Lab No.

MESB 333 LAB NO.1 : STRAIN MEASUREMENT PRELAB QUESTIONS

Name: ________________________SID: ______________Group:______ Date:_______________ 1. What is stress? Strain? What is the relationship between stress and strain?

2.

What is the mechanical equipment used to measure small changes in length? What is the principle used in strain gauge, theoretical formula to calculate strain and explain the terms in the formula?

3. Why is zeroing required before measurement is done?

4. How to eliminate error due to temperature changes?

5. In measuring the torsion strain, how can the axial or bending strain be eliminated? Sketch to explain.

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Lab No. 1

MESB 333 Lab No.1 Strain Measurement

____________________________________________________________________________ 1. Experiment I Measurement of Axial Strain Objective This experiment student will learn to measure strain of a cantilever beam. In addition, student will be able to understand the relationship between stress, strain, and Youngs Modulus of Elasticity. 1.2 Theory A material will be deformed to certain extend when external forces act on it. This deformation will cause changes in length and diameter of the material. The strain produced is directly proportional to the stress at a limited region, which is called the limit of proportionality (i.e. there is linear relation between the two). The stress-strain graph is a straight line in this region. In this experiment, we are going to study the performance of an electrical resistance strain gauge as well as to verify its accuracy on measuring the strain of a bending material. Hooke's Law, which relates stress and strain, can be applied in the limit of proportionality region. Young's Modulus of Elasticity is the gradient of straight line in the stress-strain graph. The mathematical relationship is:

dL P == = (1) L EA E
where, dL : change in length L : strain P : force on cross section area A E : Youngs Modulus of Elasticity : axial stress Equipment used to measure dL is called extensometer. It is a mechanical method to measure dL where change in length can be magnified. However, a better way to measure dL is by using the electronic measurement. Longitudinal strain is associated to the changes in length of a material. While diametral strain is associated to the changes in the diameter of a material. Poisson's ratio is the ratio of longitudinal strain to diametral strain or can be given as Poissons ratio( ) = lateral contraction per unit breadth Longitudinal extension per unit length

When the length and the diameter of a material change, the electrical resistance of the material will change too. The relationship between the change in the dimension to the electrical resistance of the material can be related mathematically as equation shown:

R=
where, R : L : A :

L A ..(2)

electrical resistance : specific resistance of material length cross sectional area

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Lab No. 1

From the relationship, it is clear that the resistance will increase when the material is stretched. Conversely, compression will cause the resistance to decrease. Strain gauge uses this principle to measure the strain. 1.3 Calculation of axial strain Theoretically, the strain value can be calculated using the theory of bending at the point of attachment of the strain gauge. For a rectangular cross-sectional area cantilever beam,
My M E = = = I y R I

..(3) Where, M : I y E R : : : : : bending moment = (Applied load X moment arm) second moment of area of cantilever =

bd 3 (Width b and thickness d) 12

axial stress half the thickness of the cantilever =d modulus of elasticity radius of curvature of cantilever due to M

Strain is defined as change in length per unit length, that is

dL y = L R .(4) From the theory of bending =

1 M = R EI
.(5) Hence, the theoretical strain value is

y My = R EI

(6) From the dimension of cantilever beam, M = 150* Load (N.mm) *150 mm is the distance from the load point to strain gauge. Measurement of the resistance is usually done using the Wheatstone Bridge. The gauge is attached to the material using a high-grade adhesive. Since temperature will affect the resistance, this factor must be taken into consideration too.

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Lab No. 1

1.4 Wheatstone Bridge B R1 A + R3 D Figure 1 Wheatstone bridge R1 will be the strain gauge attached to the material. It is also called an active gauge. R2 is a similar strain gauge to R1. But, it is attached to an unstressed part of the material. The effect of temperature on R1 and R2 will be similar. R3 and R4 are high stability resistors of equal value. M is a digital voltmeter or a purpose designed high stability high gain amplifier with a digital meter and a zeroing circuit. Voltage applied to A and C is a constant DC voltage. Normally it is 12 volts. External zeroing is applied in Wheatstone Bridge. External zeroing means the meter M will show zero reading. This is done by having a variable resistor at D. Zeroing can be done by varying the variable resistor. Zeroing is required because factor like weight of the material can affect the results. 1.5 Apparatus M R4 R2 C _

Figure 2. Experiment apparatus The apparatus above is a direct read-out strain meter in a base box to which a pillar carrying an aluminum alloy cantilever has been fixed. An electrical resistance strain gauge has been fixed to the top surface of the cantilever 150 mm from the loading point. The cross section of the cantilever is 25.4 x 3.2 mm. The modulus of elasticity of the cantilever is 69 000 N/mm2. A temperature compensation (dummy) gauge is supplied fixed to a small piece of aluminum alloy. The basic circuit of the Wheatstone bridge is laid out on top of the base, showing the use of a zeroing control. An analogue meter with a center zero scale has been designed to read true strain in units of micro-strain.

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Lab No. 1

1.6 Procedure 1. Connect the strain gauge leads from the cantilever strip and dummy gauge leads to the terminals, switch on the apparatus. 2. Adjust the zero offset knob (variable resistor) on the apparatus to zero the meter. 3. Note whether any drift of the zeroed reading occurs as the strain gauges warm up 4. To show the effect of temperature, warm the temperature compensation gauge by placing one's finger on it. 5. Suspend the C hook and load hanger in the groove at the end of the cantilever. 6. You may need to re-zero the meter. Record the meter reading. 7. Press downward on the end of the cantilever and observe the direction in which the meter reads in the reverse direction. You should notice that the polarity of the reading indicates whether the gauge is in tension or compression. 8. Load the cantilever to 30 N by 5 N increments. Read and record the meter reading at each increment 9. Unload the cantilever from 30 N to 0N and record the readings at each decrements. 10. Repeat step 8 and 9 and record the second set of reading in order to obtain the average of the readings. Results Theoretical Load (N) 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 Calculate the theoretical strain and stress for each load and then compare the theoretical result with experimental result for both increasing-load and decreasing-load result. Compare your Strain ( ) Table 1 Cantilever experiment result Average Meter Reading Strain ( ) Increasing Stress Decreasing %Error Load (N/mm2) Load Actual Stress (N/mm2) (Increasing Load )

%Error

theory exp eriment 100 % theory results by calculating the % error between the theoretical and the experimental values. Plot the strain( ) against axial stress( ) for the theoretical and experimental values on the same graph. Draw the best fit linear line and find its slope. What can you relate the gradient of the line and Youngs Modulus of Elasticity? Discuss the results. Are the readings for increasing and decreasing load the same? Why? Why the system was connected to the dummy gauge ? Include error analysis. %error =

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Lab No. 1

Experiment II Measurement of Torsion Strain

2.1 Objective In this experiment, student will learn to measure torsion strain and understand the relationship between torque and strain. 2.2 Theory Having studied the use of a strain gauge for measuring tensile(axial) strain and stress, a more complicated application can now be considered. Reverting to the diagram of the standard bridge there are further ways of exploiting the measuring technique. In this experiment, we are going to study the measurement of torsion strain. Suppose the temperature compensation gauge used as R, can be attached to the structural element being tested in such a way it is subjected to an equal but opposite strain to the R, gauge. This will double the meter reading while providing the temperature compensation and is known as reversed active strain gauging. This could have been done in the case of bending by attaching a strain gauge on the underside of the cantilever where the compression due to bending equals the tension where the top surface gauge is fixed. The leads from the underside gauge would then replace the leads from the dummy gauge. Now consider a hollow round tube used as a cantilever.

450 A B

450 N A

Figure 3. Cantilever round bar exert with torsion. In bending there is a neutral axis at the horizontal axis, so any gauge fixed symmetrically about this neutral axis will not record a strain, By applying torque at the free end of the cantilever, a uniform shear is induced along the whole length. This in turn produces diagonal tension and compression stresses of equal value along the corresponding 45 0 helical directions. Hence by fixing two strain gauges at A and B as shown the following conditions are satisfied: (1) (2) (3) Temperature compensation Net axial strain effect is zero for either A or B Gauge A is subjected to diagonal tension while gauge B is in diagonal compression, or vice versa.

The meter will therefore indicate twice the diagonal strain from which the stress can be derived using the modulus of elasticity.

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Lab No. 1

2.3 Calculation of torsion strain Hookes Law

E
..(7)

For the torsion specimen the comparable theoretical equation is

T G Tr = = = J r L J
..(8) where T J Do Di r G : : : : : : : : torsion = (Applied Load X eccentricity) polar moment of inertia of tube = outside diameter inside diameter surface shear stress outside radius of tube modulus of rigidity angular twist over length L

(D 32

4 o

D1

The shear stress acts circumferentially and has to be accompanied by a system of complementary stresses including diagonal tensile and compressive stresses, which are perpendicular to each other. Hence there are equal direct strains along opposing 45 0 helices on the surface of the tube given by

=
and the meter will indicate 2* . 2.4 Apparatus

q Tr = E EJ
(9)

The torsion accessory consists of an aluminum alloy tube 9.5 mm O/D and 6.3 mm I/D with a loading arm welded across one end. A clamp is provided to enable the tube to replace the clever strip used above, the loading arm being set horizontally. A load hanger can be suspended on the vertical axis of the tube, or at horizontal eccentricities of 50 or 100 mm. The strain gauge leads from the strip cantilever and the dummy gauge are removed from the terminals so that the pairs of leads from the torsion specimen can be connected instead.

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Lab No. 1

2.5

Procedure 1. Connect the two pairs of leads from the torsion tube to the pairs of terminals. 2. Switch on the apparatus and adjust the offset knob to zero the meter. Re-zero if drift occurs as the gauges warm up. 3. Place the load hanger at zero eccentricity and add two 10 N weights. Note any meter reading, and check that the meter returns to zero when the loads are removed. 4. Move the load hanger to 50 mm offset. Zero the meter. Record the strain readings as the 30 N load is added by 5 N increments to the hanger. Repeat the readings as the weights are removed. Use a table of results as shown. 5. Repeat the above for 100 mm offset. It will be necessary to hold the base box to prevent it being toppled over by the eccentric load. 6. Repeat step 4 and 5 and record the second set of reading to get the average.

2.6

Results Table 2.1 Diagonal Strains on a Torsion Specimen Theoretical Diagonal Strain( ) Load ( ) (N) Strain Shear Average Meter stress Reading Increase Decrease 10 20 30 5 10 15 20 25 30 5 10 15 20 25 30 Actual Shear Stress Increase

Eccentricity (mm)

0 50

100

Calculate the theoretical value for the diagonal/torsion strain and compare with the meter readings by stating the percent error. (Remember, the meter reading is twice the actual value.) Plot a graph of strain vs. shear stress (increase load only) for theoretical and actual on the same graph and use the best fit straight lines to determine the relationship between shear stress and torsion strain. Why the diagonal strain at eccentricity 0 mm are zero? How successful is the technique (two strain gauges) for eliminating bending stress from the readings? What the system is not connected to dummy gauge? Include error analysis.

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