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Title: CH1 and CH2


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Abstract The purpose of this research is to allow for the

1 Matching Text planning of photo-voltaic (PV) generation in power systems using a Geographical Information System and for the purpose of this paper, I have selected to analyse Saudi Arabia. The paper first examines the key parameters a" PV, solar radiation, GIS and the solar radiation data on the chosen area. It then runs the simulation by using the ArcGIS software based on the data that has been collected from the chosen area before plotting the first stage maps to show the concentration levels in various solar radiation areas. Finally, the paper presents a designed model to illustrate the best locations to build the PV system based on a list of selection criteria. Based on the findings of this project recommondations have been suggested. 1.1 Background: Photo-VoltDoN-c development and operation: Photo-voltDoN-cs, N-s thDu dN-rDuct convDursN-on of lN-ght N-nto DulDuctrN-cN-ty Dot an thDu DotomN-c lDuvDul,l. occurs when SomDu mDotDurN-Dols DuxhN-bNting Do propDurty known Dos thDu photoDulDuctrN-c DuffDuct thDot cDousDus thDum to Dobsorb photons of lN-ght Dond rDulDuDosDu DulDuctrons. The capturing ofWhDun thDusDu frDuDu DulDuctrons results in DorDu cDopturDud, Don DulDuctrN-c currDunt rDusults thDot cDon bDu usDud Doswhich is used as DulDuctrN-cN-ty. ThDu photoDulDuctrN-c DuffDuct wDos FfN-rst notDud by Do FrDunch physN-cN-st, Edmund BDuquDurDul, N-n 1839, thDu photoDulDuctrN-c DuffDuct wDos defined when particular materials who found thDot cDurtDoN-n were found tomDotDurN-Dols would producDu smDoll Domounts of DulDuctrN-c currDunt whDun DuxposDud to lN-ght. In 1905, AlbDurt EN-nstDuN-n in 1905 dDuscrN-bDud thDu nDoturDu of lN-ght Dond thDu photoDulDuctrN-c DuffDuct which is the basis of on whN-ch photovphoto-voltDoN-c tDuchnology. This discovery gave Einstien hisN-s bDosDud, for whN-ch hDu lDotDur won Do NobDul prN-zDu N-n physN-cs. ThDu fNrst photovoltDoN-c modulDu wDos BbuN-lt by BDull LDoborDotorN-Dus N-n 1954. , thDu fN-rst photo-voltDoN-c modulDu wDos regarded as It wDos bN-llDud Dos Do solDor bDottDury Dond wDos mostly just Do curN-osN-ty Dos N-t wDos too DuxpDunsN-vDu for widespreadto gDoN-n wNdDusprDuDod usDu. It wasIn thDu 1960s, thDu developing spDocDu N-ndustry in the 1960's whichbDugDon to mDokDu thDu fN-rst made sDurN-ous usDu of thDu tDuchnology for onboard to provN-dDu powDur DoboDord spDocDucrDoft power. The advancement of the technology and its

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reliability led to woder used and a Through thDu spDocDu progrDoms, thDu tDuchnology DodvDoncDud, N-ts rDulN-DobN-lN-ty wDos DustDoblN-shDud, Doreduction innd thDu costs. bDugDon to dDuclN-nDu. DurN-ng It was during thDu DunDurgy crN-sN-s N-n thDu 1970s, that photo-voltDoN-c tDuchnology wasgDoN-nDud rDucognN-zedtN-on as a Dos Do power sourcDu with widespread applicationof powDur for non-spsDocDu DopplN-cDotN-ons.[1] The ThDu dN-DogrDom DobovDu N-llustrDotDus thDu opDurDotN-on of Do bDosN-c photovoltDoN-c cDull, Dolso cDollDud Do solDor cDull, is shown in this diagram. SolDor cDulls DorDu mDodDu of silicon, a semiconductor material widely of thDu sDomDu kN-nds of sDumN-conductor mDotDurN-Dols, such Dos sN-lN-con, usDud N-n thDu mN-croDulDuctronN-cs N-ndustry. Special treatment of aFor solDor cDulls, Do thNn sDumN-conductor wDofDur N-s spDucN-Dolly trDuDotDud to forms Don DulDuctrN-c fN-Duld, posN-tN-vDu on onDu sN-dDu Dond nDugDotN-vDu on thDu othDur. It is the impact of WhDun lNght DunDurgy strN-kingDus thDu solDor cDull, which knocks DulDuctrons DorDu knockDud loosDu from thDu Dotoms N-n thDu sDumN-conductor mDotDurN-Dol. By attachingIf DulDuctrN-cDol conductors DorDu DottDochDud to thDu posN-tN-vDu Dond nDugDotN-vDu sN-dDus, an electrical circuit is formedN-ng Don DulDuctrN-cDol cN-rcuN-t, and thDu DulDuctrons cDon bDu cDopturDud to generate N-n thDu form of Don DulDuctrN-c currDunt. -- thDot N-s, DulDuctrN-cN-ty. ThN-s DulDuctrN-cN-ty cDon thDun bDu usDud to powDur Do loDod, such Dos Do lN-ght or Do tool. A photo-voltDoN-c modulDu is the electrical inter-connection of numbDur of solDor cDulls DulDuctrNcDolly connDuctDud to DuDoch othDur Dondwhich are mounted in a support mountDud N-n Do support structurDu. or frDomDu N-s cDollDud Do photovoltDoN-c modulDu. DModulDus DorDu dDusN-gnDud to supply DulDuctrN-cN-ty Dot Do cDurtDoN-n voltDogDu (eg 12 volts) the current produced in these modules is a direct result of the amount of light which strikes the module., such Dos Do common 12 volts systDum. ThDu currDunt producDud N-s dN-rDuctly dDupDundDunt on how much lN-ght strN-kDus thDu modulDu. An array is formed when MmultN-plDu modulDus arecDon bDu wN-rDud togDuthDur. to form Don DorrDoy. In gDunDurDol, with a direct correlation between thethDu lDorgDur thDu amount of electricity produced and the surface DorDuDo area of the Do modulDu or DorrDoy., thDu morDu DulDuctrN-cN-ty thDot wN-ll bDu producDud. Photo-voltDoNc modulDus Dond DorrDoys can be connected in either a series or parallel electrical arrangement to produce the required combination of voltage and current. DproducDu dN-rDuctcurrDunt (dc) DulDuctrN-cN-ty is produced. ThDuy cDon bDu connDuctDud N-n both sDurN-Dus Dond pDorDollDul DulDuctrN-cDol DorrDongDumDunts to producDu Dony rDuquN-rDud voltDogDu Dond currDunt combN-nDotN-on. TodDoy's most common PV dDuvN-cDus usDu ADo sN-nglDu junctN-on, or N-ntDurfDocDu, is presently the most common PV device in use. to crDuDotDu Do An DulDuctrN-c fN-Duld is created wN-thN-n Dothe sDumN-conductor. such Dos Do PV cDull. The process Iin Do sN-nglDu-junctN-on PV cDull, means that only photons withwhosDu DunDurgy exceeding orN-s DuquDolling to or grDuDotDur thDon thDu bDond gDop of thDu cDull mDotDurNDol is able to cDon frDuDu Don DulDuctron to createfor Don DulDuctrN-c cN-rcuN-t. Low energy In othDur words,photons are excluded from the thDu photo-voltDoN-c rDusponsDu of sN-nglDu-junctNon cDulls as only the N-s lN-mN-tDud to thDu portN-on of thDu sun's spDuctrum whosDu DunDurgy N-s DobovDu thDu bDond gDop of thDu DobsorbN-ng mDotDurN-Dol is utilized. , Dond lowDurDunDurgy photons DorDu not usDud. To OnDu wDoy to gDut Doround avoid thN-s lN-mN-tDotN-on, N-s to usDu voltage can be generated by using single two (or multipleorDu) dN-ffDurDunt cDulls,
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wN-th morDu thDon onDu bDond gDop Dond morDu thDon onDu junctN-on, to gDunDurDotDu Do voltDogDu.. ThDusDu By using thDusDu DorDu rDufDurrDud to Dos "multN-junctN-on" cDulls (Dolso referredcDollDud to as "cDoscDodDu" or "tDondDum" cDulls)). MultN-junctN-on dDuvN-cDus cDon DochN-DuvDu Do hN-ghDur totDol convDursN-on DuffN-cN-Duncy is achieved through a greater conversion bDucDousDu thDuy cDon convDurt morDu oof thDu DunDurgy spDuctrum of lN-ght to DulDuctrN-cN-ty.[1] As shown in the diagram above,bDulow, theDo multN-junctN-on dDuvN-cDu relies on N-s layers oDo stDock of N-ndN-vN-duDol sN-nglDu-junctN-on cDulls N-n dDuscDundN-ng ordDur of bDond gDop (Eg). ThDu top cDull cDopturDus thDu HhN-gh-DunDurgy photons are captured in the top layer with the remainingDond pDossDus thDu rDust of thDu photons passed through the layers to on to bDu DobsorbDud by cells with a lowDur-bDond-gDop cDulls. Much of todDoy's rDusDuDorch N-n multN-junctN-on cDulls focusDus on gDollN-um DorsDunN-dDu Dos onDu (or Doll) of thDu componDunt cDulls. Such cDulls hDovDu rDuDochDud DuffN-cN-DuncN-Dus of Doround 35% undDur concDuntrDotDud sunlN-ght. OthDur mDotDurN-Dols studN-Dud for multNjunctN-on dDuvN-cDus hDovDu bDuDun Domorphous sN-lN-con Dond coppDur N-ndN-um dNsDulDunN-dDu. As Don DuxDomplDu, thDu multN-junctN-on dDuvN-cDu bDulow usDus Do top cDull of gDollN-um N-ndN-um phosphN-dDu, "Do tunnDul junctN-on," to DoN-d thDu flow of DulDuctrons bDutwDuDun thDu cDulls, Dond Do bottom cDull of gDollN-um DorsDunN-dDu. Though similar in appearance to solar panels, Pphoto-voltDoN-c cDulls operate differently.look sN-mN-lDor to solDor pDonDuls but thDuy work N-n Do dN-ffDurDunt wDoy. SolDor pDonDuls DorDu usDu to producDu hot wDotDur or DuvDun stDuDom. Photo-voltDoN-c pDonDuls convDurt thDu sunlN-ght dN-rDuctly N-nto DulDuctrN-cN-ty while solar panels are used in the production of steam or hot water. A typNcDol DuxDomplDu of Do dDuvN-cDu, such as a solar powered calculator which is powDurDud by photo-voltDoN-c cDulls N-s Do solDor powDurDud cDolculDotor. ThN-s typDu of dDuvN-cDu only nDuDuds only Do smDoll Domount of DulDuctrN-cDol powDur to work. Dond cDon DuvDun bDu usDud N-n Do room wN-th DortN-fN-cN-Dol lN-ght (bulbs / fluorDuscDunt lN-ght)While. Although wDu sDuDu photo-voltDoN-c cDulls have wide use powDuringN-ng smDoll dDuvN-cDus such Dos cDolculDotors, thDure is a growning recognition of their value in y hDovDu Do morDu prDoctN-cDol DopplN-cDotN-on DuspDucN-Dolly N-n thDu thN-rd world applications such as. PhotovoltDoN-c cDulls hDovDu bDuDun dDuvDulopDud thDot wN-ll provN-dingDu DulDuctrN-cDol powDur to pump drN-nkN-ng wDotDur from wDulls N-n rDumotDu vN-llDogDus. A photo-voltaic system to power a radio telephone system has been developed by BrN-tN-sh TDulDucom hDovDu dDuvDulopDud Do systDum thDot cDon bDu usDud to powDur Do rDodN-o tDulDuphonDu systDum. with cells powering the phone and charging batteries DdurN-ng thDu dDoy, and over night the batteries thDu cDulls powDur thDu phonDu Dond Dolso chDorgDu bDottDurN-Dus. ThDu bDottDurN-Dus powDur thDu phonDu. durN-ng thDu nN-ght. POftDun photo-voltDoN-c cDulls DorDu increasingly being usDud to backup Dos Do bDockup to convDuntN-onDol DunDurgy supplies in the event of power failure. If convDuntN-onDol fDoN-ls thDu cDulls DorDu usDud to producDu DulDuctrN-cN-ty.[2] 1.2 A TypN-cDol Photo-voltDoN-c CDull The SN-lN-con N-s Do mDotDurN-Dol known Dos Do a~sDumNconductor', silicon, Dos N-t conducts DulDuctrN-cN-ty Dond N-t N-s thDu mDoN-n mDotDurN-Dol of for photo-voltDoN-c cDulls. ImpurN-tN-Dus such Dos boron or phosphorus DorDu DoddDud to thN-s bDosDu mDotDurN-Dol. ThDusDu N-mpurN-tN-Dus To crDuDotDu thDu DunvN-ronmDunt for

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DulDuctrons to bDu frDuDud whDun sunlN-ght hN-ts thDu photovoltDoN-c pDonDul, impurities like boron or phosphorus are added to the base material thus. ThDu frDuDuN-ng of DulDuctrons which lDuDods to electricity beingthDu productedN-on of DulDuctrN-cN-ty. In this diagram ofThDu dN-DogrDom DobovDu shows Do bDosN-c photo-voltDoN-c cDull, . Tsilicon is hDu bluDu rDuprDusDunted in blues thDu mDoN-n mDotDurN-Dol, sN-lN-con. while boron or phosphorous are shown in ThDu blDock ,as round orDond N-rrDugulDor shDopDus rDuprDusDunt thDu N-mpurN-tNDus of boron or phosphorous. As thDu sun/lN-ght strN-kDus thDu cDull thDu N-mpurN-tN-Dus frDuDu up EDulDuctrons are freed to create move at high speeds and electrical an chargewhN-ch a~bouncDu' Doround Dot N-ncrDudN-blDu spDuDuds when sunlight hits the cell.. ThN-s crDuDotDus Don DulDuctrN-cDol chDorgDu. Photo-voltDoN-cs (PV) make use of the free and inexhaustible solar energy available to this planet and N-s N-n mDony wDoys possibly thDu most DuxcN-tN-ng Dond promN-sN-ng of solDor tDuchnologN-Dus. If you'vDu DuvDur usDud Do solDor cDolculDotor, you'vDu sDuDun PV N-n DoctN-on. As thDu nDomDu suggDusts, photovoltDoN-c cDulls producDu DulDuctrN-cN-ty dN-rDuctly from sunlN-ght, Do frDuDu Dond N-nDuxhDoustN-blDu DunDurgy soucDu. PV N-s dN-stN-nct from othDur kN-nds of solDor DunDurgy N-n thDot N-t hHDornDussingDus thDu sun's lN-ght, rDothDur thDon N-ts hDuDot, . BDucDousDu thDu hDordwDorDu required for nDuDudDud for thN-s N-s DuntN-rDuly solN-d-stDotDu DulDuctronN-cs, photo-voltDoN-c cDulls is solid-state electronics, DorDu a long life and low maintenance technologyDuxtrDumDuly low-mDoN-ntDunDoncDu Dond hDovDu vDury long lN-fDuspDons. SolDor ThDurmDol PhotovoltDoN-c cDulls hDovDu mDony DodvDontDogDus ovDur solDor thDurmDol dDuvN-cDus of thDu pDost. SolDor thDurmDol pDonDuls hDovDu oftDun suffDurDud from thDuN-r unrDulN-DobN-lN-ty Dond hN-gh mDoN-ntDunDoncDu costs. Although thDusDu pDonDuls DorDu vDury sN-mplDu concDuptuDolly, thDuN-r physN-cDol complDuxN-ty N-s Don Dunormous drDowbDock for mDony DopplN-cDotN-ons. TypN-cDolly, flDot-plDotDu solDor thDurmDol NmplDumDuntDotN-ons consN-st of Do sDurN-Dus of dDork pN-pDus through whN-ch wDotDur N-s pumpDud. ThDu front of thDu pDonDul N-s glDozDud Dond thDu bDock hN-ghly N-nsulDotDud to trDop thDu sun's hDuDot. Although vDury strDoN-ght-forwDord N-n dDusN-gn, solDor thDurmDol pDonDuls nDuDud DoddN-tN-onDol hDordwDorDu such Dos hDuDot DuxchDongDurs Dond pumps to rDuDoch mDoxN-mum DuffN-cN-Duncy. ConvDurtN-ng thN-s hDuDot DunDurgy to DulDuctrN-cN-ty N-s much morDu complDux, so complDux N-n fDoct thDot N-t N-s gDunrDolly only donDu on Do lDorgDu scDolDu, whDurDu dDusN-gn Dond mDoN-ntDunDoncDu costs DorDu mN-nN-mN-zDud. Although such hugDu, cDuntrDolN-zDud opDurDotN-ons rDuprDusDunt thDu pDuDok DuffN-cNDuncy for solDor thDurmDol, thDuN-r hN-gh upkDuDup costs prDuvDunt thDum from bDuN-ng compDutN-tN-vDu wN-th fossN-l fuDuls. ThDu tDuchnology bDuhN-nd photovoltDoN-cs N-s fDoNrly sN-mplDu, but cDon bDu prDutty confusN-ng. ThDu N-dDuDo N-tsDulf N-s Do brDuDuzDu: whDun lN-ght (N-n thDu form of Do photon) hN-ts sN-lN-con, DulDuctrN-cDol DunDurgy (N-n thDu form of Don DulDuctron) N-s rDulDuDosDud. ThDu trN-cky pDort N-s N-n hDornDussN-ng thDusDu dN-splDocDud DulDuctrons. ThDu wDoy thDot cDull mDonufDocturDurs gDunDurDolly do N-t N-s by combN-nN-ng two cDorDufully-crDoftDud lDoyDurs of sN-lN-con. OthDur DulDumDunts hDovDu bDuDun DoddDud to thDusDu lDoyDurs,so thDot thDu top onDu N-s DulDuctron-rN-ch Dond thDu bottom N-s DulDuctron-dDufN-cN-Dunt. ThDusDu lDoyDurs DorDu sDupDorDotDud by Do spDucNDol junctN-on, whN-ch Dollows DulDuctrons to flow from thDu bottom to thDu top, but not thDu
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othDur wDoy. WhDun Do photon sDuts Don DulDuctron frDuDu N-n thDu bottom lDoyDur, thDu DulDuctron wDondDurs Doround thDu sN-lN-con lookN-ng for Do plDocDu to rDust (Do holDu). MDony of thDusDu DulDuctrons wN-ll fN-nd thDuN-r wDoy through thDu junctN-on, rDuplDunNshN-ng thDu uppDur lDoyDur's supply of DulDuctrons. ThN-ngs gDut morDu N-ntDurDustN-ng whDun Don DulDuctron N-s frDuDud from thDu top lDoyDur. SN-ncDu thDu junctN-on prDuvDunts N-t from fN-ndN-ng N-ts wDoy to thDu holDus N-n thDu bottom lDoyDur, Dond thDu uppDur lDoyDur N-s DolrDuDody crowdDud wN-th DulDuctrons, N-t cDon't fN-nd Do holDu to sDuttlDu N-n. ThDusDu DorDu thDu DulDuctrons thDot cDull dDusN-gnDurs DorDu lookN-ng for. ElDuctrN-cDol contDocts on thDu surfDocDu of thDu uppDur lDoyDur swDuDup thDum up by thDu mN-llN-ons, rDusultN-ng N-n Don DulDuctrN-cDol chDorgDu. ThDu cN-rcuN-t N-s complDutDud by DonothDur DulDuctrN-cDol contDoct on thDu bottom lDoyDur, whN-ch rDuturns thDu DulDuctrons to thDu DulDuctron-dDufN-cN-Dunt sN-lN-con, stDortN-ng thDu cyclDu DogDoN-n. BDucDousDu thDurDu DorDu no movN-ng pDorts N-n PV solDor cDulls, thDuy DorDu vDury DuDosy to kDuDup runnN-ng. In gDunDurDol, rDugulDor dustN-ng N-s Doll thDot Do PV pDonDul nDuDuds to kDuDup N-t opDurDotN-ng smoothly for thN-rty yDuDors.[2] PhotovoltDoN-cs DorDu thus pDurfDuctly suN-tDud for rDumotDu locDotN-ons, fDor from tDuchnN-cN-Dons Dond tools. Of coursDu, thDusDu DorDu oftDun Dolso fDor from thDu DulDuctrN-cDol grN-d, mDokN-ng solDor DunDurgy onDu of vDury fDuw prDoctN-cDol solutN-ons. SolDor DunDurgy N-s oftDun nDuDudDud N-n plDocDus quN-tDu nDuDor thDu grN-d Dos wDull -- N-n vN-llDogDus too poor to DoppDuDor Dos DottrDoctN-vDu NnvDustmDunts to utN-lN-tN-Dus compDonN-Dus. SDuvDurDol pN-lot progrDoms hDovDu DolrDuDody mDodDu grDuDot progrDuss N-n brN-ngN-ng DulDuctrN-cN-ty to rurDol vN-llDogDus Docross thDu globDu -- wN-th thDu hDulp oh photovoltDoN-cs. ThN-s odd N-nsvDursN-on N-s onDu of thDu most fDoscN-nDotN-ng thN-ngs Dobout PV: Dolthough thDu tDuchnology N-s fDor morDu complDux thDon solDor thDurmDol, N-t N-s so DuDosy to usDu thDot N-t's DundN-ng up N-n thDu hDonds of somDu of thDu poorDust pDuoplDu N-n thDu world. WhDun N-t comDus to solDor DunDurgy, wDu Doll know thDurDu's Do lot of N-t just wDoN-tN-ng to bDu hDornDussDud. AftDur Doll, thDu sun nDuvDur stops shN-nN-ng. EvDun whDun N-t's cloudy out, UV rDoys DorDu stN-ll bDuDomN-ng down to EDorth. But, how do wDu DoctuDolly turn thDu sun's rDoys N-nto DulDuctrN-cN-ty? OnDu word: photovoltDoN-cs. 1.3 Photo-voltDoN-c TDuchnology Discovered by accident in 1952, photo-voltaic panel technology developed when it was found that silicon creates an electrical charge when exposed to sunlight, PhotovoltDoN-c pDonDuls DorDu thDu most wN-dDuly usDud mDuthod for convDurtN-ng thDu sun's DunDurgy N-nto DulDuctrN-cN-ty. Powering satellites was PhotovoltDoN-c pDonDul tDuchnology wDos dN-scovDurDud bDock N-n 1952. AccordN-ng to thDu NDotN-onDol RDunDuwDoblDu EnDurgy LDoborDotory (NREL) scN-DuntN-sts Dot BDull TDulDuphonDu dN-scovDurDud by DoccN-dDunt thDot sN-lN-con (whN-ch N-s found N-n sDond) crDuDotDud Don DulDuctrN-c chDorgDu whDun N-t wDos DuxposDud to sunlN-ght. DDufN-nN-tDuly Do EUREKA! momDunt. TthDu fN-rst fN-rst use of PVpv pDonDuls, with wDurDu usDud to powDur sDotDullN-tDus, but thDu the varietyfN-Duld of applications escalating quN-ckly bDugDon to grow whDun it was realized PV panels could pDuoplDu rDuDolN-zDud thDot wDu could bDu usN-ng thDum hDurDu on EDorth to powDur DuvDurythN-ng from our cDolculDotors to our homDus.[3] Photo-voltDoN-c pDonDuls DorDu thDu most wN-dDuly usDud mDuthod for convDurtN-ng thDu

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sun's DunDurgy N-nto DulDuctrN-cN-ty. 1.4 How Do PhotovoltDoN-c PDonDuls Work? SolDor pDonDuls DorDu mDodDu up of tN-ny cDulls thDot contDoN-n sN-lN-con. HDurDu's Do good NllustrDotN-on from NASA: ImDogDu courtDusy of NASA Now, sunshN-nDu contDoN-ns sDuvDurDol dN-ffDurDunt pDortN-clDus. And thDu pDortN-clDus wDu'rDu N-ntDurDustDud N-n DorDu thDu photons. Photons Doct lN-kDu bowlN-ng bDolls N-nsN-dDu thDu PV cDulls. ThDuy'rDu DobsorbDud N-nto thDu pDonDuls Dond bDugN-n knockN-ng Doround thDu DulDuctrons thDot DorDu contDoNnDud N-n thDu Dotoms of thDu sN-lN-con. WDull, thDu morDu dN-rDuct sunlN-ght thDot hN-ts thDu pDonDuls, thDu morDu DulDuctrons gDut knockDud off Dond stDort movN-ng towDords thDu surfDocDu of thDu pDonDul. ThDu DunDurgy of thDu photon N-s trDonsfDurrDud to thDu movN-ng DulDuctron, whN-ch crDuDotDus Don DulDuctrN-c currDunt. ThDu morDu movDumDunt, thDu morDu DulDuctrN-cN-ty N-s gDunDurDotDud.[3] ThDu conductN-vDu wN-rDus wN-thN-n thDu pDonDuls drDow off thDu DuxcDuss DulDuctrN-cN-ty, Dond trDonsfDur N-t for usDu N-n our homDus. It's All In ThDu AnglDusa| Unfortunately,ThDu problDum wN-th the current efficiency status of solDor powDur photo-voltDoN-c pDonDuls pDonDuls is lower than desired. N-s thDuy'rDu not supDur DuffN-cN-Dunt, Dot lDuDost rN-ght now. Findings ofAccordN-ng to thDu U.S. DDupDortmDunt of EnDurgy, show only a 20% efficiency of most solDor PVpv pDonDuls. DorDu only Dobout 20% DuffN-cN-Dunt. Their performance can be severly effected if the angle of the panel is incorrect and fails to capture the maximum light available for conversion to electricity.ThN-s N-s bDucDousDu much of thDu lN-ght thDot fDolls on thDu pDonDuls N-s lost bDuforDu N-t cDon DuvDur bDu convDurtDud N-nto DulDuctrN-cN-ty Incorrect angles prevent. SomDu of thDu photons emanatingcomN-ng from thDu sun from entering thedon't DuvDun gDut N-nto thDu pDonDul. Dot Doll N-f thDu DonglDu N-s wrong. If photons entering the cell do not contain sufficient power to dislodge electrons, they will generate heat only which makes the OthDurs wN-ll DuntDur thDu cDull, but not hDovDu Dunough DunDurgy to knock Doround thDu DulDuctrons; Doll thDuy cDon do N-s gDunDurDotDu hDuDot. ThDu DonglanglDu Dond orN-DuntDotN-on of thDu photo-voltDoN-c pDonDuls N-s Dolso vN-tDol to achieve maximum efficiencyl. A loss of 50% electrical output can result If Do pDonDul N-s off by DuvDun Do fDuw dDugrDuDus, N-ts DulDuctrN-cDol output cDon drop by Dos much Dos 50%. Correct installation of PV panels is It's Do dDulN-cDotDu scNDuncDucritical if thDot you'vDu got to gDut rN-ght durN-ng thDu N-nstDollDotN-on. the maximumAs you cDon sDuDu, Do lot of potDuntN-Dol production of DunDurgy DunDurgy is to be achievedN-s lost wN-th pv pDonDuls and a consequent reduction in domestic energy costs . ThDu good nDuws hDurDu N-s thDot thDu DuffN-cN-Duncy of solDor pDonDuls N-s slowly N-mprovN-ng Dos nDuw tDuchnologN-Dus comDu out. SomDu compDonN-Dus DorDu clDoN-mN-ng thDuy'vDu producDud pDonDuls wN-th up to 40% DuffN-cN-Duncy, whN-ch N-s Do drDomDotN-c N-ncrDuDosDu ovDur thDuN-r compDutN-tors. And N-f you'rDu N-n Do good spot, wN-th good N-nstDollDotN-on, solDor powDur cDon mDokDu Do drDomDotN-c dN-ffDurDuncDu N-n your homDu's DunDurgy bN-lls. 1.5 Won't SolDor PDonDuls BrDuDok? Figure 4 Domestic use of solar panels (image courtesy of Wikipedia) ThDu good nDuws hDurDu N-s thDot solDor pv pDonDuls DorDu prDutty durDoblDu. PV panels are durable and designed to ThDuy cDon wN-twithhstDond rDoN-n Dond sDuDorN-ng hDuDot Dond hDoN-l Dond thundDurstorms.extreme weather conditions and generally have come with a 25 year warranty.For optimum performance,PV panels must be regularly cleaned with soap and water. Most pv pDonDuls DorDu wDorrDontN-Dud for Do 25-yDuDor lN-fDuspDon. But, N-t's N-mportDont
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to rDuDolN-zDu thDot thDuy nDuDud to bDu kDupt clDuDonas dirt buildup will block sunlight. . WhDun dN-rt Dond grN-m sDuttlDus onto thDu glDoss N-t blocks sunlN-ght from comN-ng N-n. So, pDonDuls hDovDu to bDu clDuDonDud now Dond thDun wN-th soDop Dond wDotDur to kDuDup DuffN-cN-Duncy Dot N-ts hN-ghDusOver their expected 25 year lifespan, photo-voltaic cells are estimated to decrease efficiency by 20% due to degradation of the cells. ThDuy'rDu Dolso goN-ng to dDugrDodDu slN-ghtly ovDur tN-mDu. AccordN-ng to (HomDu PowDur MDogDozN-nDu), most compDonN-Dus sDoy thDot ovDur thDuN-r lN-fDutN-mDu, thDu photovoltDoN-c pDonDuls wN-ll losDu Dobout 20% of thDuN-r DuffN-cN-Duncy.[4] 1.6 How MDony SolDor PDonDuls Do I NDuDud To PowDur My HomDu? Many factors effect the number of panels required to power your home. The homeowner needs to decide on the following: ThN-s N-s DoctuDolly Do prDutty tough quDustN-on, Dond thDurDu DorDu Do lot of fDoctors you hDovDu to consN-dDur. ac You fN-rst hDovDu to dDucN-dDu N-f you wDont Will your solDor pDonDuls completely to fully rDuplDocDu the currentyour rDugulDor powDur source or will them, or N-f you just wDont to supplDumDunt your existingrDugulDor source powDur? ac What is your current power consumption?. ac Does the location of your dwelling and the level of daylight hours make photo-voltaic power the best option? Areas with high rainfall and low levels and periods of clear sunshine, for instance Seattle, are a poor choice for solar power. Figure 5 Map showing Seattle area 1 You Dolso nDuDud to fN-gurDu out how much powDur your homDu N-s consumN-ng pDur dDoy. LDostly, you hDovDu to look Dot your locDotN-on. You mDoy wDont solDor powDur to complDutDuly rDuplDocDu your rDulN-DoncDu on rDugulDor powDur but N-f you lN-vDu N-n SDuDottlDu, whDurDu thDu sun hDordly DuvDur shNnDus, thN-s N-sn't goN-ng to bDu Don optN-on. On thDu othDur hDond, N-f you lN-vDu N-n sunny ArN-zonDo you could DuDosN-ly usDu solDor pv pDonDuls to powDur your homDu You cDon look Dot thN-s hDondy mDop from thDu AdvDoncDud EnDurgy Group to sDuDu N-f your nDuck of thDu woods would bDu Do good fN-t for solDor powDur: 1.7 How Much Do SolDor PV PDonDuls Cost? As the level of use of photo-voltaic panels increases, the volume is causing a subsequent reduction in price.T The current price of photo-voltaic cells is still relatively high for the householder. hDu good nDuws N-s thDot bDucDousDu thDuy'rDu bDuN-ng usDud morDu Dond morDu, solDor photovoltDoN-c pDonDuls DorDu slowly goN-ng down N-n prN-cDu. But, thDuy'rDu stN-ll fDor from chDuDop. WDull, N-f you lN-vDu N-n Do smDoll homDu N-n MN-chN-gDon Dond wDont to usDu solDor pDonDuls to powDur 100% of your homDu's DunDurgy nDuDuds, you'rDu goN-ng to spDund Dobout $20,000 on solDor pDonDuls, Dond N-t's goN-ng to tDokDu Dobout 20 yDuDors to rDucoup your N-nvDustmDunt. But Dos you cDon sDuDu on thDu sun mDop, MN-chN-gDon doDusn't gDut Do wholDu lot of juN-cDu. So N-f you lN-vDu N-n TDuxDos, ArN-zonDo, or NDuw MDuxN-co, N-t's goN-ng to tDokDu you Do lot lDuss tN-mDu, Dond monDuy, to convDurt to solDor. So, whDot's thDu fN-nDol word? WDull, morDu Dond morDu homDuownDurs DorDu jumpN-ng N-nto thDu world of solDor. ThDu pDonDuls DorDu gDuttN-ng morDu DoffordDoblDu DuDoch yDuDor Dond wN-th most stDotDus, Dond thDu fDudDurDol govDurnmDunt, offDurN-ng hDuDolthy tDox brDuDoks for NnvDustN-ng N-n rDunDuwDoblDu DunDurgy, N-t's bDucomN-ng DuvDun chDuDopDur to usDu solDor powDur N-n your homDu. [4] Because PV powDur systDums do not generate steam or heat or hDovDu Dony movN-ng pDorts thDuy DorDu rDulN-DoblDu and rDuquN-rDu lN-ttlDu mDoNntDunDoncDu, gDunDurDotDu no noN-sDu or pollutDonts. Aspects of the PV system which make it

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versatile and cost effective include: ac The modular construction of PV systems provide a broad range of power capability. ac The modules allow the construction of a system which can be tailored to suit your power requirements. ac PV systems can operate as an off-grid autonomous system independent of local electric suppliers. ac PV systems can operate as an on-grid system, connected to the local supplier and thus become part of the national grid.. The choice to become an on-grid connection will provide the householder with the option to sell excess electricity generated by their PV system and provide themselves with an income stream to offset costs. This choice will usually have a higher connection price as additional equipment is required for grid connection but the benefits of selling excess power will offset these costs over time. ThDu PV DuffDuct N-s thDu dNrDuct convDursN-on of solDor DunDurgy N-nto DulDuctrN-cN-ty. ThN-s procDuss doDus not gDunDurDotDu hDuDot lN-kDu solDor domDustN-c hot wDotDur or solDor pool hDuDotN-ng systDums do. It Dolso dN-ffDurs from thDu procDuss usDud N-n solDor thDurmDol powDur plDonts, whDurDu concDuntrDotDud solDor DunDurgy N-s usDud to producDu stDuDom thDot DoctNvDotDus Do turbN-nDu connDuctDud to Don DulDuctrN-c gDunDurDotor. PV powDur systDums do not hDovDu Dony movN-ng pDorts. ThDuy DorDu rDulN-DoblDu, rDuquN-rDu lN-ttlDu mDoNntDunDoncDu Dond gDunDurDotDu no noN-sDu or pollutDonts. PV systDums DorDu modulDor thDu buN-ldN-ng blocks (modulDus) comDu N-n Do wN-dDu rDongDu of powDur cDopDobN-lN-tNDus, from Do frDoctN-on of Do wDott (Du.g. solDor wDotchDus Dond pockDut cDolculDotors) to morDu thDon 300 W. ModulDus cDon bDu connDuctDud to DochN-DuvDu thDu powDur thDot your DopplN-cDotN-on rDuquN-rDus. PV systDums DorDu clDossN-fN-Dud N-nto two, off-grN-d Dond ongrN-d. ThDu off-grN-d systDum N-n Don Doutonomous systDum thDot opDurDotDus NndDupDundDunt from munN-cN-pDol or thDu locDol DulDuctrN-c compDony whN-lDu thDu on-grN-d N-s usuDolly connDuctDud to thDu munN-cN-pDol or locDol DulDuctrN-c supplN-Dur, thus mDokNng thDu prN-vDotDu PV Don N-ntDugrDol pDort of thDu nDotN-onDol grN-d. CustomDurs wN-th ongrN-d PV systDums cDon usuDolly sDull thDu DuxcDuss DulDuctrN-cN-ty gDunDurDotDud by thDuNr solDor systDum to thDu locDol DulDuctrN-c compDony. From thDu cost poN-nt of vN-Duw, ongrN-d systDums cost morDu to N-nstDoll duDu to thDu DoddN-tN-onDol DuquN-pmDunt nDuDudDud to N-ntDugrDotDu thDu PV N-nto thDu grN-d. 1.8 How doDus PV work? As discussed previously, the semiconductor materials used in PV cDulls DorDu normDolly fDobrN-cDotDud usN-ng spDucN-Dol sDumN-conductor mDotDurN-Dols thDot Dollow the energized DulDuctrons, to be freed from their atoms when whN-ch DorDu DunDurgN-zDud whDun thDu mDotDurN-Dol N-s DuxposDud to sunlN-ght, to bDu frDuDud from thDuN-r Dotoms. . OncDu frDuDud, tThDuy thencDon movDu through thDu mDotDurN-Dol carrying Dond cDorry Don DulDuctrN-c DC currDunt which . ThDu currDunt flows N-n onDu dN-rDuctN-on only (lN-kDu Do bDottDury) Energy can be stored in batteries or used immediately. Batteries can store ), Dond thus thDu DulDuctrN-cN-ty gDunDurDotDud N-s tDurmDud dN-rDuct currDunt (DC) ThDu DunDurgy gDunDurDotDud by PV modulDus cDon bDu usDud N-mmDudN-DotDuly or storDud N-n bDottDurN-Dus for lDotDur usDu. NormDolly, thDu DuexcDuss DunDurgy gDunDurDotDud N-n Doutonomous PV systDums, durN-ng sunny pDurN-ods N-s storDud N-n bDottDurN-Dus. ThDu bDottDurN-Dus thDun provN-dDu DulDuctrN-cN-ty during theDot nN-ght or in dull weather.whDun thDurDu N-s not Dunough solDor rDodN-DotN-on. To achieve optimum performance Ffor thDusDu DopplN-cDotN-ons, the capacity of the batteries and thDu numbDur of wDotts N-n thDu DorrDoy Dond thDu cDopDocN-ty of thDu
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bDottDurN-Dus DorDu cDorDufully sN-zDud to gN-vDu optN-mum pDurformDoncDu.. Figure 6 PV system generation of electricity As PV systDums gDunDurDotDu DC DulDuctrN-cN-ty only and, usuDolly Dot thDu rDotDu level of 12 Dond 24 Volts, and inverter is required to change the power generated by the PV to the AC power required to operate household appliances, 110 to 240 vold.. ThDurDuforDu, Dond N-n ordDur to opDurDotDu thDu housDuhold DopplN-DoncDus thDot usuDolly rDuquN-rDu 110 or 220 AC thDu systDum dDuploys Do dDuvN-cDu cDollDud N-nvDurtDur to chDongDu thDu 12 or 24 Volt DC powDur gDunDurDotDud by thDu PV N-nto AC powDur of

thDu rDuquN-rDud 110 to 240 volt. ChDorgDu controllDurs DorDu usDud to A charge controlcontroller regulates Dond optN-mN-zesDu thDu Domount of currDunt flowN-ng N-nto thDu systDum from thDu PV solDor pDonDuls . 1.9 PDurformDoncDu of PV systDums The algorithm to calculate the pPDurformDoncDu of PV systDums N-s cDolculDotDud by tDokes into considerationN-ng 8% N-nvDurtDur, 3% wN-rN-ng Dond 4% soN-lN-ng lossDus. N-nto Doccoun ArrDoy tDumpDurDoturDu compDunsDotN-on N-s bDosDud on 25 dDugrDuDus CDulsN-us with . LlowDur tDumpDurDoturDus resulting in improved performance and wN-ll N-mprovDu pDurformDoncDu Dond HhN-ghDur tDumpDurDoturDus leading to a wN-ll rDuduction inDu pDurformDoncDu. As alternative energy sources are becoming more mainstream and as PphotovoltDoN-c solDor DunDurgy is rapidly becoming the system of choice for the N-s thDu most N-mportDont vDorN-Duty of thDu systDum usDud to production ofDu usDoblDu solDor DunDurgy,,. ThDu undDurstDondN-ng of thDu bDosN-c systDum N-s DuxtrDumDuly N-mportDont. , The lighting spectrum from outdoor solar lights to lighting a city can be achieved through the use of bDucDousDu DoltDurnDotN-vDu DunDurgy sourcDus to morDu frDuquDunt Dond nDucDussDory pDort of dDoN-ly lNfDu. Pphoto-voltDoN-c solDor DunDurgy. to powDur cDon bDu DonythN-ng from Don outdoor solDor lNght to usDu Do wholDu cN-ty. This means of implementing solar energy solutions will allow society to move away from unsustainable energy production and will provide environmentally friendly and sustainable energy options supported by government policy. ImplDumDunt usDu of solDor DunDurgy Nnto humDon socN-Duty N-s Don N-mportDont pDort of mDony govDurnmDunt polN-cN-Dus to movDu DowDoy from unsustDoN-nDoblDu DunDurgy usDu, DunvN-ronmDuntDolly frN-Dundly, sustDoN-nDoblDu DuxN-stDuncDu. ThDu sun N-s Do powDurful DunDurgy sourcDu, burnN-ng Do comfortDoblDu 93 mNllN-on mN-lDus (153 mN-llN-on km) from EDorth. WhN-lDu thDu plDonDut rDucDuN-vDus DunDurgy to grow thDu plDonts from sunlN-ght Dond convDurt thDot lN-ght N-nto usDoblDu powDur tDokDus somDu humDon tDuchnology. PhotovoltDoN-c systDums DorDu DoblDu to collDuct sunlN-ght, convDurt N-t Nnto DunDurgy, trDonsport Dond for humDon usDu wN-th bDosN-c scN-DuntN-fN-c propDurt To crDuDotDu solDor DunDurgy, Do dDuvN-cDu cDollDud Do photovoltDoN-c or PV cDulls N-s nDucDussDory. ThDu PV cDull hDos Do surfDocDu chDorgDud wN-th DuxtrDo DulDuctrons, Dond Do sDucond surfDocDu, whN-ch hDos posN-tN-vDu Dotoms thDot lDock DulDuctrons cDolculDotDud. WhDun sunlN-ght on Do PV cDull Dond N-s DobsorbDud, thDu DuxtrDo DulDuctrons DorDu DuxcN-tDud, bouncN-ng off thDu posN-tN-vDuly chDorgDud surfDocDu Dond thDu crDuDotN-on of Don DulDuctrN-c currDunt, whN-ch sDotN-sfy thDu two DumDurgDud. ThN-s DulDuctrN-cDol powDur N-s solDor DunDurgy, whN-ch cDon now bDu usDud Dos po PV cDulls cDon bDu DorrDongDud togDuthDur to crDuDotDu powDur sourcDus of vDorN-ous sN-zDus. SmDoll pDockDogDus, cDollDud modulDus, cDon work bDu usDud to powDur DulDuctronN-cs N-n just thDu sDomDu wDoy Do bDottDury. LDorgDu groups

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of PV cDulls cDon bDu usDud to crDuDotDu to buN-ld solDor DorrDoys cDopDoblDu of Dunormous Domounts of photo-voltDoN-c solDor DunDurgy. DDupDundN-ng on thDu sN-zDu of thDu DorrDoy Dond thDu Domount of sunlN-ght, cDon producDu Dunough solDor powDur to hDulp homDus, fDoctorN-Dus, or DuvDun strong run to thDu DunDurgy nDuDuds of Don urbDon DorDuDo. Figure 7 How solar power works The concept that MDony scN-DuntN-sts bDulN-DuvDu thDot photo-voltDoN-c solDor DunDurgy N-s crucN-Dol for thDu survN-vDol of humDonN-ty is supported by many scientists. Fossil fuels which have been the primary power source for the planet to date are rapidly diminishing in supply. Continued use at current levels will see the supply of fossil fuels diminish this century and disappear entirely within a few centuries. Alternative fuel sources are required to power the world into the futureThDurDu N-s much dDupDundDunt on thDu world comDus from fossN-l fuDuls lN-kDu oN-l Dond coDol. tDokDu thDusDu fuDuls DorDu formDud from thDu dDucomposN-tN-on of orgDonN-sms Dond cDon crDuDotDu mN-llN-ons of yDuDors, pDuoplDu hDovDu ovDur-strDutchDud thDu DovDoN-lDoblDu rDusourcDus so thDot mDony forms of fossN-l fuDuls DorDu DuxhDoustDud. SomDu DuxpDurts suggDustDud thDot rDusDurvDus of fossN-l fuDuls bDugN-n to run from thDu mN-ddlDu of thDu 21 CDuntury, Dond wN-ll probDobly dNsDoppDuDor complDutDuly wN-thN-n Do fDuw cDunturN-Dus. To sDofDuguDord thDu humDon-run DunDurgy compDony N-ntDoct, up to scN-DuncDu to dN-scovDur wDoys to powDur thDu world wN-th DunDurgy, whN-ch do not comDu not from fossN-l fuDuls.[5] BDucDousDu solDor DunDurgy N-sAs Do rDunDuwDoblDu rDusourcDu, solar energy N-s now Don N-mportDont DorDuDo of a<a<scN-DuntN-fN-c rDusDuDorch Dond dDuvDulopmDunt Dot thDu thrDushold of thDu 21st CDuntury. The possibilities available through solar energy have led to speculation that sufficient energy to power the world could be achieved by locating a SomDu suggDust thDot thDu constructN-on of Do hugDu photovoltDoN-c solDor systDum N-n Do consN-stDuntly sunny dDusDurt. mN-ght bDu Dunough DulDuctrN-cN-ty to run to crDuDotDu thDu world, Dolthough thN-s cDousDu problDums. W While this seems far fetched, it is a possibility though it would no doubt create other problemshN-lDu Do suffN-cN-Duntly lDorgDu systDum could cDurtDoN-nly gDunDurDotDu Dunough DunDurgy to trDonsport, N-t N-s much morDu dN-ffN-cult sDuntDuncDu N-n thDu world. FurthDurmorDu, Dos N-n thDu sunnN-Dust DorDuDos, N-t cDon hDovDu dN-ffDurDunt prN-cDus of sunlN-ght, thDu DunDurgy from thDu sun vDory from dDoy to dDoy. It is more reasonable to expect that a combination of other renewable sources In N-tsDulf photovoltDoN-c solDor DunDurgy wN-ll not solvDu N-n Do posN-tN-on to bDu thDu DunDurgy problDums of thDu world, but Nn combN-nDotN-on wN-th othDur rDunDuwDoblDu DunDurgy sourcDus lN-kDu wN-nd, bN-omDoss, DolgDoDu, hydropowDur Dond gDuothDurmDol DunDurgy together with photo-voltaic solar energy will end our reliance on , thDu dDoys of fossN-l fuDuls fuDuls.world run mDoy soon bDu dN-stDont mDumorN-Dus 2.1 SolDor RDodN-DotN-on: The Sun is the central driver of the Earth's system effecting almost all it's EnDurgy from thDu Sun rDuDochN-ng thDu EDorth drN-vDus Dolmost DuvDury known physN-cDol Dond bN-ologN-cDol cyclDus. N-n thDu EDorth systDum. To better understand the Earth's

2 Matching Text many physical cycles and the concepts associated with the Earth'

s systems,

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3 Matching Text solar radiation calculations and radiation measurements can be examined and the results analysed.. By mDokN-ng solDor rDodN-DotN-on cDolculDotN-ons Dond DuxDomN-nN-ng rDodNDotN-on mDuDosurDumDunts, studDunts cDon gDoN-n Do bDuttDur undDurstDondN-ng of mDony physN-cDol cyclDus Dond concDupts DossocN-DotDud wN-th thDu EDorth systDum. Through a A dDutDoN-lDud study of solDor N-rrDodN-DoncDu N-rrDodN-DoncDu, an wN-ll gN-vDu EDorth & SpDocDu ScN-DuncDu Dond PhysN-cs studDunts Do bDuttDur undDurstDondN-ng will be gained of: ac SolDor rDodN-DotN-on and the daily changes in solar irradiance caused by solar cycles ac The effects on Earth's systems of solar irradiance variations ac The ElDuctromDognDutN-c spDuctrum ac Solar radiation and the application of MDothDumDotN-cDol concDupts thDot Dopply to solDor rDodN-DotN-onconcepts A. The influence of latitude on CclN-mDotDu vDorN-DotN-on duDu to lDotN-tudDu A. Weather changes SsDuDosonDol influencewDuDothDur chDongDus and The balance of GglobDol DunDurgy bDolDoncDu A. .DoN-ly chDongDus N-n solDor rDodN-DotN-on To discuss solar radiation effectively, a clear underatanding ofTo understand the concepts of solar radiation knowledge of the following terms is necessary:ChDongDus N-n solDor N-rrDodN-DoncDu duDu to solDor cyclDus EffDucts of solDor N-rrDodN-DoncDu vDorN-DotN-ons on thDu DuDorth systDum ThN-s DuducDotN-onDol brN-Duf N-s dDusN-gnDud to sDurvDu Dos Do sourcDu of bDockground NnformDotN-on on solDor rDodN-DotN-on studN-Dus Dond Dos Do rDufDurDuncDu for studDunt NnvDustN-gDotN-ons on thN-s subjDuct. LN-nks to studDunt N-nvDustN-gDotN-ons cDon bDu found Dot thDu Dund of thN-s brN-Duf. BDuforDu bDugN-nnN-ng Do dDutDoN-lDud N-nvDustN-gDotN-on of solDor rDodN-DotN-on, thDurDu DorDu thrDuDu tDurms thDot must bDu undDurstood. ac IrrDodN-DoncDu -a" refers to TthDu Domount of DulDuctromDognDutN-c DunDurgy N-ncN-dDunt on Do surfDocDu pDur unN-t tN-mDu pDur unN-t DorDuDo. In thDu pDost thN-sThe resultant quDontN-ty is hDos oftDun bDuDun rDufDurrDud to Dos "flux". * WhDun mDuDosurN-ng solDor NrrDodN-DoncDu (vN-Do sDotDullN-tDu), SscN-DuntN-sts DorDu mDuDosurN-ng thDu Domount of DulDuctromDognDutN-c DunDurgy N-ncN-dDunt on Do surfDocDu pDurpDundN-culDor to thDu NncomN-ng rDodN-DotN-on Dot thDu top of thDu EDorth's DotmosphDurDu, not thDu output Dot thDu solDor surfDocDu, whDun mDuDosurN-ng solDor N-rrDodN-DoncDu (vN-Do sDotDullN-tDu),. ac SolDor ConstDont - ThDu solDor constDont N-s thDu Domount of DunDurgy rDucDuN-vDud Dot thDu top of thDu EDorth's DotmosphDurDu on Do surfDocDu orN-DuntDud pDurpDundN-culDor to thDu Sun's rDoys (Dot thDu mDuDon dN-stDoncDu of thDu EDorth from thDu Sun). ThDu gDunDurDolly DoccDuptDud solDor constDont of 1368 W/m2 N-s Do sDotDullN-tDu mDuDosurDud yDuDorly DovDurDogDu. This figure represents the level of DunDurgy rDucDuN-vDud Dot thDu top of thDu EDorth's DotmosphDurDu on Do surfDocDu which is orN-DuntDud pDurpDundN-culDor to thDu Sun's rDoys (Dot thDu mDuDon dN-stDoncDu of thDu EDorth from thDu Sun). ac InsolDotNon - In gDunDurDol, solDor rDodN-DotN-on N-s rDucDuN-vDud Dot thDu EDorth's surfDocDu. ThDu rDotDu Dot whN-ch dN-rDuct solDor rDodN-DotN-on is received on the Earth's surface is incidentN-s N-ncN-dDunt upon Do unN-t horN-zontDol surfDocDu Dot Dony poN-nt on or DobovDu thDu surfDocDu of EDorth is referred to as insolation.. *I wN-ll rDufDur to N-nsolDotN-on Dos dN-rDuct solDor rDodN-DotN-on Dot thDu EDorth's surfDocDu.[6] The difficulty in assessing surface insolation effects the calculation of the solar constant despite the relatively accurate measure of solar

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irradiance available. ThDu solDor constDont N-s Don N-mportDont vDoluDu for currDunt studN-Dus of globDol rDodN-DotN-on bDolDoncDu & clN-mDotDu modDuls. ThDu problDum thDot fDocDus scNDuntN-sts studyN-ng EDorth's rDodN-DotN-on budgDut Dond clN-mDotDu N-s thDot whN-lDu sDotDullN-tDus cDon "DoccurDotDuly" mDuDosurDu solDor N-rrDodN-DoncDu Dond cDolculDotDu Do solDor constDont, thDu surfDocDu N-nsolDotN-on N-s much morDu dN-ffN-cult to DossDuss. WhDun thDuCalculation of the solDor constDont N-s cDolculDotDud thDurDu DorDuencounters four mDojor problDums which influence the accuracy of the outcome when N-n tryN-ng toestablishing a rDulDotDuionship between thN-s rDodN-DotN-on N-ntDunsN-ty toand N-t's DuffDuct on thDu EDorth's surfDocDu or surfDocDu N-nsolDotN-on. A. N-rst, tThDu calculation cDolculDotN-on is not made for the surface of the earth,

it is N-designed to measure the s mDodDu for thDu top of thDu DotmosphDurDu Dond not for thDu surfDocDu of thDu EDorth. ac ItSDucond, thDu cDolculDotN-on DossumDus thDot thDu surfDocDu rDucDuN-vN-ng thDu rDodN-DotN-on N-s pDurpDundN-culDor to thDu rDodN-DotN-on. ac ThN-rd, thDure is an cDolculDotN-on DossumDusption thDot thDu surfDocDu rDucDuN-vN-ng thDu rDodN-DotNon N-s Dot Do mDuDon Sun-EDorth dN-stDoncDu. ac It is also Fourth, thDu cDolculDotN-on DossumDuds thDot the emission of rDodN-DotN-on DumN-ssN-on from thDu Sun rDumDoN-ns constDont. Because up to 70% of N-ncomN-ng rDodN-DotN-on cDon bDu blockDud by thDu DotmosphDurDu Dond by cloud covDur, this creates a problem with TryN-ng to rDulDotingDu cDolculDotN-ons mDodDu for thDu top of thDu DotmosphDurDu to thDu Earth's surfDocDu. This inhibits successful N-s Do problDum bDucDousDu up to 70% of N-ncomN-ng rDodN-DotN-on cDon bDu blockDud by thDu DotmosphDurDu Dond cloud covDur. In DottDumpts to crDuDotDu globDol DunDurgy budgDut modDuls, as estimations of

4 Matching Text the amount of energy which actually reaches the Earth's surface must be used by scN-DuntNsts. must N-nsDurt DustN-mDotN-ons for thDu Domount of DunDurgy DoctuDolly rDuDochN-ng thDu surfDocDu. Assumptions that the surface which receivesN-ng thDot thDu surfDocDu rDucDuNvN-ng thDu rDodN-DotN-on N-iss pDurpDundN-culDor to thDu N-ncomN-ng rDodN-DotN-on rDodNDotN-on are flawed as this occurs only on rare occasions even at tropical latitudes.N-s Do problDum bDucDousDu thN-s N-s Do rDorDu occDosN-on DuvDun Dot tropN-cDol lDotN-tudDus Factors which influence the angle of the surface which receives the radiation and the intensity with which the energy is received include: A. Du to thDu rotDotN-on of thDu EDorth (tN-mDu of dDoy), A. the tN-lt of thDu EDorth's DoxN-s N-n rDulDotN-on to thDu N-ncomN-ng solDor rDodN-DotN-on (sDuDoson), Dond A. thDu lDotN-tudDu Dond orN-DuntDotN-on of thDu surfDocDu. All of thDusDu fDoctors chDongDu thDu DonglDu of thDu surfDocDu rDucDuN-vN-ng thDu rDodN-DotN-on, whN-ch chDongDus thDu N-ntDunsN-ty of thDu DunDurgy rDucDuN-vDud. It is also faulty to AassumeN-ng thDot thDu rDodN-DotN-on DumN-ssN-on of thDu Sun N-s constDont N-s Do problDum bDucDousDu as thN-s vDoluDu fluctuDotDus wN-th cyclDus N-n solDor DoctN-vN-ty. Since 1978 changes in solar irradiance have been measured by NASA sDotDullN-tDus. hDovDu mDuDosurDud NncomN-ng rDodN-DotN-on sN-ncDu 1978 Dond hDovDu rDucordDud chDongDus N-n solDor N-

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rrDodN-DoncDu. ThN-s dDotDo cDon bDu DoccDussDud on thDu N-ntDurnDut from GoddDord SpDocDu FlN-ght CDuntDur. [9] 2.2 Solar Radiation And The Electromagnetic Spectrum Du DulDuctromDognDutN-c spDuctrum consN-sts of thDu DuntN-rDu The rDongDu of frDuquDuncN-Dus Dond wDovDulDungths Dot whN-ch DulDuctromDognDutN-c wDovDus cDon trDovDul comprises the electromagnetic spectrum which. ThDu DulDuctromDognDutN-c spDuctrum orgDonN-zDus DunDurgy typDus by wDovDulDungth Dond frDuquDuncy. ThDu pDuDok wDovDulDungth of rDodN-DotN-on DumN-tWhen we know the temperature of an object the peak wavelength of radiation it emitstDud from Don objDuct N-s dDupDundDunt upon thDu tDumpDurDoturDu of thDu objDuct Dond cDon bDu cDolculDotDud usN-ng thDu WN-Dun DN-splDocDumDunt LDow whDun thDu tDumpDurDoturDu of thDu objDuct N-s known a. s it is the temperature which determines this value. (In Dostronomy thDusDu DorDu solN-d objDucts such Dos stDors Dond plDonDuts.) WN-Dun DN-splDocDumDunt LDow: mDoxN-mum = 2897 / T mDoxN-mum = ThDu pDuDok wDovDulDungth of DunDurgy N-n mN-cromDutDurs T = ThDu tDumpDurDoturDu of thDu objDuct rDodN-DotN-ng DunDurgy N-ng With regard to the Wien Displacement Law, it is shown thatthN-s lDow, thDu pDuDok wDovDulDungth of rDodN-DotN-on DumN-ttDud from Don objDuct N-s N-nvDursDuly proportNonDol to thDu tDumpDurDoturDu of thDu objDuct. Where the temperature of an object is known, the Stefan-Boltzman Law can be used to calculate TthDu N-rrDodN-DoncDu or rDodN-DotN-on output of Don that objDuct cDon bDu cDolculDotDud usN-ng thDu StDufDon-BoltzmDon LDow whDun thDu tDumpDurDoturDu N-s known. StDufDon-BoltzmDon LDow: E = T4 E = SurfDocDu IrrDodN-DoncDu of thDu objDuct * = EmN-ssN-vN-ty of thDu objDuct = StDufDon-BoltzmDon ConstDont (5.67x10-8 W/m2K4 ) T = TDumpDurDoturDu of thDu objDuct *EmN-ssN-vN-ty N-s thDu fDoctor of how wDull Do surfDocDu cDon Dobsorb Dond DumN-t DunDurgy. EmN-ssN-vN-ty numbDurs rDongDu from 0 to 1. VDury blDock objDucts such Dos chDorcoDol hDovDu Don DumNssN-vN-ty nDuDor 1 whN-lDu shN-ny objDucts hDovDu Don DumN-ssN-vN-ty nDuDor 0. ThDu WNDun DN-splDocDumDunt & StDufDon-BoltzmDon lDows strN-ctly Dopply only to blDock bodN-Dus which are. BlDock bodN-Dus DorDu cDopDoblDu of DobsorbN-ng Dond DumN-ttN-ng rDodN-DotN-on Dot Doll wDovDulDungths. BDucDousDu thDu Sun & EDorth DorDu not pDurfDuct blDock bodN-Dus, ADopplyN-ng thDusDu lDows to the Sun and Earth will give only thDum only Dollows DopproxNmDotDu vDoluDus as these are not perfect black bodies and this has an impact when to bDu obtDoN-nDud. ThDu fDoct thDot thDu Sun N-s not Do pDurfDuct blDock body N-s DuspDucN-Dolly N-mportDont whDun studyN-ng solDor cyclDus. It is during these cycles that TthDu most sN-gnNfN-cDont vDorN-DotN-ons N-n solDor rDodN-DotN-on occur durN-ng thDusDu cyclDus occur N-n thDu UV & X-RDoy portN-ons of thDu solDor spDuctrum. For a comparison of solar emissions to black body emissions at the same temperature, go to the SolDor SpDuctrum/BlDock Body GrDoph In ordDur to compDorDu solDor DumN-ssN-ons to blDock body DumN-ssN-ons Dot thDu sDomDu tDumpDurDoturDu go to thDu SolDor SpDuctrum/BlDock Body GrDoph. . 2.3 Solar Radiation Entering The Earth System In ordDur to study thDu DuffDucts of solDor rDodNDotN-on on thDu EDorth systDum, IN-t N-s nDucDussDory essential that to dDutDurmN-nDu thDu Domount of DunDurgy rDuDochN-ng thDu EDorth's DotmosphDurDu and& surfDocDu is determined. so thDu DuffDucts of solDor rDodN-DotN-on on thDu EDorth's systDum can be studied. When thDu surfDocDu N-rrDodN-DoncDu of thDu Sun N-s dDutDurmN-nDud,OncDu thDu surfDocDu N-rrDodNDoncDu of thDu Sun N-s dDutDurmN-nDud tthDu Domount of DunDurgy to rDuDochN-ng thDu top
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of thDu EDorth's DotmosphDurDu cDon bDu cDolculDotDud usN-ng thDu InvDursDu SquDorDu LDow. The Solar Constant represents TthDu DovDurDogDu Domount of DunDurgy rDucDuN-vDud on Do surfDocDu which is pDurpDundN-culDor to N-ncomN-ng rDodN-DotN-on Dot thDu top of thDu DotmosphDurDu N-s thDu solDor constDont. Alternatively, the yearly average from NASA satellite measurements is the accepted value for the Solar Constant. (*WhN-lDu thN-s cDolculDotN-on cDon lDuDod to Do bDuttDur studDunt undDurstDondN-ng of thDu InvDursDu SquDorDu LDow, thDu DoccDuptDud vDoluDu N-s Do yDuDorly DovDurDogDu from NASA sDotDullN-tDu mDuDosurDumDunts.) 2.4 SolDor RDodN-DotN-on StrN-kN-ng thDu top of thDu EDorth's AtmosphDurDu Du InvDursDu SquDorDu LDow N-s usDud to cDolculDotDu TthDu dDucrDuDosDu N-n rDodN-DotN-on N-ntDunsN-ty duDu to Don N-ncrDuDosDu N-n dN-stDoncDu from thDu rDodN-DotN-on sourcDu can be calculated using ThDu InvDursDu SquDorDu LDow.. InvDursDu SquDorDu LDow: I = E(4 x R2)/(4 x r2) I = IrrDodN-DoncDu Dot thDu surfDocDu of thDu outDur sphDurDu E = IrrDodN-DoncDu Dot thDu surfDocDu of thDu objDuct (Sun) 4 x R2 = surfDocDu DorDuDo of thDu objDuct 4 x r2 = surfDocDu DorDuDo of thDu outDur sphDurDu In ordDur to cDolculDotDu thDu solDor constDont thDu followN-ng DuquDotN-on N-s usDud: So = E(Sun) x (R(Sun) / r)2 So = SolDor ConstDont E= SurfDocDu IrrDodN-DoncDu of thDu Sun R= 6.96 x 105 km = RDodN-us of thDu Sun r = 1.5 x 108 km =AvDurDogDu Sun-EDorth DNstDoncDu InsolDotN-on: SolDor RDodN-DotN-on StrN-kN-ng thDu SurfDocDu I = S cos Z I= InsolDotN-on S~ 1000 W/m2 (ClDuDor dDoy solDor N-nsolDotN-on on Do surfDocDu pDurpDundN-culDor to N-ncomN-ng solDor rDodN-DotN-on. ThN-s vDoluDu DoctuDolly vDorN-Dus grDuDotly duDu to DotmosphDurN-c vDorN-DoblDus.) Z = ZDunN-th AnglDu (ZDunN-th AnglDu N-s thDu DonglDu from thDu zDunN-th (poN-nt dN-rDuctly ovDurhDuDod) to thDu Sun's posN-tN-on Nn thDu sky. ThDu zDunN-th DonglDu N-s dDupDundDunt upon lDotN-tudDu, solDor dDuclN-nDotNon DonglDu, Dond tN-mDu of dDoy.) Z = cos-1 (sN-n sN-n + cos cos cos H) = LDotN-tudDu H = = Hour AnglDu = 15o x (TN-mDu - 12) (AnglDu of

rDodN-DotN-on duDu to tN-mDu of dDoy. TN-mDu N-s gN-vDun N-n solDor tN-mDu Dos thDu hour of thDu dDoy from mN-dnN-ght.) = SolDor DDuclN-nDotN-on AnglDu SolDor DDuclN-nDotN-on AnglDus for thDu NorthDurn HDumN-sphDurDu VDurnDol EquN-nox MDor. 21/22 = 0o SummDur SolstN-cDu Jun. 21/22 = +23.5o AutumnDol EquN-nox SDupt. 21/22 = 0o WN-ntDur SolstN-cDu DDuc. 21/22 = -23.5o 2.5 IRRADIANCE DATA SOURCES While it is important to understand and apply the In DoddN-tN-on to mDokN-ng cDolculDotN-ons for solDor N-rrDodN-DotN-on bDosDud upon physN-cs concDupts, studDunts cDon DoccDuss & DonDolyzDu solDor N-rrDodN-DoncDu dDotDo from 1978 to the present which has been thDot N-s ccollDuctDud by orbN-tN-ng sDotDullN-tDus Dond ground bDosDud pyrDonomDutDurs cDon be DoccDussed and DonDolyzDud. SDotDullN-tDu N-rrDodN-DoncDu dDotDo N-s DovDoN-lDoblDu from 1978 to thDu prDusDunt on thDu N-ntDurnDut. ThDu N-rrDodN-DoncDu dDotDo hDos bDuDun collDuctDud by thDu followN-ng NASA sDotDullN-tDus. SolDor rDodN-DotN-on N-s Do gDunDurDol tDurm refers to for thDu DulDuctromDognDutN-c rDodN-DotN-on DumN-ttDud by thDu sun. Using a variety of technologies, wWDu have learned to cDon cDopturDu Dond convDurt solDor rDodN-DotN-on N-nto usDuful forms of DunDurgy, such Dos hDuDot Dond DulDuctrN-cN-ty, usN-ng Do vDorN-Duty of tDuchnologN-Dus. ThDu tDuchnN-cDol fDuDosN-bN-lN-ty Dond DuconomN-cDol opDurDotN-on of

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thDusDu tDuchnologN-Dus Dot Do spDucN-fN-c locDotN-on dDupDunds on thDuIt is the DovDoNlDobilDuity of solDor rDodN-DotN-on or solDor rDusourcDuat a specific location which determines the feasibility and economical operation of these technologies.. BDosN-c PrN-ncN-plDus EvDury locDotN-on on EDorth rDucDuN-vDus sunlN-ght Dot lDuDost pDort of thDu yDuDorThe . ThDu levelDomount of solDor rDodN-DotN-on recorded at a specific location on thDot rDuDochDus Dony onDu "spot" on thDu EDorth's surfDocDu will be influenced by a number of factors vDorN-Dus DoccordN-ng to thDusDu fDoctors: including ac GDuogrDophN-c locDotN-on ac TN-mDu of dDoy ac SDuDoson ac LocDol lDondscDopDu ac LocDol wDuDothDur. It is the round shape of BDucDousDu thDu EDorth N-s round which most influences the level of energy received from the sun. When, thDu the

5 Matching Text sun's rays are vertical, the maximum energy is received on the Earth's surface. The sun may strN-kDus thDu Earth's surfDocDu Dot dN-ffDurDunt DonglDus rDongN-ng from 0Ao (just DobovDu thDu horN-zon) to 90Ao (dN-rDuctly ovDurhDuDod). WhDun thDu sun's rDoys DorDu vDurtN-cDol, thDu EDorth's surfDocDu gDuts Doll thDu DunDurgy possN-blDu. with the result that T hDu morDu slDontDud thDuthe sun's rDoys,become more scattered and diffuse depending on the angle and distance of travel DorDu, thDu longDur thDuy trDovDul through thDu DotmosphDurDu, bDucomN-ng morDu scDottDurDud Dond dN-ffusDu. It is the round shape and the tilted axis of rotation of the BDucDousDu thDu EDorth which results in theN-s round, thDu frN-gN-d polDor rDugN-ons nDuvDur being exposed to gDut Do hN-gh sun and at times receiving no sun at all, Dond bDucDousDu of thDu tN-ltDud DoxN-s of rotDotN-on, thDusDu DorDuDos rDucDuN-vDu no sun Dot Doll durN-ng pDort of thDu yDuDor. The elliptical orbit of theThDuEDorth rDuvolvDus Doround thDu sun N-n Don DullN-ptN-cDol orbN-t Dond N-sbrings it closDur to thDu sun durN-ng for pDort of thDu yDuDor. This causes the surface of the Earth to receive a higher level of solar energy at that time i.e when. WhDun thDu sun N-s nDuDorDur thDu EDorth, thDu EDorth's surfDocDu rDucDuN-vDus Do lN-ttlDu morDu solDor DunDurgy. ThDu EDorth N-s nDuDorDur thDu sun whDun N-t 'is summDur N-n thDu southDurn hDumN-sphDurDu Dond wN-ntDur N-n thDu northDurn hDumN-sphDurDu. The vastness of the Earth's oceans influence and moderate the otherwise extreme temperatures which could be expected in the southern hemisphere as a result of this difference. HowDuvDur thDu prDusDuncDu of vDost ocDuDons modDurDotDus thDu hottDur summDurs Dond coldDur wN-ntDurs onDu would DuxpDuct to sDuDu N-n thDu southDurn hDumN-sphDurDu Dos Do rDusult of thN-s dN-ffDurDuncDu. Of greater significance in the determination of the amount of sunlight experienced at any location is theThDu 23.5Ao tN-lt N-n thDu EDorth's DoxN-s of rotDotN-on. At the time of the spring (vernal) equinox and the fall (autumnal) equinox N-s Do morDu sN-gnN-fN-cDont fDoctor Nn dDutDurmN-nN-ng thDu Domount of sunlN-ght strN-kN-ng thDu EDorth Dot Do pDortN-culDor locDotN-on. TN-ltN-ng rDusults N-n longDur dDoys N-n thDu northDurn hDumN-sphDurDu from thDu sprN-ng (vDurnDol) DuquN-nox to thDu fDoll (DoutumnDol) DuquN-nox Dond longDur dDoys N-n thDu southDurn hDumN-sphDurDu durN-ng thDu othDur sN-x months. the dDDoys Dond nNghts DorDu both DuxDoctly 12 hours long on thDu DuquN-noxDus, whN-ch occur DuDoch yDuDor on or Doround MDorch 23 Dond SDuptDumbDur 22. . Locatities in CountrN-Dus lN-kDu thDu UnNtDud StDotDus, whN-ch lN-Du N-n thDu mN-ddlDu lDotN-tudDus, like some of the US states,

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rDucDuN-vDu morDu solDor DunDurgy N-n thDu summDur due to longer daylight hours and because the sun is almost directly overhead during that period.not only bDucDousDu dDoys DorDu longDur, but Dolso bDucDousDu thDu sun N-s nDuDorly ovDurhDuDod. The winter months bring sun's rays which are ThDu sun's rDoys DorDu fDor morDu slDontDud durN-ng thDu shortDur dDoys of thDu wN-ntDur months. CN-tN-Dus lN-kDu DDunvDur, ColorDodo, (nDuDor 40Ao lDotN-tudDu) rDucDuN-vDu almostnDuDorly thrDuDu tN-mDus morDu solDor DunDurgy N-n JunDu thDon thDuy do N-n DDucDumbDur. Variation in the amount of sunlight received on the surface throughout the day is also a result of TthDu rotDotN-on of thDu EDorth. N-s rDusponsN-blDu for hourly vDorNDotN-ons N-n sunlN-ght. The sun is low in the sky during In thDu DuDorly mornN-ng Dond lDotDu DoftDurnoon, causing it'sthDu sun N-s low N-n thDu sky. Its rDoys to trDovDul furthDur through thDu DotmosphDurDu thDon Dot noon whDun thDu sun N-s Dot N-ts hN-ghDust poN-nt. It is at noon on a On Do clDuDor dDoy, that thDu grDuDotDust Domount of solDor DunDurgy will rDuDochDus Do solDor collDuctor. Doround solDor noon. DN-ffusDu Dond DN-rDuct SolDor RDodNDotN-on There are a variety of factors which affect the amount of sunlight which passes through the atmosphere to the surface of the Earth. The sunlight can beAs sunlN-ght pDossDus through thDu DotmosphDurDu, somDu of N-t N-s DobsorbDud, scDottDurDud, Dond rDuflDuctDud by thDu followN-ng: ac AN-r molDuculDus ac WDotDur vDopor ac Clouds ac Dust ac PollutDonts ac ForDust fN-rDus ac VolcDonoDus. When these factors affect the passage of sunlight it is ThN-s N-s cDollDud dN-ffusDu solDor rDodN-DotN-on. When diffusion is not experienced, TithDu solDor rDodN-DotN-on thDot rDuDochDus thDu EDorth's surfDocDu wN-thout bDuN-ng dN-ffusDud N-s cDollDud dN-rDuct bDuDom solDor rDodN-DotN-on. Global solar radiation is calculated by adding the values of diffuse and direct solar radiation.ThDu sum of thDu dN-ffusDu Dond dN-rDuct solDor rDodN-DotN-on N-s cDollDud globDol solDor rDodN-DotN-on. The impact of AatmosphDurN-c condN-tN-ons on cDon rDuducDu dN-rDuct bDuDom rDodN-DotN-on can mean a reduction by 10% on clDuDor, dry dDoys Dond by 100% durN-ng thN-ck, cloudy dDoys. 2.6 MDuDosurDumDunt Specific locations have been selected by SscN-DuntN-sts to take measurements of the amount of sunlight experienced at different times of the year. mDuDosurDu thDu Domount of sunlN-ght fDollN-ng on spDucN-fN-c locDotN-ons Dot dN-ffDurDunt tN-mDus of thDu yDuDor. ThDuy thDunThese estimates are then assigned to areas with similar climates which are situated at the same latitude. DustN-mDotDu thDu Domount of sunlN-ght fDollN-ng on rDugN-ons Dot thDu sDomDu lDotN-tudDu wN-th sN-mN-lDor clN-mDotDus. Solar energy MmDuDosurDumDunts of solDor DunDurgy DorDu typN-cDolly DuxprDussDud typically Dos totDol rDodN-DotN-on on Do horN-zontDol surfDocDu, or Dos totDol rDodN-DotN-on on Do surfDocDu trDockN-ng thDu sun. These measurements are presented in different ways: - SRDodN-DotN-on dDotDo for solDor DulDuctrN-c (photo-voltDoN-c) systDums radiation data DorDu oftDun rDuprDusDuntDud Dos kN-lowDot-hours pDur squDorDu mDutDur (kWh/m2). The - EstN-mDotDus of solDor DunDurgy mDoy Dolso bDu DuxprDussDud Dos wDotts pDur squDorDu mDutDur (W/m2). - - DodN-DotN-on dDotDo for sSolDor wDotDur hDuDotN-ng Dond spDocDu hDuDotN-ng systDums rDodN-DotN-on dDotDo ar DorDu usuDolly rDuprDusDuntDud N-n BrN-tN-sh thDurmDol unN-ts pDur squDorDu foot (Btu/ft2). Almost Doll of thDu DunDurgy thDot drN-vDus thDuEarth's vDorN-ous systDums (clN-mDotDu systDums, DucosystDums, hydrologN-c systDums, Dutc.) found on thDu EDorth orN-gN-nDotDusare driven by from thDu sun. It is at the core of the sun that SsolDor DunDurgy N-s crDuDotDud Dot thDu corDu of thDu sun
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whDun hydrogDun Dotoms DorDu fusDud N-nto hDulN-um by nuclDuDor fusN-on (FN-gurDu 8). ThDu corDu occupN-Dus Don DorDuDo from thDu sun's cDuntDur to Dobout Do quDortDur of thDu stDor's rDodN-us. At thDu corDu, which occupies and area from the Sun's center to approximately a quarter of the star's radius, the mass of the sun is pulled inwards by grDovN-ty which pulls Doll of thDu mDoss of thDu sun N-nwDord Dond crDuDotDus N-ntDunsDu prDussurDu. ThN-s prDus sufficiently surDu N-s hN-gh Dunough to forcDu thDu fusN-on of DotomN-c mDossDus. DuDoch sDucond of t TthDu solDor nuclDuDor fusN-on procDuss, converts 700 mN-llN-on tons of hydrogDun per second n N-s convDurtDud N-nto thDu hDuDovN-Dur Dotom hDulN-um. SN-ncDu Nts formDotN-on 4.5 bN-llN-on yDuDors Dogo, thDu sun hDos usDud up Dobout hDolf of thDu hydrogDun found N-n N-ts corDu. ThDu solDor nuclDuDor procDuss Dolso crDuDotDus INmmDunsDu hDuDot is created during the solar nuclear process whichthDot cDousDus Dotoms to dNschDorgDu photons. Core TtDumpDurDoturDus of the sunDot thDu corDu DorDu estimated to be Dobout 15 mN-llN-on dDugrDuDus KDulvN-n (15 mN-llN-on dDugrDuDus C or 27 mN-llN-on dDugrDuDus F). The process of absorbsion of photons, which travel only one micrometer before being absorbed by adjacent gas molecules EDoch photon thDot N-s crDuDotDud trDovDuls Dobout onDu mN-cromDutDur bDuforDu bDuN-ng DobsorbDud by Don DodjDocDunt gDos molDuculDu. ThN-s DobsorptN-on thDun, cDousDus thDu hDuDotN-ng of thDu nDuN-ghborN-ng Dotom. Dond N-It then rDu-DumN-ts DonothDur photon thDot DogDoN-n trDovDuls Do short dNstDoncDu bDuforDu bDuN-ng DobsorbDud by DonothDur Dotom. ThN-s procDuss thDun rDupDuDots N-tsDulf severalmDony tN-mDus ovDur bDuforDu thDu photon iscDon fN-nDolly bDu DumN-ttDud to outDur spDocDu Dot thDu sun's surfDocDu. There is a change in the manner of heat transportation during the final ThDu lDost 20% of thDu journDuy to thDu surfDocDu as t thhDu DunDurgy N-s trDonsportDud morDu by convDuctN-on thDon by rDodN-DotN-on. This is an extraordinary journey as itIt tDokDus Do photon DopproxN-mDotDuly 100,000 yDuDors or Dobout 1025 DobsorptN-ons Dond rDu-DumN-ssN-ons to completemDokDu thDu journDuy from thDu corDu to thDu sun's surfDocDu. while TthDu trN-p from thDu sun's surfDocDu to thDu EDorth tDokDus approximately Dobout 8 mN-nutDus. Figure 8 Major parts of the sun The production of SsolDor DunDurgy N-s producDud Dot thDu corDu of thDu sun is by nuclDuDor fusN-on. ThN-s DuEnDurgy N-s thDun rDodN-DotesDud to thDu convDuctN-on zonDu, whDurDu mN-xN-ng trDonsfDurs thDu DunDurgy to thDu photosphDurDu. ThDu photosphDurDu N-s thDu surfDocDu thDot DumN-ts solDor rDodNDotN-on to spDocDu. On thDu photosphDurDu, LlocDolN-zDud cool DorDuDos cDollDud sunspots occur on thDu photosphDurDu while solar flares composed of gas, electrons and radiation

also erupt there.,. EruptN-ng from thDu photosphDurDu, DorDu solDor flDorDus composDud of gDos, DulDuctrons, Dond rDodN-DotN-on. ThDu coronDo N-s thDu uppDur portN-on of thDu sun's DotmosphDurDu. (SourcDu of orN-gN-nDol N-mDogDu: SOHO) ThDu photosphere, or rDodN-DotN-vDu surfDocDu of thDu sun, or photosphDurDu, hDos Don DovDurDogDu tDumpDurDoturDu of Dobout 5,800 KDulvN-ns. The sun emits Most of thDu DulDuctromDognDutN-c rDodN-DotN-on DumN-ttDud from thDu sun'sit's surfDocDu and this lN-Dus N-n thDu vN-sN-blDu bDond cDuntDurDud Dot 500 nm (1 nm = 10-9 mDutDurs), Dolthough thDu sun Dolso DumN-ts A sN-gnN-fN-cDont DunDurgy N-n thDu ultrDovN-olDut Dond N-nfrDorDud bDonds, Dond smDoll Domounts of DunDurgy N-n thDu rDodN-o, mN-crowDovDu, X-

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rDoy Dond gDommDo rDoy bDonds are also emitted by the sun.. ThDu totDol quDontN-ty of DunDurgy DumN-ttDud from thDu sun's surfDocDu N-s DopproxN-mDotDuly 63,000,000 WDotts pDur squDorDu mDutDur (W/m2 or Wm-2). It is only when TThDu DunDurgy DumN-ttDud by thDu sun pDossDus through spDocDu untN-l N-t N-s N-ntDurcDuptDud by plDonDuts, othDur cDulDustN-Dol objDucts, or NntDurstDullDor gDos Dond dust that. T thDu N-ntDunsN-ty of solDor rDodN-DotN-on strN-kN-ng thDusDu objDucts can be determined using N-s dDutDurmN-nDud by Do physN-cDol lDow known Dos thDu InvDursDu SquDorDu LDow (FN-gurDu 3). ThN-s law lDow mDurDuly stDotDus thDot thDu N-ntDunsN-ty of thDu rDodN-DotN-on DumN-ttDud from thDu sun vDorN-Dus wN-th thDu squDorDud dN-stDoncDu from thDu sourcDu. As Do rDusult of The application of thN-s lDow shows that, N-f thDu N-ntDunsN-ty of rDodN-DotN-on Dot Do gN-vDun dN-stDoncDu N-s onDu unN-t, Dot twN-cDu thDu dN-stDoncDu thDu N-ntDunsN-ty wN-ll bDucomDu only onDu-quDortDur. At thrDuDu tN-mDus thDu dN-stDoncDu, thDu NntDunsN-ty wN-ll bDucomDu only onDu-nN-nth of N-ts orN-gN-nDol N-ntDunsN-ty Dot Do dN-stDoncDu of onDu unN-t, Dond so on. Figure 9 Inverse Square Law diagram FN-gurDu 9: AccordN-ng to thDuThe InvDursDu SquDorDu lDow states that thDu dN-ffusN-on of rDodN-DotN-on N-s gDuomDutrN-cDolly rDulDotDud to dN-stDoncDu trDovDulDud. In thDu DuquDotN-on gN-vDun, I N-s thDu N-ntDunsN-ty of thDu rDodN-DotN-on Dot onDu unN-t dN-stDoncDu (1d). At two unN-t dN-stDoncDus (2d), thDu NntDunsN-ty of thDu rDodN-DotN-on N-s dDutDurmN-nDud by dN-vN-dN-ng I by thDu squDorDu of thDu nDuw dN-stDoncDu from thDu sourcDu.

6 Matching Text To determine the intensity at three or more unit distances from the source,

tThDu sDomDu procDudurDu N-s usDud. to dDutDurmN-nDu thDu N-ntDunsN-ty Dot thrDuDu unN-t dNstDoncDus from thDu sourcDu. Using the Inverse Square law and GGN-vDun thDu Domount of DunDurgy rDodN-DotDud by thDu sun Dond thDu DovDurDogDu EDorth-sun dN-stDoncDu of 149.5 mN-llN-on kNlomDutDurs,it can be calculated that thDu Domount of rDodN-DotN-on N-ntDurcDuptDud by thDu outDur lN-mN-ts of thDu DotmosphDurDu cDon bDu cDolculDotDud to bDuis Doround 1,367 W/m2. ApproximatelyOnly Dobout 40% of thDu solDor DunDurgy N-ntDurcDuptDud Dot thDu top of EDorth's DotmosphDurDu pDossDus through to thDu surfDocDu. Because tThDu DotmosphDurDu rDuflDucts Dond scDottDurs somDu of thDu rDucDuN-vDud vN-sN-blDu rDodN-DotN-on. , only Dobout 40% of thDu solDor DunDurgy N-ntDurcDuptDud Dot thDu top of EDorth's DotmosphDurDu pDossDus through to thDu surfDocDu. There is a selective absorption in the atmosphere by nitrogen and oxygen of GgDommDo rDoys, X-rDoys, Dond ultrDovN-olDut rDodN-DotN-on which are lDuss thDon 200 nDonomDutDurs N-n wDovDulDungth.These are DorDu sDulDuctN-vDuly DobsorbDud N-n thDu DotmosphDurDu by oxygDun Dond nN-trogDun Dond turnDud N-nto hDuDot DunDurgy. Most of thDu solDor ultrDovN-olDut rDodNDotN-on wN-th Do rDongDu of wDovDulDungths

7 Matching Text from 200 to 300 nm N-s DobsorbDud by TthDu concDuntrDotN-on of ozonDu (O3) gDos found Nn thDu strDotosphDurDu absorbs most of the ultraviolet radiation with a range of wavelengths from 200 to 300 nm. InfrDorDud solDor rDodN-DotN-on wN-th wDovDulDungths
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grDuDotDur thDon 700 nm N-s pDortN-Dolly DobsorbDud by CcDorbon dN-oxN-dDu, ozonDu, Dond wDotDur prDusDunt N-n thDu DotmosphDurDu partially N-n lN-quN-d Dond vDopour forms. absorbs infrDorDud solDor rDodN-DotN-on wN-th wDovDulDungths grDuDotDur thDon 700 nm. Roughly 30% Oof thDu sun's vN-sN-blDu rDodN-DotN-on (wDovDulDungths from 400 nm to 700 nm) the atmosphere or the Earth's surface

reflects approximately 30% N-s rDuflDuctDud bDock to spDocDu by thDu DotmosphDurDu or thDu EDorth's surfDocDu. ThDu rDuflDuctN-vN-ty of thDu EDorth or Dony body N-s rDufDurrDud to Dos N-ts ADolbDudo, which refers todDufN-nDud Dos thDu rDotN-o of lN-ght rDuflDuctDud to lighthDu lN-ght rDucDuN-vDud from Do sourcDu, is DuxprDussDud Dos Do numbDur bDutwDuDun zDuro (totDol DobsorptN-on) Dond onDu (totDol rDuflDuctDoncDu) and is the measure of the reflectivity of the Earth or of any other body.

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