A Level Biology Essay Questions

Auxins in Apical Dominance (6)

auxin produced in apical bud | diffuses down stem | active transport thru cell plasmodesmata and phloem | auxins
inhibit growth of lateral buds | plants grow up not branching out | removal of apical bud allows lateral buds to grow

Gibberellins in Germination (9)

seed absorbs water by osmosis | water passed to aleurone layer | activates transcription enzyme genes | storage
proteins broken down to amino acids | stimulates synthesis of amylase | amylase diffuses into endosperm |
hydrolyses starch → maltose → glucose | glucose diffuses into embryo plant | provides energy for growth of embryo

Variation Importance in Natural Selection (6)

continuous, genetic, phenotypical variation due to interaction of genotype with environment | struggle for existence
those with favourable characteristics survive | pass on favourable characteristics to offspring | disadvantaged die

Isolating Mechanisms in Evolution (9)

species are groups of organisms with similar morphological, physiological, biochemical & behavioural features that
can interbreed to produce fertile offspring & are reproductively isolated from other species |allopatric geographical
isolation ie rivers (fishes) prevents interbreeding | isolated populations subject to different selection pressures |
over time, sufficient differences to prevent interbreeding | sympatric reproductive isolation | behavioural barriers |
ie nocturnal | lack of gene pool, should zygote not develop | change in allele frequencies

Synapses in Nerve Impulse (9)

depolarization due to action potential in presynaptic membrane | opening Ca 2+ ion channels, flow in | vesicles
containing acetylcholine move toward & fuse with membrane | contents emptied into synaptic cleft | acetylcholine
diffuses across synaptic cleft, binding to the receptor on post synaptic membrane | Na + ion channels open, flow in |
depolarises post synaptic membrane | action potential set up | break down of acetylcholine by enzyme

Synapse Function (6)

ensures one-way transmission | receptors only on post-synaptic | vesicles only on presynaptic membrane |
increased range of actions | due to interconnection of many nerve pathways | involved in memory, new synapses |

Glucagon in Glucose Regulation (6)

glucose level low, glucagon secreted from alpha cells | liver cells breakdown glycogen to glucose | fatty acids used in
respiration | production of glucose from fats | liver releases glucose into blood | level rise, stop secretion glucagon

Calvin Cycle (9)

RuBP 5C + CO2 with rubisco to form unstable 6C compound | 6C forms 2GP | ATP energy source & NADPH reduced
to form TP | TP used to form glucose and regenerates RuBP (need ATP as source of phosphate) | light independent

NADP in Photosynthesis (6)

reduced coenzyme | carries protons & electron | from photosystem light stage on thylakoid to stoma | regen. NADP
| uses ATP | reduced during GP → TP

Endosperm Function (4)

food / starch store | used in germination | provides glucose for respiration | to produce cellulose cell wall | proteins
 Kreb's Cycle (9)

in matrix of mitochondria | acetyl coenzyme A + oxaloacetate = citrate (4C to 6C) | decarboxylates & dehydrogenate
to form 2CO2 + H2 | reduced NAD & FAD made | ATP produced | series of steps of enzyme reactions | oxalo regen.

Synthesis of Human Insulin (9)

mRNA coding for human insulin gene is taken from beta cells of islets of Langerhans | reverse transcriptase used to
convert mRNA into cDNA | DNA polymerase makes cDNA into DNA double strand | sticky ends of bases attached to
end of DNA | plasmid used as a vector | restriction enzymes cut open plasmid | DNA ligase joins DNA to plasmid |
plasmid inserted into bacteria | genetically modified bacteria cultured in fermenters

Advantages of Synthetic Insulin (6)

constant supply | less risk of contamination | identical to insulin produced in body | no risk of allergies | does not
stimulate immune system | passes ethical issues of animals | fewer side effects | large amount available | cheaper

Structure of Photosystems & Functions in Photophosphorylation (9)

arranged in light harvesting clusters | primary pigment chlorophyll a @ reaction centre | P1 absorbs at 700nm PII
absorbs at 680nm | accessory pigments surround primary pigment | absorbs light and pass energy to primary
pigment | P1 involved in cyclic phosphorylation | light absorbed gives energy to electrons | emitted from chlorophyll
| flows down chain of ETC for ATP Synthesis | electron returns to P1

Reduced NADP Formation and Use in Calvin Cycle

photolysis of water releases H+ (PII) and e- (PI) | both combine with NADP | reduced NADP reduces GP to TP | where
ATP is used as well as reduced NADP | NADP regenerated & oxidised at end

Meiosis & Fertilisation in Genetic Variation

chiasmata between non-sister chromatids | of homologous chromosomes / bivalent | in prophase 1 | exchange of

genetic material | linkage groups broken, new combination of alleles | independent assortment at met. 1 (random
alignment along equator of homologous) can face either way up and thus any combination of maternal/paternal
chromosomes can be in daughter cells | possible mutation (random mating & fusion of gametes)

Environment & Phenotypes

State Selection Pressure | phenotype variation results from interaction of genotype & environment | environment
limits expression of genes| because of food/nutrients | ie. weak bones of no Ca | environment triggers genes | moth
adaptation | UV light & melanin production | wavelength of light and flower colour | environment induce mutation

Effectiveness of Penicillin

antibiotics are competitive inhibitors, binds to enzyme blocking active site cross link in wall can't form weak ; bursts
| more effective on some bacteria than others| different active sites | more penicillinase produced by bacteria |
thus more resistant | penicillin can't bind to some if mutated | penicillin inactivated | evolve more resistant

Artificial Selection

human selection pressures human benefit | breeding ie. cow traits | repeat generations | increase allele frequency
but due to genetic variation, polyploidy, environmental variation the trend may not always increase | possible error
 Chloroplast Structure (9)

3-10um diameter | double membrane | internal membrane system | thylakoids arranged in grana | holds pigment
clusters ie accessories | stroma contain lipids & enzymes of Calvin Cycle | contains ribosomes |

Mesophyll Palisade Cells (6)

closely packed to absorb more light near upper surface of leaf | at right-angles to the leaf surface to reduce number
of light absorbing walls | cylindrical cells produce air spaces between cells | air spaces are CO 2 reservoir | large SA
for gas exchange | thin cell walls, short diffusion pathway | large vacuole pushes chloroplasts outwards to edge |
lots of chloroplasts to maximise light absorption | chloroplasts can move away from damaging high light intensity

Guard Cells & Stomata Opening (6)

lack of ABA leads to H+ actively transported out of cell | low H+ conc inside | K+ diffuses into cell | water potential of
cell falls | water moves in by osmosis | cell becomes turgid | thus curving apart to open the stomata

Nucleotides Affecting Amino Acid Sequence (7)

triplet code of bases is mutated | base addition/deletion/substitution | addition and deletion has larger effect by
frame shift | changes every triplet code following mutation | substitution usually silent mutation ie. different triplet
but same amino acid | could produce stop codon | link to translation, a different protein altogether non-functional

Natural Selection & Evolution (8)

individuals have vast reproductive potential | numbers in population roughly constant | variations in population |
environmental factor named | causes many to die before reproducing | survival of the fittest | passes on favourable
alleles | genetic variation leads to change in phenotype | change in allele frequency | over time produces
evolutionary change | speciation | stabilising selection pressure causes the population to remain constant

Proximal Convoluted Tubules in Kidneys (8)

selective reabsorption | PCT has large SA and many mitochondria | Na + leave PCT by active transport | sets Na + conc
gradient | Na+ diffuses from lumen to PCT thru carrier proteins | cotransporting glucose, amino acids | diffuses into
intercellular fluid | into blood | all glucose reabsorbed | some water & urea reabsorbed | creatinine secreted lumen

Collecting Ducts in Kidneys (7)

ADH affects collecting duct | by binding to receptor on membranes | increasing membrane permeability, enzyme
controlled | vesicles of water channels fuse with plasma membrane | more water moves out of collecting duct |
down water potential gradient | then into blood | urine more conc | negative feedback controls production of ADH
loop of Henle actively transports Na+ out into the intermembrane space thus lowering water potential

Combines Oral Contraceptives (4)

oestrogen & progesterone affect anterior pituitary/hypothalamus | inhibits secretion of LSH & FSH | follicles don't
develop | no ovulation | prevents implantation | negative feedback starts LSH secretion after pill effect is gone

Penicillin in Batch Culture (3)

penicillin is 2nd metabolite | more penicillin produced in later stages of growth | produced in shortage nutrient

Antibiotics as Markers (3)

risk of spread of resistance to other bacteria | making antibiotics less effective | via conjugation of plasmids |
plasmids will have multiple resistance / extreme resistance
 Reduced NAD Re-Oxidation Site (5)

dehydrogenase enzymes in cristae | release H2 | which splits into e- & H+ | where e- flows down ETC | energy release
| proton pumps into intermembrane space | gradient, H + pass thru ATP Synthase | ATP made | O 2 final acceptor

Reduced NAD in Anaerobic Respiration (5)

no O2, no Kreb's | pyruvate is decarboxylated into ethanal | ethanal reduced | by reduced NAD | allows glycolysis to
continue | ethanal dehydrogenase | ethanol formed | prevents protons H + from lowering the pH | irreversible

NAD in Aerobic Respiration (6)

reduced coenzyme for dehydrogenase | carries H + & e- from Kreb's Cycle & glycolysis to ETC | reoxidised, ATP made
NAD is used in oxidation of TP to pyruvate in glycolysis |

Structure of Myelinated Sensory Neurone (7)

nucleus in cell body | dendron | axon | many mitochondria | synaptic knobs at end of axons, in shape of cleft |
terminal dendrites | Schwann Cells cover the axon, myelinated | spaces in between Schwann are nodes of Ranvier

Mechanism of Nerve Impulses Travelling Along Neurons (8)

Na+ channels open, Na+ ions enter the cell | membrane is depolarised | Na + channels close | K+ channels open, K+
ions enter the cell | cell is repolarised back to resting potential | Schwann Cells don't allow movement of ions,
insulating the membrane | action potentials only happen at nodes of Ranvier | one way transmission of impulse

Glycolysis (7)

glucose phosphorylated by ATP | raising its energy level | hexose biphosphate formed by lysis of glucose | breaking
into 2 TPs | 6C → 2(3C) | dehydrogenation | 2 red. NAD, 4ATP, pyruvate produced | red. NAD → oxidative phosphor

glucose (6C) → hexose biphosphate (6C) → 2 x Triose Phosphate (TP 3C) → pyruvate + 4ATP + 4NADH

ATP Structure & Function (8)

nucleotide + adenine base + ribulose + 3 phosphates | loss of phosphate leads to energy release | ADP + P → ATP |
synthesised during Oxidative Phosphorylation | using energy of ETC & chemiosmosis of H + gradient | in mitochondria
using ATP Synthase (also H+ pump) | immediate energy donor | in active transport, muscle contraction, synthesis