, US Patent 4,339,253.

9. Gauberthier, J., Paradowski, H., “New Trends for Future LNG Units”, Session II,
Paper 6, The 9th International Conference and Exhibition on Liquefied Natural Gas
(LNG9), Nice, France, 17-20 October, 1989.

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