GPS Compendium (GPS X 02007)

Essentials of Satellite Navigation
u-blox AG Zrcherstrasse68 8800Thalwil Switzerland www.u-blox.com Phone+41447227444 Fax+41447227447 info@u-blox.com
Compendium
Theory and Principles Systems and Applications Overview
your position is our focus
Compendium

Title Subtitle Doc Type Doc Id
Revision Index InitialVersion A
EssentialsofSatelliteNavigation Compendium GPS-X-02007-C

Date 11.Oct.2001 1.Dec.2006 Name Jean-MarieZogg Jean-MarieZogg Status / Comments UpdateofSectionss: SBAS(WAAS,EGNOS) UpdatingGPS GALILEO HighSensitivityGPS AGPSErrorsandDOP UTM-Projection DGPS-Services ProprietaryDataInterfaces GPSReceivers
27.Feb.2007
TG
UpdateofChapters: IntroductiontoSatelliteNavigation SatelliteNavigationmadesimple
26.April2007
TG
UpdateofSections: SpaceSegment UserSegment TheGPSMessage Calculatingaposition(equations) DGPSServicesforreal-timecorrection WideAreaDGPS HardwareInterfaces GNSSReceiverModules
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EssentialsofSatelliteNavigation GPS-X-02007-C
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Foreword
Where on Earth am I?
The answer to this seemingly simple question can sometimes be a matter of life and death. Consider an aviator trying to find a safe destination to land, or the crew of a ship in distress seeking assistance, or a hiker in the mountains disoriented by poor weather conditions. Your position on Earth is of vital importance and can have an immense varietyofimplicationsandapplications. These neednt be as dramatic as the circumstances above, but they can be situations that also have a significant impact on our daily lives. How do I find that address that Ive been searching for, or when or where should the public transitvehicletriggerthenexttrafficlight? The potential applications and uses of position information are seemingly limitless. Our position on this blue planet has always been vitally important to human beings and today our exact position is something that we can obtain withastonishingease. Amongthemoststunningtechnologicaldevelopmentsinrecentyearshavebeentheimmenseadvancesinthe realm of satellite navigation or Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) technologies. In a matter of a few years,satellitenavigationhasevolvedfromthelevelofsciencefictiontosciencefactwithadynamicandrapidly growing industry providing customers around the world with technology devoted to the rapid, reliable and readilyavailabledeterminationoftheirposition. As global leaders in this fascinating and rapidly changing industry, u-blox AG adds a Swiss accent and our obsession with precision and quality shows through. The men and women of this company are dedicated satellitenavigationenthusiasts,andasourmottosays,yourpositionisourfocus.Aspartofourcommitmentto customerservice,u-bloxAGispleasedtobeabletoprovideyouwiththiscompendiumtohelpleadyouintothe remarkableworldofsatellitenavigation. The aim of this book is to provide a comprehensive overview of the way in which satellite navigation systems functionandtheapplicationstowhichtheycanbeused.Thecurrentlevelofdevelopmentaswellaschanges and innovations will be examined. It is written for users who are interested in the technology as well as specialistsinvolvedinsatellitenavigationapplications.Thedocumentisstructuredinsuchawaythatthereader can graduate from simple facts to more complex concepts. The basic theory of satellite navigation will be introducedandsupplementedbyotherimportantfacets.Thiscompendiumisintendedtoadditionallyserveas anaidinunderstandingthetechnologythatgoesspecificallyintocurrentsatellitenavigationreceivers,modules andICs.Importantnewdevelopmentswillbedealtwithinseparatesections.Acquiringanunderstandingofthe various current co-ordinate systems involved in using GNSS equipment can be a difficult task. Therefore, a separatechapterisdevotedtointroducecartography. Wehopethatthisdocumentwillbeofassistancetoyouandthatyouwillbeasenthusiasticasweareaboutthe technology involved in determining position. It is indeed an immensely fascinating world and industry that answersthequestionwhereonearthamI?
Foreword
Authors Preface
In1990,IwastravelingbytrainfromChurtoBrigintheSwisscantonofValais.Inordertopassthetimeduring the journey, I had brought along a few trade journals with me. While thumbing through an American publication, I came acrossa technical article that described a newpositioningand navigation system involving satellites.Thenewsystem,knownasGlobalPositioningSystemorGPS,employedanumberofUSsatellitesto determineonespositionanywhereintheworldtowithinanaccuracyofabout100m1. Asanavidsportsmanandmountainhiker,Ihadonmanyoccasionsendedupinprecarioussituationsduetoa lackofknowledgeoftheareaIwasin.Therefore,Iwasfascinatedbytherevolutionaryprospectofbeingableto determinemypositioneveninfogoratnightbyusingaGPSreceiver. IbegantointensivelyoccupymyselfwithGPS,arousingagreatdealofenthusiasmforthistechnologyamong studentsatmyuniversity,whichresultedinseveralresearchsemestersandgraduatethesesonthesubject.With time I felt that I had become a true expert on the subject and wrote technical articles about GPS for various publications.
Why read this book?

The development of the many new and fascinating potential applications of satellite navigation requires an appreciationofthewayinwhichthesesystemsfunction.Ifyouarefamiliarwiththetechnicalbackgroundofthe system, it becomes possible to develop and use new positioning and navigation equipment. As well as the possibilities,thisbookalsolooksatsomeofthelimitationsofthesysteminordertoprotectyoufromunrealistic expectations.
How did this book come about?

In2000IdecidedtoreducetheamountoftimeIspentlecturingatmyuniversityinordertogainanoverviewof thecommercialsatellitenavigationindustry.Mydesirewastoworkforacompanydirectlyinvolvedwithsatellite navigation and just such a company was u-blox AG, who received me with open arms. u-blox asked me to produce a brochure that they could give to their customers, and this compendium is the result and is a summationofearlierarticlesandnewlycompiledchapters.
A heartfelt wish
Iwishyoueverysuccessasyouembarkonyourjourneythroughthewide-rangingworldofsatellitenavigation andtrustthatyouwillsuccessfullynavigateyourwaythroughthisfascinatingtechnicalfield.Enjoyyourread! Jean-MarieZogg October2001 July2006
Thatwasin1990,positionaldataisnowaccuratetowithin5to10m!
AuthorsPreface
Contents
Contact................................................................................................................................3 Foreword ............................................................................................................................4 Authors Preface.................................................................................................................5 Contents..............................................................................................................................6 Introduction......................................................................................................................10 1 Satellite Navigation Made Simple.............................................................................12
1.1 Theprincipleofmeasuringsignaltransittime ..................................................................................... 12 BasicPrinciplesofSatelliteNavigation ......................................................................................... 13 Signaltraveltime......................................................................................................................... 15 Determiningposition................................................................................................................... 16 Theeffectandcorrectionoftimeerror........................................................................................ 17 1.1.1 1.1.2 1.1.3 1.1.4
GNSS Technology: The GPS example ........................................................................18

2.1 2.2 Descriptionoftheentiresystem.......................................................................................................... 18 Spacesegment ................................................................................................................................... 19 Satellitedistributionandmovement ............................................................................................ 19 TheGPSsatellites ........................................................................................................................ 22 Generatingthesatellitesignal ..................................................................................................... 24
2.2.1 2.2.2 2.2.3 2.3 2.4 2.5
Controlsegment ................................................................................................................................ 27 Usersegment ..................................................................................................................................... 27 TheGPSMessage ............................................................................................................................... 31 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 31 Structureofthenavigationmessage ........................................................................................... 31 Informationcontainedinthesubframes ...................................................................................... 32 TLMandHOW ............................................................................................................................ 32 Subdivisionofthe25pages......................................................................................................... 32 Comparisonbetweenephemerisandalmanacdata..................................................................... 32 NewModulationProcedure,BOC................................................................................................ 34 GPSModernization ..................................................................................................................... 36
2.5.1 2.5.2 2.5.3 2.5.4 2.5.5 2.5.6 2.6 2.6.1 2.6.2
UpgradingGPS ................................................................................................................................... 34
GLONASS and GALILEO..............................................................................................37

3.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................................ 37
Contents

3.2 3.3 TheRussianSystem:GLONASS ........................................................................................................... 38 CompletionofGLONASS............................................................................................................. 38 Overview ..................................................................................................................................... 39 ProjectedGALILEOServices ......................................................................................................... 40 Accuracy ..................................................................................................................................... 42 GALILEOTechnology ................................................................................................................... 43 MostImportantPropertiesofthethreeGNSSSystems ................................................................ 47 GALILEO ............................................................................................................................................. 39
3.2.1 3.3.1 3.3.2 3.3.3 3.3.4 3.3.5
Calculating Position....................................................................................................48
4.1 4.2 Introduction........................................................................................................................................ 48 Calculatingaposition ......................................................................................................................... 48 Theprincipleofmeasuringsignaltraveltime(evaluationofpseudorange)................................... 48 Linearizationoftheequation....................................................................................................... 50 Solvingtheequation ................................................................................................................... 52 Summary..................................................................................................................................... 52 ErroranalysisandDOP ................................................................................................................ 53
4.2.1 4.2.2 4.2.3 4.2.4 4.2.5
Coordinate systems....................................................................................................57
5.1 5.2 5.3 Introduction........................................................................................................................................ 57 Geoids................................................................................................................................................ 57 Ellipsoidanddatum ............................................................................................................................ 58 Ellipsoid....................................................................................................................................... 58 Customizedlocalreferenceellipsoidsanddatum......................................................................... 59 NationalReferenceSystems......................................................................................................... 60 WorldwidereferenceellipsoidWGS-84 ....................................................................................... 60 Transformationfromlocaltoworldwidereferenceellipsoid......................................................... 61 ConvertingCo-ordinateSystems ................................................................................................. 62 Gauss-Krgerprojection(TransversalMercatorProjection) .......................................................... 64 UTMprojection ........................................................................................................................... 64 Swissprojectionsystem(ConformalDoubleProjection) ............................................................... 66 Worldwideconversionofcoordinates.......................................................................................... 67
5.3.1 5.3.2 5.3.3 5.3.4 5.3.5 5.3.6 5.4 5.4.1 5.4.2 5.4.3 5.4.4
Planarregionalcoordinates,projection ............................................................................................... 63
Improved GPS: DGPS, SBAS, A-GPS and HSGPS .......................................................68

6.1 6.2 6.3 Introduction........................................................................................................................................ 68 SourcesofGPSError........................................................................................................................... 68 Possibilitiesforreducingmeasurementerror....................................................................................... 70 DGPSbasedonSignalTravelTimeDelaymeasurement ............................................................... 71 DGPSbasedonCarrierPhasemeasurement ................................................................................ 73
6.3.1 6.3.2
Contents

6.3.3 6.3.4 6.3.5 6.3.6 6.3.7 6.4 6.4.1 6.4.2 6.5 6.5.1 6.5.2 6.6 6.7 DGPSpost-processing(SignalTravelTimeandPhaseMeasurement)............................................ 73 Transmittingthecorrectiondata.................................................................................................. 74 DGPSclassificationaccordingtothebroadcastrange .................................................................. 75 Standardsforthetransmissionofcorrectionsignals .................................................................... 75 Overviewofthedifferentcorrectionservices ............................................................................... 76 GBASServices ............................................................................................................................. 77 EuropeanGBASServices.............................................................................................................. 77 SatelliteBasedAugmentationSystems,SBAS(WAAS,EGNOS) .................................................... 78 SatelliteDGPSservicesusingRTCMSC-104................................................................................. 81
DGPSservicesforreal-timecorrection................................................................................................. 77
WideAreaDGPS(WADGPS) ............................................................................................................... 78
AchievableaccuracywithDGPSandSBAS .......................................................................................... 82 Assisted-GPS(A-GPS).......................................................................................................................... 82 TheprincipleofA-GPS ................................................................................................................ 82 A-GPSwithOnlineAidingData(Real-timeA-GPS)....................................................................... 84 A-GPSwithOfflineAidingData(PredictedOrbits) ....................................................................... 84 ReferenceNetwork...................................................................................................................... 84 ImprovedOscillatorStability ........................................................................................................ 85 Antennas..................................................................................................................................... 85 NoiseFigureConsiderations ........................................................................................................ 85 CorrelatorsandCorrelationTime ................................................................................................ 86
6.7.1 6.7.2 6.7.3 6.7.4 6.8 6.8.1 6.8.2 6.8.3 6.8.4 6.9 6.10
HighSensitivityGPS(HSGPS) .............................................................................................................. 85
GNSS-RepeaterorReradiationAntenna.............................................................................................. 87 Pseudolitesforindoorapplications .................................................................................................. 87
Data Formats and Hardware Interfaces....................................................................88

7.1 7.2 Introduction........................................................................................................................................ 88 Datainterfaces ................................................................................................................................... 89 TheNMEA-0183datainterface ................................................................................................... 89 TheDGPScorrectiondata(RTCMSC-104)................................................................................... 99 Proprietarydatainterfaces......................................................................................................... 102 Antennas................................................................................................................................... 105 Supply ....................................................................................................................................... 109 Timepulse:1PPSandtimesystems............................................................................................ 110 ConvertingtheTTLleveltoRS-232............................................................................................ 112
7.2.1 7.2.2 7.2.3 7.3 7.3.1 7.3.2 7.3.3 7.3.4
HardwareInterfaces ......................................................................................................................... 105
GNSS RECEIVERS.......................................................................................................115
8.1 BasicsofGNSShandheldreceivers.................................................................................................... 115
Contents

8.2 GNSSReceiverModules.................................................................................................................... 116 BasicdesignofaGNSSmodule ................................................................................................. 116 Example:u-blox 5...................................................................................................................... 117
8.2.1 8.2.2
GNSS Applications....................................................................................................119
9.1 9.2 Introduction...................................................................................................................................... 119 Descriptionofthevariousapplications.............................................................................................. 120 LocationBasedServices(LBS)..................................................................................................... 120 CommerceandIndustry ............................................................................................................ 120 CommunicationsTechnology .................................................................................................... 121 AgricultureandForestry ............................................................................................................ 122 ScienceandResearch ................................................................................................................ 122 Tourism/Sport.......................................................................................................................... 124 Military...................................................................................................................................... 124 TimeMeasurement ................................................................................................................... 124
9.2.1 9.2.2 9.2.3 9.2.4 9.2.5 9.2.6 9.2.7 9.2.8
A Resources in the World Wide Web..........................................................................125

A.1 A.2 A.3 A.4 A.5 Summaryreportsandlinks ............................................................................................................... 125 DifferentialGPS ................................................................................................................................ 125 GPSinstitutes ................................................................................................................................... 125 GNSSantennas................................................................................................................................. 126 GNSSnewsgroupandGNSStechnicaljournal................................................................................... 126
Index .........................................................................................................................127
B.1 B.2 B.3 ListofFigures ................................................................................................................................... 127 ListofTables..................................................................................................................................... 129 Sources............................................................................................................................................. 131
Contents
Introduction
SatelliteNavigationisamethodemployingaGlobalNavigationSatelliteSystem(GNSS)toaccuratelydetermine position and time anywhere on the Earth. Satellite Navigation receivers are currently used by both private individualsandbusinessesforpositioning,locating,navigating,surveying,anddeterminingtheexacttimeinan ever-growinglistofpersonal,leisureandcommercialapplications. UsingaGNSSsystemthefollowingvaluescanaccuratelybedeterminedanywhereontheglobe(Figure1): 1. Exactposition(longitude,latitudeandaltitudeco-ordinates)accuratetowithin20mtoapprox.1mm. 2. Exacttime(UniversalTimeCoordinated,UTC)accuratetowithin60nstoapprox.5ns. Speed and direction of travel (course) can be derived from these values, which are obtained from satellites orbitingtheEarth.
Longitude: 924'23.43'' Latitude: 4648'37.20'' Altitude: 709.1m Time: 12h33'07''
Figure 1: The basic function of satellite navigation
Asof2007,theGlobalPositioningSystem(GPS)developedandoperatedbytheUnitedStatesDepartmentof Defense(DoD)wastheonlyfullyoperationalGNSSsystem.TherapidlydevelopingSatelliteNavigationindustry hassprunguparoundtheGPSsystem,andforthisreasonthetermsGPSandSatelliteNavigationaresometimes used interchangeably. This document will place an emphasis on GPS, although other emerging GNSS systems willbeintroducedanddiscussed. GPS(thefullnameofthesystemis:NAVigationSystemwithTimingAndRangingGlobalPositioningSystem, NAVSTAR-GPS)isintendedforbothcivilianandmilitaryuse.TheciviliansignalSPS(Standard PositioningService) canbeusedfreelybythegeneralpublic,whilethemilitarysignalPPS(PrecisePositioningService)isavailableonly toauthorizedgovernmentagencies.ThefirstsatellitewasplacedinorbitonFebruary22,1978,anditisplanned to have up to 32 operational satellites orbiting the Earth at an altitude of 20,180 km on 6 different orbital planes.Theorbitsareinclinedat55totheequator,ensuringthataleast4satellitesareinradiocommunication withanypointontheplanet.EachsatelliteorbitstheEarthinapproximately12hoursandhasfouratomicclocks onboard. DuringthedevelopmentoftheGPSsystem,particularemphasiswasplacedonthefollowingthreeaspects: 1. Ithadtoprovideuserswiththecapabilityofdeterminingposition,speedandtime,whetherinmotionorat rest. 2. Ithadtohaveacontinuous,global,all-weather3-dimensionalpositioningcapabilitywithahighdegreeof accuracy. 3. Ithadtoofferpotentialforcivilianuse.
EssentialsofSatelliteNavigation-Compendium GPS-X-02007-C
Introduction page10

Withinthenextfiveorsixyearstherewilllikelybe3fullyindependentGNSSsystemsavailable.TheUnitedStates willcontinuetoprovideGPSandRussiaandtheEuropeanUnionshouldrespectivelybringtheirGLONASSand GALILEOsystemsintofulloperation.Allofthesesystemswillundergomodernizationandimprovements,which shouldimprovetheirreliabilityandmakenewpotentialservicesandapplicationsavailable2. This compendium will examine the essential principles of Satellite Navigation and move beyond these into specificapplicationsandtechnologies.GPSwillreceiveparticularfocusbecauseofitsimportanceasforerunner and industrystandard,and important developments suchas Differential-GPS (DGPS), Assisted-GPS (AGPS) and DeviceInterfaceswillbetreatedinseparatesections.Thisisallwiththegoalofprovidingthereaderwithasolid foundationandunderstandingofthisfascinatingandincreasinglyimportantfield.
Figure 2: Launch of GPS Satellite
Amongthesewillbeimportantadvancesforaviation,whereinapproachesandlandingsusingsatellitenavigationshouldbecomepossible.
EssentialsofSatelliteNavigation GPS-X-02007-C Introduction page11
1 Satellite Navigation Made Simple

Do you want to . . . o o o o o understand,howthedistanceoflightningcanbesimplydetermined? understand,howSatelliteNavigationessentiallyfunctions? know,howmanyatomicclocksareonboardaGPSsatellite? know,howtodetermineapositiononaplane? understand,whySatelliteNavigationrequiresfoursatellitestodetermineaposition?
Then you should read this chapter!
1.1 The principle of measuring signal transit time

Atsometimeorotherduringathunderstormyouhavealmostcertainlyattemptedtoworkouthowfaraway youarefromaboltoflightning.Thedistancecanbeestablishedquiteeasily(Figure3):distance=thetimethe lightningflash is perceived (starttime) until thethunder isheard (stop time) multipliedby thespeedof sound (approx.330m/s).Thedifferencebetweenthestartandstoptimeisreferredtoasthesignaltraveltime.Inthis casethesignalissoundwavestravelingthroughtheair.
Eye d eterm ines t he

Travel time
start tim
e op tim he st st mine deter Ear
Figure 3: Determining the distance of a lightning flash
distance = traveltime speedofsound
SatelliteNavigationfunctionsbythesameprinciple.Onecalculatespositionbyestablishingthedistancerelative toreferencesatelliteswithaknownposition.Inthiscasethedistanceiscalculatedfromthetraveltimeofradio wavestransmittedfromthesatellites.
SatelliteNavigationMadeSimple page12
1.1.1 Basic Principles of Satellite Navigation

SatelliteNavigationSystemsallusethesamebasicprinciplestodeterminecoordinates: Satelliteswithaknownpositiontransmitaregulartimesignal. Basedonthemeasuredtraveltimeoftheradiowaves(electromagneticsignalstravelthroughspaceatthe speedoflightc=300000km/s)thepositionofthereceiveriscalculated. Wecanseetheprinciplemoreclearlyusingasimplemodel.Imaginethatweareinacarandneedtodetermine ourpositiononalongandstraightstreet.Attheendofthestreetisaradiotransmittersendingatimesignal pulse every second. Onboard the car we are carrying a clock, which is synchronized to the clock at the transmitter.Bymeasuringtheelapsedtraveltimefromthetransmittertothecarwecancalculateourposition onthestreet(Figure4).
TransmittedSignal
ReceivedSignal TravelTime
TimeSignal Transmitter Street DistanceD 300m
Calculated Positiondueto 1sTimeError
Figure 4: In the simplest case Distance is determined by measuring the Travel Time
ThedistanceDiscalculatedbymultiplyingthetraveltimebythevelocityoflightc. D=c Becausethetimeoftheclockonboardourcarmaynotbeexactlysynchronizedwiththeclockatthetransmitter, there can be a discrepancy between the calculated and actual distance traveled. In navigation this incorrect distance is referred to as pseudorange. In our example a time error of one microsecond (1s) generates a pseudorangeof300m. Wecouldsolvethisproblembyoutfittingourcarwithanexactatomicclock,butthiswouldprobablyexceedour budget.Anothersolutioninvolvesusingasecondsynchronizedtimesignaltransmitter,forwhichtheseparation (A)tothefirsttransmitterisknown.Bymeasuringbothtraveltimesitispossibletoexactlyestablishthedistance (D)despitehavinganimpreciseonboardclock.

TransmittedSignal1 1 2 TravelTime1 TimeSignal Transmitter1 Street DistanceD SeparationA
Figure 5: With two transmitters it is possible to calculate the exact position despite Time Errors.
ReceivedSignals 1 TravelTime2
TransmittedSignal2 2
TimeSignal Transmitter2
D=
( 1 2 ) c + A
2
Aswehaveseen,inordertoexactlycalculatethepositionandtimealongaline(bydefinitionalineexpandsin onedimension)werequiretwotimesignaltransmitters.Fromthiswecandrawthefollowingconclusion:When an unsynchronized onboard clock is employed in calculating position, it is necessary that the number of time signaltransmittersexceedthenumberofunknowndimensionsbyavalueofone. ForExample: Onaplane(Expansionintwodimensions)weneedthreetimesignaltransmitters. Inthree-dimensionalspaceweneedfourtimesignaltransmitters.
SatelliteNavigationSystemsusesatellitesastimesignaltransmitters.Contacttoatleastfoursatellites(Figure6) is necessary in order to determine the three desired coordinates (Longitude, Latitude, Altitude) as well as the exacttime.Weexplainthisinmoredetailinfollowingsections.
Sat. 3 Sat. 2 Sat. 4
Sat. 1
SatelliteSignal
TravelTime t
Transmission Reception
Figure 6: Four satellites are needed to determine Longitude, Latitude, Altitude and Time
1.1.2 Signal travel time

SatelliteNavigationSystemsemploysatellitesorbitinghighabovetheEarthanddistributedinsuchawaythat fromanypointonthegroundthereislineofsightcontacttoatleast4satellites. Each one of these satellites is equipped with onboard atomic clocks. Atomic clocks are the most precise time measurementinstrumentsknown,losingamaximumofonesecondevery30,000to1,000,000years.Inorder tomakethemevenmoreaccurate,theyareregularlyadjustedorsynchronizedfromvariouscontrolpointson Earth.GNSSsatellitestransmittheirexactpositionandonboardclocktimetoEarth.Thesesignalsaretransmitted atthespeedoflight(300,000km/s)andthereforerequireapprox.67.3mstoreachapositionontheEarths surfacedirectlybelowthesatellite.Thesignalsrequireafurther3.33sforeachaddtionalkilometeroftravel.To establish position, all that is required is a receiverandanaccurate clock. By comparingthearrivaltime ofthe satellitesignalwiththeonboardclocktimethemomentthesignalwastransmitted,itispossibletodetermine thesignaltraveltime(Figure7).
Satellite and receiver clock display: 0ms
0ms 75ms 50ms 25ms 75ms 50ms
Satellite and receiver clock display: 67.3ms

0ms 25ms
Signal
Signal transmission (start time)
Signal reception (stop time)
Figure 7: Determining the signal travel time
Aswiththeexampleofthecar,thedistanceDtothesatellitecanbedeterminedfromtheknownsignaltravel time:
distance = traveltime speed oflight : D = c
1.1.3 Determining position

Imaginethatyouarewanderingacrossavastplateauandwouldliketoknowwhereyouare.Twosatellitesare orbitingfarabove youtransmitting their onboard clock timesand positions. By using thesignal travel time to bothsatellitesyoucandrawtwocircleswiththeradiiD1andD2aroundthesatellites.Eachradiuscorrespondsto thedistancecalculatedtothesatellite.Allpossiblepositionsrelativetothesatellitesarelocatedonthesecircles. Ifthepositionabovethesatellitesisexcluded,thelocationofthereceiverisattheexactpointwherethetwo circlesintersectbeneaththesatellites(Figure8),therefore,twosatellitesaresufficienttodetermineapositionon theX/Yplane.
Y - coordinates Circles D2= 2 c D1= 1 c Sat. 2 Sat. 1 YP
Position of the receiver (XP, YP) 0 0 XP
X - coordinates
Figure 8: The position of the receiver at the intersection of the two circles
In the real world, a position has to be determined in three-dimensional space rather than on a plane. As the differencebetweenaplaneandthree-dimensionalspaceconsistsofanextradimension(heightZ),anadditional thirdsatellitemustbeavailabletodeterminethetrueposition.Ifthedistancetothethreesatellitesisknown,all possiblepositionsarelocatedonthesurfaceofthreesphereswhoseradiicorrespondtothedistancecalculated. Thepositionisthepointwhereallthreeofthespheresintersect(Figure9).
Position
Figure 9: The position is determined at the point where all three spheres intersect

1.1.4 The effect and correction of time error
Theconclusionsintheprevioussectionareonlyvalid,iftheclockatthereceiverandtheatomicclocksonboard thesatellitesaresynchronized,i.e.thesignaltraveltimecanbepreciselydetermined.Ifthemeasuredtraveltime betweenthesatellitesandanearthboundnavigationalreceiverisincorrectbyjust1s,thisproducesaposition errororpseudorangeof300m.AstheclocksonboardalltheGNSSsatellitesaresynchronized,thesignaltravel timeinthecaseofallthreemeasurementsisinaccuratebythesameamount.Mathematicscanhelpusinthis situation. We are reminded when performing mathematical calculations that if N variables are unknown, we need N independentequationstoidentifythem.Ifthetimemeasurementisaccompaniedbyaconstantunknownerror (t),in3-Dimensionalspacewewillhavefourunknownvariables: longitude(X) latitude(Y) height(Z) timeerror(t)
Thesefourvariablesrequirefourequations,whichcanbederivedfromfourseparatesatellites. SatelliteNavigationsystemsaredeliberatelyconstructedinsuchawaythatfromanypointonEarth,atleast4 satellitesarevisible(Figure10).Thusdespiteinaccuracyonthepartofthereceiverclockandresultingtime errors,apositioncanbecalculatedtowithinanaccuracyofapprox.510m.

Sat. 2 Sat. 3
Sat. 1 Sat. 4
Signal
Figure 10: Four satellites are required to determine a position in 3-D space.
2 GNSS Technology: The GPS example
If you would like to . . . o o o o o o o o o
understandwhythreedifferentGPSsegmentsareneeded knowwhatfunctioneachindividualsegmenthas knowhowaGPSsatelliteisbasicallyconstructed knowwhatsortofinformationistransmittedtoEarth understandhowasatellitesignalisgenerated understandhowSatelliteNavigationsignaltraveltimeisdetermined understandwhatcorrelationmeans understandwhyaminimumperiodoftimeisrequiredfortheGPSsystemtocomeonline knowwhatframesandsubframesare
then this chapter is for you!
2.1 Description of the entire system

InthefollowingsectionswewillexplorethedifferentsegmentsofGNSStechnologybyspecificallylookingatthe GPSsystem. TheGPSsystemiscomprisedofthreefunctionalsegments(Figure11): Thespacesegment(alloperatingsatellites) Thecontrolsegment(allgroundstationsinvolvedinthemonitoringofthesystem:mastercontrolstations, monitorstations,andgroundcontrolstations) Theusersegment(allcivilianandmilitaryusers)
GNSSTechnology:TheGPSexample page18
Space segment
From satellites L1 carrier signals - time pulses - ephemeris - almanac - satellite health - date, time
- established ephemeris - calculated almanacs - satellite health - time corrections From the ground station
User segment
Control segment
Figure 11: The three GNSS segments
As can be seen in Figure 11 there is unidirectional communication between the space segment and the user segment.Thegroundcontrolstationshavebidirectionalcommunicationwiththesatellites.
2.2 Space segment

2.2.1 Satellite distribution and movement
ThespacesegmentoftheGPSsystemconsistsofupto32operationalsatellites(Figure12)orbitingtheEarthon 6differentorbitalplanes(fourtofivesatellitesperplane).Theyorbitataheightof20,180kmabovetheEarths surfaceandareinclinedat55totheequator.Anyonesatellitecompletesitsorbitinaround12hours.Dueto therotationoftheEarth,asatellitewillbeatitsinitialstartingpositionabovetheearthssurface(Figure13)after approx.24hours(23hours56minutestobeprecise).
Figure 12: GPS satellites orbit the Earth on 6 orbital planes
Satellitesignalscanbereceivedanywherewithinasatelliteseffectiverange.Figure13showstheeffectiverange (shadedarea)ofasatellitelocateddirectlyabovetheequator/zeromeridianintersection.
90
15h 3h
Latitude
0 12h
18h
0h
6h
12h
21h
9h
90 -180
-120
-60
60
120
180
Longitude
Figure 13: 24 hour tracking of a GPS satellite with its effective range
ThedistributionofthesatellitesataspecifictimecanbeseeninFigure14.Itisduetothisingeniouspatternof distributionandtothehighorbitalaltitudesthatcommunicationwithatleast4satellitesisensuredatalltimes anywhereintheworld.

90
Latitude
90 -180
-120
-60
60
120
180
Longitude
Figure 14: Position of the GPS satellites at 12:00 hrs UTC on 14th April 2001
2.2.2 The GPS satellites

2.2.2.1 Satellite Construction
Allofthesatellitesuseonboardatomicclockstomaintainsynchronizedsignals,whicharetransmittedoverthe same frequency (1575.42 MHz). The minimum signal strength received on Earth is approx. -158dBW to -160dBW[i].Accordingtothespecifications,themaximumstrengthisapprox.-153dBW.
Figure 15: A GPS satellite
2.2.2.2
The communication link budget analysis
Thelinkbudgetanalysis(Table1)betweenasatelliteandauserissuitableforestablishingtherequiredlevelof satellitetransmissionpower.Accordingtothespecifications,theminimumamountofpowerreceivedmustnot fallbelow160dBW(-130dBm).Inordertoensurethislevelismaintained,thesatelliteL1carriertransmission power,modulatedwiththeC/Acode,mustbe21.9W. Poweratthesatellitetransmitter Gain(+)/loss(-) Absolutevalue 13.4dBW(43.4dBm=21.9W) 26.8dBW(56.8dBm)
Satellite antenna gain (due to concentration +13.4dB ofthesignalat14.3) RadiatepowerEIRP (EffectiveIntegratedRadiatePower) Lossduetopolarizationmismatch Signalattenuationinspace Signalattenuationintheatmosphere Gainfromthereceptionantenna Poweratreceiverinput -3.4dB -184.4dB -2.0dB +3.0dB
-160dBW(-130dBm=100.0*10-18W)
Table 1: L1 carrier link budget analysis modulated with the C/A code
Accordingtothespecifications,thepowerofthereceivedGPSsignalinopenskyisatleast-160dBW(-130dBm). The maximum of the spectral power density of the received signal is given as -190 dBm/Hz (Figure 16). The

spectralpowerdensityofthethermalbackgroundnoiseisabout174dBm/Hz(atatemperatureof290K).Thus themaximumreceivedsignalpowerisapproximately16dBbelowthethermalbackgroundnoiselevel.
-170 Thermal Noise
-180 16dB Spectral Power Density (dBm/Hz) -190 Received Signal -200
-210
-220
-2MHz
-1MHz 0 1MHz Deviation from median frequency
2MHz
Figure 16: Spectral Power Density of received signal and thermal noise
2.2.2.3
Satellite signals
Thefollowinginformation(thenavigationmessage)istransmittedbythesatelliteatarateof50bitspersecond [ii]: Satellitetimeandsynchronizationsignals Preciseorbitaldata(ephemeris) Timecorrectioninformationtodeterminetheexactsatellitetime Approximateorbitaldataforallsatellites(almanac) Correctionsignalstocalculatesignaltransittime Dataontheionosphere Informationontheoperatingstatus(health)ofthesatellite
Thetimerequiredtotransmitallthisinformationis12.5minutes.Byusingthenavigationmessagethereceiveris abletodeterminethetransmissiontimeofeachsatellitesignalandtheexactpositionofthesatelliteatthetime oftransmission. EachGPSsatellitetransmitsauniquesignatureassignedtoit.ThissignatureconsistsofaPseudoRandomNoise (PRN)Codeof1023zerosandones,broadcastwithadurationof1msandcontinuallyrepeated(Figure17).
1 ms/1023 1 0 1 ms
Figure 17: Pseudo Random Noise
Thesignaturecodeservesthefollowingtwopurposesforthereceiver: Identification:theuniquesignaturepatternidentifiesthesatellitefromwhichthesignaloriginated. Signaltraveltimemeasurement
2.2.3 Generating the satellite signal

2.2.3.1 Simplified block diagram
Onboardeachofthesatellitesarefourhighlyaccurateatomicclocks.Theresonancefrequencyofoneofthese clocksgeneratesthefollowingtimepulsesandfrequenciesrequiredforoperations(Figs.13and14): The50Hzdatapulse TheC/A(Coarse/Acquisition)code(aPRN-Codebroadcastat1.023MHz),whichmodulatesthedatausing anexclusive-oroperation(EXOR)3spreadingthedataovera2MHzbandwidth. ThefrequencyofthecivilL1carrier(1575.42MHz)
ThedatamodulatedbytheC/AcodemodulatestheL1carrierinturnbyusingBinary-Phase-Shift-Keying(BPSK)4. Witheverychangeinthemodulateddatathereisa180changeintheL1carrierphase.

3 4
Alogicaloperationontwooperandsthatresultsinalogicalvalueoftrueifandonlyifexactlyoneoftheoperandshasavalueoftrue. Amethodofmodulatingacarrierwavesothatdataistranslatedinto90phaseshiftsofthecarrier.

Multiplier Carrier frequency generator 1575.42 MHz
1 0
L1 carrier
Transmitted satellite signal (BPSK)
PRN code generator 1.023 MHz
C/A code
Data generator 50 Bit/sec
1 0
exclusive-or Data
Data
Figure 18: Simplified satellite block diagram
Data, 50 bit/s C/A code (PRN-18) 1.023 MBit/s Data modulated by C/A code L1 carrier, 1575.42 MHz BPSK modulated L1 carrier
1 0
1 0
Figure 19: Data structure of a GPS signal
2.2.3.2
Detailed block diagram
Satellite navigation signals are generated using a process known as DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum) modulation [iii]. This is a procedure in which a nominal or baseband (not tobeconfused with the baseband chipinthereceiver)frequencyisdeliberatelyspreadoutoverawiderbandwidththroughsuperimposingahigher frequency signal. The principle of spread-spectrum modulation was first devised in the 1940s in the United States,byscreenactressHedyLamarrandpianistGeorgeAnthell[iv].Thisprocessallowsforsecureradiolinks evenindifficultenvironments. GPSsatellitesareeachequippedwithfourextremelystableatomicclocks(possessingastabilityofgreaterthan -12 2010 [v]).Thenominalorbasebandfrequencyof10.23MHzisproducedfromtheresonantfrequencyofone oftheseonboardclocks.Inturn,thecarrierfrequency,datapulsefrequencyandC/A(coarse/acquisition)code areallderivedfromthisfrequency(Figure20).SincealltheGPSsatellitestransmiton1575.42MHz,aprocess knownasaCDMA(CodeDivisionMultipleAccess)Multiplex5isused. TheC/Acodeplaysanimportantroleinthemultiplexingandmodulation.Itisaconstantlyrepeatedsequenceof 1023bitsknownasapseudorandomnoise(PRN)code.Thiscodeisuniquetoeachsatelliteandservesasits identifyingsignature.TheC/Acodeisgeneratedusingafeedbackshiftregister6.Thegeneratorhasafrequency of1.023MHzandaperiodof1023chips7,whichcorrespondsto1ms.TheC/AcodeisaGoldCode8,whichhas advantageous correlation properties. This has important implications later on in the navigation process in the calculationofposition.
x 154
Carrier freq. generator 1575.42MHz 1575.42MHz
Antenna BPSK modulator

1575.42MHz
L1 carrier
BPSK
: 10
Atomic clock Baseband Frequency 10.23MHz 10.23MHz Time pulse for C/A generator 1.023MHz 1.023MHz C/A code generator 1 period = 1ms = 1023 Chips 1.023MHz
1.023MHz
C/A code
exclusive-or
: 204'600
Data pulse generator 50Hz 50Hz Data processing 1 Bit = 20ms 0/1
50Hz
Data
Data
Figure 20: Detailed block diagram of a GPS satellite

Aformofmultiplexingthatdividesuparadiochannelbyusingdifferentpseudo-randomcodesequencesforeachuser.CDMAisaformof "spread-spectrum"signalling,sincethemodulatedcodesignalhasamuchhigherbandwidththanthedatabeingcommunicated. 6 Ashiftregisterwhoseinputbitisalinearfunctionofitspreviousstate. 7 Thetransitiontimeforindividualbitsinthepseudo-randomsequence. 8 AGoldcodeisasetofbinarysequences.Picktwom-sequencesofthesamelengthn,suchthattheircross-correlationtakesjustthree values.Thesetofthenexclusive-orsofthetwosequencesintheirvariousphases(i.e.translatedintoallrelativepositions),togetherwiththe twon-sequencesthemselves,isasetofGoldcodes.TheexclusiveoroftwoGoldcodesisanotherGoldcodeinsomephase. EssentialsofSatelliteNavigation GPS-X-02007-C
5
2.3 Control segment

TheGPScontrolsegment(OperationalControlSystemOCS)consistsofaMasterControlStationlocatedinthe stateofColorado,fivemonitorstations(eachequippedwithatomicclocksanddistributedaroundtheglobein thevicinityoftheequator),andthreegroundcontrolstationstransmittinginformationtothesatellites. Themostimportanttasksofthecontrolsegmentare: Observingthemovementofthesatellitesandcomputingorbitaldata(ephemeris) Monitoringthesatelliteclocksandpredictingtheirbehavior Synchronizingonboardsatellitetime Relayingpreciseorbitaldatareceivedfromsatellites Relayingtheapproximateorbitaldataofallsatellites(almanac) Relayingfurtherinformation,includingsatellitehealth,clockerrorsetc.
The control segment also oversees the artificial distortion of signals (SA, Selective Availability), in order to degrade the systems positional accuracy for civil use. Until May 2000 the U.S.DoD (the GPS operators) intentionally degraded system accuracy for political and strategic reasons. This can be resumed, if deemed necessary,eitheronaglobalorregionalbasis.
2.4 User segment

TheradiosignalstransmittedbytheGPSsatellitestakeapprox.67millisecondstoreachareceiveronEarth.As the signals travel at a constant speed (the speed of light c), their travel time determines the exact distance betweenthesatellitesandtheuser. Fourdifferentsignalsaregeneratedinthereceiver,eachhavingthesamestructureasthesignalsreceivedfrom the4satellites.Bysynchronizingthesignalsgeneratedinthereceiverwiththosefromthesatellites,thesignal timeshiftstofthefoursatellitesaremeasuredasatimemark(Figure21).Themeasuredtimeshiftstofall4 satellite signals are then used to determine the exact signal travel time. These time shifts are called pseudoranges.
1 ms Satellite signal Receiver signal (synchronised) Receiver time mark Synchronisation
Figure 21: Measuring signal travel time
Inordertodeterminethepositionofauser,radiocommunicationwithfourdifferentsatellitesisrequired.The distancetothesatellitesisdeterminedbythetraveltimeofthesignals.Thereceiverthencalculatestheusers latitude,longitude,altitudehandtimetfromthepseudorangesandknownpositionofthefoursatellites. Expressedinmathematicalterms,thismeansthatthefourunknownvariables, , handtaredeterminedfrom thedistanceandknownpositionofthesefoursatellites,althoughafairlycomplexlevelofiterationisrequired, whichwillbedealtwithingreaterdetailatalaterstage.


As mentioned earlier, all the GPS satellites transmit on the same frequency, but with a different C/A code. Identificationofthesatellitesandsignalrecoverytakeplacebymeansofacorrelation.Asthereceiverisableto recognize all C/A codes currently in use, by systematically shifting and comparing every known code with all incomingsatellitesignals,acompletematchwilleventuallyoccur(thatistosaythecorrelationfactorCFisone), anda correlation point will beattained (Figure 22).The correlationpoint is usedto measuretheactual signal traveltimeandtoidentifythesatellite.
Incoming signal from PRN-18 bit 11 to 40, reference Reference signal from PRN-18 bit 1 to 30, leading Reference signal from PRN-18 bit 11 to 40, in phase Reference signal from PRN-18 bit 21 to 50, trailing Reference signal from PRN-5 Bit 11 to 40, in phase
Figure 22: Demonstration of the correction process across 30 bits
CF = 0.00 Correlation point: CF = 1.00 CF = 0.07 CF = 0.33
The quality of the correlation is expressed here as a CF (correlation factor). The value range of the CF lies between minus one and plus one and is only plus one when the signals completely match (bit sequence and phase).
1 N CF = [( mB) (uB)] N i =1
mB: uB: N: numberofallmatchedbits numberofallunmatchedbits numberofobservedbits.
AsaresultoftheDopplerEffect(satellitesandreceiversareinrelativemotiontooneanother)thetransmitted signalscanbeshiftedbyupto6000Hzatthepointofreception.Thedeterminationofthesignaltraveltime anddatarecoverythereforerequiresnotonlycorrelationwithallpossiblecodesatallpossiblephaseshifts,but alsoidentificationofthecorrectphasecarrierfrequency.Throughsystematicshiftingandcomparisonofallthe codes(Figure22)andthecarrierfrequencywiththeincomingsatellitesignalstherecomesapointthatproduces acompleteagreement(i.e.thecorrelationfactorisone)(Figure23).Asearchpositioninthecarrierfrequency levelisknownasabin.
Maximum Level
bin
1023 767
Correlation Factor
1 255 0 -6KHz 0 +6KHz
511
o C
de
h S
if t
FrequencyShift
Figure 23: Search for the maximum correlation in the code and carrier frequency domains
The spectral power density of the received GPS signal lays at approximately 16 dB below the spectral power densityofthethermalorbackgroundnoise(seeFigure16).Thedemodulationanddespreadingofthereceived GPSsignalcausesasystemgainGGof:
GG = Modulationrate of C/A - Code 1023 bps = = 20,500 = 43dB Datarateof informationsignal 50bps
After despreading, the power density of the usable signal is greater than that of the thermal or background signalnoise(Figure24).
-140 Correlated Signal -150 Spectral Power Density (dBm/Hz)
-160
-170 Thermal Noise -180
-190
-100Hz
-50Hz 0 50Hz Deviation from Median Frequency
100Hz
Figure 24: Spectral Power Density of the correlated signal and Thermal Signal Noise
The sensitivity of a GPS Receiver can be improved through increasing the correlation time (Dwell Time). The longeracorrelatorremainsataspecificpointintheCodeFrequencyLevel,thelowerwillbetherequiredGPS

signal strength at the antenna. When the correlation time is increased by a factor of k, there will be an improvementGRinthedifferencebetweentheSignalandtheThermalBackgroundNoiseof: GR=log10(k) Doubling theDwellTime increasesthe difference between the Signal and theThermal Background Noise (the sensitivityofthereceiver)by3dB.Inpracticeitisnotaproblemtoincreasethecorrelationtimeupto20ms.If thevalueofthetransmitteddataisknown,thenthistimecanbeincreasedevenmore.
2.5 The GPS Message

2.5.1 Introduction
TheGPSmessage[vi]isacontinuousstreamofdatatransmittedat50bitspersecond.Eachsatelliterelaysthe followinginformationtoEarth: Systemtimeandclockcorrectionvalues Itsownhighlyaccurateorbitaldata(ephemeris) Approximateorbitaldataforallothersatellites(almanac) Systemhealth,etc.
Thenavigationmessageisneededtocalculatethecurrentpositionofthesatellitesandtodeterminesignaltravel times. ThedatastreamismodulatedtotheHFcarrierwaveofeachindividualsatellite.Dataistransmittedinlogically groupedunitsknownasframesorpages.Eachframeis1500bitslongandtakes30secondstotransmit.The framesaredividedinto5subframes.Eachsubframeis300bitslongandtakes6secondstotransmit.Inorderto transmit a complete almanac, 25 different frames are required. Transmission time for the entire almanac is therefore 12.5 minutes. Unless equipped with GPS enhancement (see chapter 6) a GPS receiver must have collectedthecompletealmanacatleastonceinordertocalculateitsinitialposition.
2.5.2 Structure of the navigation message

Aframeis1500bitslongandtakes30secondstotransmit.The1500bitsaredividedintofivesubframeseach of300bits(durationoftransmission6seconds).Eachsubframeisinturndividedinto10wordseachcontaining 30 bits. Each subframe begins with a telemetry word and a handover word (HOW). A complete navigation message consists of 25 frames (pages). The structure of the navigation message is illustrated in a diagram in Figure25.
Telemetry word 8Bits (TLM) pre30 bits amble 0.6s
16Bits reserved
6Bits parity
Handover word 17Bits 7Bits 6Bits (HOW) Time of Week div., pa30 bits (TOW) ID rity 0.6s
TLM HOW
Subpage 300 Bits 6s Sub-frame 1 Frame (page) 1500 bits 30s

TLM HOW
1 2 3
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Word No. Data Word content Sub-frame 4

TLM HOW
Sub-frame 2
TLM HOW
Sub-frame 3
TLM HOW
Sub-frame 5
TLM HOW
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Satellite clock and health data
Ephemeris
Ephemeris
Partial almanac other data
Almanac
Navigation 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 message 25 pages/frames 37500 bits 12.5 min
Figure 25: Structure of the entire navigation message EssentialsofSatelliteNavigation GPS-X-02007-C

2.5.3 Information contained in the subframes
Aframeisdividedintofivesubframes,eachsubframetransmittingdifferentinformation. Subframe1containsthetimevaluesofthetransmittingsatellite,includingtheparametersforcorrecting signaltransitdelayandonboardclocktime,aswellasinformationonsatellitehealthandanestimateof thepositionalaccuracyofthesatellite.Subframe1alsotransmitstheso-called10-bitweeknumber(a rangeofvaluesfrom0to1023canberepresentedby10bits).GPStimebeganonSunday,6thJanuary 1980at00:00:00hours.Every1024weekstheweeknumberrestartsat0.Thiseventiscalledaweek rollover. Subframes2and3containtheephemerisdataofthetransmittingsatellite.Thisdataprovidesextremely accurateinformationonthesatellitesorbit. Subframe4containsthealmanacdataonsatellitenumbers25to32(N.B.eachsubframecantransmit datafrom one satellite only), the difference betweenGPSand UTC time (leap seconds or UTC offset) andinformationregardinganymeasurementerrorscausedbytheionosphere. Subframe5containsthealmanacdataonsatellitenumbers1to24(N.B.eachsubframecantransmit datafromonesatelliteonly).All25pagesaretransmittedtogetherwithinformationonthehealthof satellitenumbers1to24.
2.5.4 TLM and HOW

Thefirstwordofeverysingleframe,thetelemetryword(TLM),containsapreamblesequence8bitsinlength (10001011) used for synchronization purposes, followed by 16 bits reserved for authorized users. As with all words,thefinal6bitsofthetelemetrywordareparitybits. Thehandoverword(HOW)immediatelyfollowsthetelemetrywordineachsubframe.Thehandoverwordis17 bits in length (a range of values from 0 to 131071 can be represented using 17 bits) and contains within its structurethestarttimeforthenextsubframe,whichistransmittedastimeoftheweek(TOW).TheTOWcount beginswiththevalue0atthebeginningoftheGPSweek(transitionperiodfromSaturday23:59:59hoursto Sunday 00:00:00 hours) and is increased by a value of 1 every 6 seconds. As there are 604,800 seconds ina week, the count runs from 0 to 100,799, before returning to 0. A marker is introduced into the data stream every6secondsandtheHOWtransmitted,inordertoallowsynchronizationwiththePcode.BitNos.20to22 areusedinthehandoverwordtoidentifythesubframejusttransmitted.
2.5.5 Subdivision of the 25 pages

Acompletenavigationmessagerequires25pagesandlasts12.5minutes.Apageoraframeisdividedintofive subframes.Inthecaseofsubframes1to3,theinformationcontentisthesameforall25pages.Thismeansthat areceiverhasthecompleteclockvaluesandephemerisdatafromthetransmittingsatelliteevery30seconds. Theonlydifferenceinthecaseofsubframes4and5ishowtheinformationtransmittedisorganized. Inthecaseofsubframe4,pages2,3,4,5,7,8,9and10relaythealmanacdataonsatellitenumbers 25to32.Ineachcase,thealmanacdataforonesatelliteonlyistransferredperpage.Page18transmits thevaluesforcorrectionmeasurementsasaresultofionosphericscintillation,aswellasthedifference betweenUTCandGPStime.Page25containsinformationontheconfigurationofall32satellites(i.e. blockaffiliation)andthehealthofsatellitenumbers25to32. Inthecaseofsubframe5,pages1to24relaythealmanacdataonsatellitenumbers1to24.Ineach case,thealmanacdataforonesatelliteonlyistransferredperpage.Page25transfersinformationon thehealthofsatellitenumbers1to24andtheoriginalalmanactime.
2.5.6 Comparison between ephemeris and almanac data

Usingbothephemerisandalmanacdata,thesatelliteorbitsandthereforetherelevantco-ordinatesofaspecific satellitecanbedeterminedatadefinedpointintime.Thedifferencebetweenthevaluestransmittedliesmainly intheaccuracyofthefigures.Inthefollowingtable(Table2),acomparisonismadebetweenthetwosetsof figures.

Information Ephemeris No.ofbits Squarerootofthesemimajoraxisof 32 orbitalellipsea Eccentricityoforbitalellipsee 32 Almanac No.ofbits 16 16
Table 2: Comparison between ephemeris and almanac data
Theorbitofasatellitefollowsanellipse.ForanexplanationofthetermsusedinTable2,seeFigure26.
Figure 26: Ephemeris terms
Semi-majoraxisoforbitalellipse:a Semi-minoraxisoforbitalellipse:b Eccentricityoftheorbitalellipse: e =
a2 b2 a2
2.6 Upgrading GPS

2.6.1 New Modulation Procedure, BOC
Inorderforallsatellitestotransmitonthesamefrequency,theGPSsignalsarespreadout(modulated)witha specialcode.ThiscodeconsistsofaPseudoRandomNoiseCode(PRN)of1023zeroesoronesandisknownas the C/A-Code. The code, with a period of 1 millisecond, has a chiprate of 1.023Mbit/s. It is continuously repeated and due to its unique structure enables the receiver to identify from which satellite the signal originates. Thespreading(ormodulation)ofthedatasignalisachievedwithanexclusive-or(EXOR)operation(Figure27). The result is referred to as Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK(1)). The nominal or baseband frequency signal is generatedbyoneoftheatomicclocksandallsatellitesignalsarederivedfromthis.Thenominalorbaseband frequencyisthenspreadormodulatedbytheC/ACodeat11.023Mbit/s.
1 ms Baseband Frequency 1.023MHz PRN-Code Generator 1.023 Mbit/s

1 0
1 ms/1023
x1
C/A-Code BPSK(1)
Data Generator (C/A-Code) 50 Bit/sec Navigation Data
1 0
EXOR Data
Figure 27: With BPSK the Navigation Data Signal is first spread by a code
Inthefuture,GPSandtheEuropeanGALILEOsystemswilluseanewmodulationprocesscalledBinaryOffset Code Modulation (BOC). With BOC the BPSK signal undergoes a further modulation [vii]. The Modulation FrequencyisalwaysamultipleoftheBasebandFrequencyof1.023MHz.Thepropertiesofthismodulationare communicatedinaspecificway.ForexampleBOC(10,5)meansthatthemodulationfrequencyisafactorof10 timestheNominalorBasebandFrequency(101.023MHz)andthechiprateoftheC/ACodeis5timesthebase (51,023Mbit/s)(Figure28).
x 10
Modulation Generator 10.23 MHz
1 0
10.23MHz
0.2 ms Baseband Frequency 1.023MHz PRN-Code Generator 5.115 Mbit/s

1 0
x5
C/A-Code BOC(10,5)
Data Generator (C/A-Code) 50 Bit/s Navigation Data
1 0
EXOR Data
EXOR
Figure 28: Modulation for the Future: BOC(10,5)
Thanks to BOC the signal will be better distributed over the bandwidth and the influence of opposing signal reflection(Multipath)onthereceptionoftheNavigationSignalwillbereducedincomparisontoBPSK.When BPSK(1)undBOC(1,1)aresimultaneouslyusedtheirmutualinfluenceisaminimumbecausethemaximaofthe powerdensitiesareseparated(Figure29).
Spectral Power Density (dBm/Hz)
Deviation from Median Frequency
Figure 29: With BPSK(1) and BOC(1,1) the signal maxima are separated (signal strength normalized at 1 W per signal)

2.6.2 GPS Modernization
SincetheactivationoftheGPSsystemin1978allthesatellitestransmitthefollowingthreesignalstotheEarth: OntheL1-Frequency(1575.42MHz):oneciviliansignal(SPS-ServicewiththeC/A-Signal,BPSK(1))and onemilitarysignal(PPS-servicewiththeP(Y)-Signal,BPSK(10)) OntheL2-Frequency(1227.60MHz):asecondmilitarysignal.
The U.S.DoD has planned incremental improvements to the GPS signal structure (Figure 30). For civilian applicationstheintroductionofasecondandthirdfrequencyisveryimportant;whenmorefrequenciescanbe used for establishing position, then the influence of the ionosphere on the signal travel time can be compensated or even eliminated. This compensation is possible because the transmission velocity c in the ionosphereisdependantonthefrequency.Inadditiontothetwonewsignals,themodernizationofGPSwill provide an increase in the signal strength for civilian users as well as additional capabilities for military applications. OnSeptember25,2005thefirstofeightnewsatellitesofthetypeIIR-M(Block2,ReplenishmentandMilitary) was sent into orbit. On December 16, 2005 the satellite was ready for transmission. The launches of the remainingsevensatellitesbeganinearly2006.Thesenewsatellitestransmitadditionally: Anewciviliansignalat1227.60MHz,theso-calledL2CFrequency. Supplementarymilitarysignalsat1575.42MHzand1227.60MHz:theMSignals,usingBOC(10,5) modulation. A new generation of satellites is planned towards the end of this decade. This new series will have the designationIIF(Block2,Follow-ON)andIII(Block3).Themostimportantcharacteristicsofthesenewsatellites willbe: Newciviliansignalat1176.45MHz(L5Frequency).Thissignalshouldbemorerobustthanprevious civiliansignalsandcanbeusedinaviationduringcriticalapproaches. IncreaseinthesignalstrengthoftheMSignals(=M+)throughtheuseofconcentratingbeam antennas. ImprovementoftheC/ASignalStructureforthecivilianL1Frequency.(TobedesignatedL1C).
Frequency Band L5 1176.45MHz L2 1227.60MHz L1 1575.42MHz P(Y) M P(Y) L2C M P(Y) C/A Frommid2005 BlockIIR-M
CivilianSignal
MilitarySignal
L5 M+ P(Y) L2C M+ P(Y) L1C From2010 BlockIIF&III Date
P(Y) C/A Untilearly2005
Figure 30: With Modernization the availability of GPS frequencies will be increased
TheGPSgroundstationswillalsoberenewed.Theentiredevelopmentshouldbecompleteandoperationalby themiddleofthenextdecade.Thenewsignalswillthenbecompletelyavailabletousers.
3 GLONASS and GALILEO

Do you want to . . . o o o o o o
know,howtheRussianNavigationSystemGLONASSfunctions understand,whyGLONASSwillbebuiltup know,whichsystemEuropewillbeactivating understand,whyGALILEOwillprovidedifferentservices know,whatSARcanmeanforsailors know,howthenewmodulationprocessBOCfunctions
3.1 Introduction
On December 28, 2005 the first GALILEO satellite was brought into orbit. The satellite, with the designation GIOVE-Abegananewepoch.ForthefirsttimeEuropeisalsoactivelyinvolvedinsatellitenavigation.GPSshould receive some competition: Probably within the next five to six years there will be three independent GNSS systems available. The USA will continue to provide GPS, and Russia and the European Union (EU) will respectivelyofferfunctionalGLONASSandGALILEOsystems.WiththreefunctioningGNSSsystemswewillnot onlybeabletoachievemoreaccuratepositioningbutwillalsohavedifferentfunctionsavailable. GPSwillalsobemodernizedintheforeseeablefutureandwillthereforebecomemorereliable(see2.6). ThischaptergivesanoverviewofthenotyetcompletelyoperationalGLONASSsystem,andthefutureEuropean GALILEOsystem.
GLONASSandGALILEO page37
3.2 The Russian System: GLONASS

GLONASS is an abbreviation for a GNSS system currently operated by the Russian Defense Ministry. The designation GLONASS stands for Global Navigation Satellite System. The program was first started by the formerSovietUnion,andistodayundertheauspicesoftheCommonwealthofIndependentStates(CIS).The firstthreetest-satelliteswerelaunchedintoorbitonOctober12,1982. Themostimportantspecificationsofthissystemwere:
24plannedsatellites(21standard+3reservesatellites).Thisnumberhasneverbeenachieved.Therelatively shortlifespanoftheindividualsatellitesof3to4yearshamperedthecompletionofthesystem. 3orbitallevelswithanangleof64.8fromtheequator(thisisthehighestangleofalltheGNSSsystems andallowsbetterreceptioninpolarregions) Orbitalaltitudeof19,100km Orbitalperiodof11h15.8min EveryGLONASSsatellitetransmitstwocodes(C/AandP-Code)ontwofrequencies.Everysatellitetransmits the same codes (PRN), but at different frequencies in the vicinity of 1602MHz and 1246 MHz. These assignedfrequenciesshouldbechangedinthecourseofthenextyears
3.2.1 Completion of GLONASS

The completed GLONASS system will require 24 functional satellites. Due to political instability in the former SovietUnionandmanyotherdelaysandfailures,therewereasofAugust18,2006only14operationalsatellites inorbit[viii].TheCISplanstohaveitssystemfunctioningbytheendof2008.Threereplacementsatelliteswere successfully launched on December 25, 2005. Two of these three satellites are of the M series, which should havealifespanof7-8years.Thesenewsatellitestransmit2civiliansignals.After2007thefirstoftheKseriesof satellites are to be launched. These are expected to have a lifespan of 10-12 years and transmit three civilian signals.
Figure 31: GLONASS-M Satellite (Source ESA)
Figure 32: Proton launch vehicle
3.3 GALILEO
3.3.1 Overview
GALILEOistheEuropeanGNSSsystem.TheEuropeanUnion(EU),inclosecooperationwiththeEuropeanSpace Agency(ESA),isdevelopingthis.TheEUandtheESAhavetogetherfoundedanumbrellaorganization:GALILEO Joint Undertaking (GJU, headquartered in Brussels). GJU oversees and coordinates all phases of development, testing and implementation. GJU guarantees that a single body is responsible for the administration of this program. The governments of Germany, Italy, France, the UK,SpainandBelgiumassumeapproximately 85% ofall the costs. GALILEOwillconsistofaconstellationofthesatelliteson3circularorbitalsatanaltitudeof23,616kmabove theEarth.Thesesatellitesaretobesupportedbyaworldwidenetworkofgroundstations. ThekeyargumentsforintroducingGALILEOwere:
To attain independence from the USA. Worldwide there are two satellite navigation systems: The AmericanGPSandtheRussianGLONASS.Bothwereconceivedwithmilitarycriteria.UntilnowtheRussian systemhasnotbroughtanyusablecivilianapplicationssothatGALILEOwouldbetheonlyalternativetothe defactomonopolyofGPSandtheAmericanindustry.GPSiscontrolledbytheAmericangovernmentwhich canintheeventofacrisislocallydowngradeorevendeactivatethesystem.ThissubjectiontotheAmericans doesntsuitetheEuropeans.However,theUSmilitaryhasalreadyannouncedthatintimesofemergencyit ispreparedtodisruptGALILEOifthiswouldserveintheinterestofAmericansecurity. To increase the accuracy of positioning.GALILEOisplannedtobemoreaccuratethanGPS.Itisexpected thattheopenservice,OSwillprovideaprecisionofapproximately4to15m.Criticalsecurityservicesshould haveaprecisionof4to6m.Sensitivitytomultipathreceptionwillalsobereduced.Thisimprovementwillbe achievedthroughtheapplicationofBOCmodulation.GPSwillalsointroduceBOCwhenitismodernized. To have a purely civilian navigation system.GALILEOisbeingconceivedandimplementedaccordingto civiliancriteria;however,italsoprovidesnecessarysecurityfunctions.ContrarytothemilitarilyorientedGPS, GALILEOguaranteesthefunctionofindividualservices. Providing more services. GALILEO will offerfive different functions. In comparison,GPSat themoment offersonlytwo.Inthecourseofmodernization,thenumberofGPSservicesforcivilianapplicationswillalso increase. Offer a Search and Rescue Function. Search and Rescue (SAR) functions are already being offered by otherorganizations.NewwithGALILEOisthatanalarmcanbeacknowledged. Increased Security through Integrity Messages. GALILEO will be more reliable in that it includes an integritymessage.Thiswillimmediatelyinformusersoferrorsthatdevelop.Ontopofthisisaguaranteeof availability.FortheOpenServicetherewillbeneithertheavailabilityguaranteenortheintegritymessages. TheseservicesareonlyavailablethroughEGNOS9. Creation of Employment. Expertsestimatethatbytheyear2020,theEuropeansatellitesystemGALILEO willgeneratebetween130,000-180,000jobs.WithaninitialinvestmentofsixbillionEuros(atthebeginning of the project this was projected at three billion), GALILEO is expected to bring a return of seventy four billionEuros[ix]. Attain GNSS Know-How. Mostmanufacturersofsatellitenavigationsystemsarecurrentlylocatedinthe USA. Satellites and satellite accessories, navigation receivers, measuring devices, etc. are predominantly developed and marketed from outside of Europe. With GALILEO, Europe should acquire expertise and providethedomesticindustrywithasustainablegrowthincompetence. To improve the worldwide coverage of satellite signals.GALILEOwillofferbetterreceptionthanGPS tocitieslocatedinhigherlatitudes.ThisispossiblebecausetheGALILEOsatelliteshaveorbitsatanangleof 56fromtheequatoraswellasanaltitudeof23,616km.Inaddition,modernGNSSreceiversareableto
EuropeanGeostationaryNavigationOverlayService

evaluateGPSandGALILEOsignals.Thismultipliesthenumberofvisiblesatellitesfromwhichsignalscanbe received,increasingthelevelofcoverageandtheaccuracy.
3.3.2 Projected GALILEO Services

ForcertaincriticalapplicationsGALILEOwillprovideinformationaboutthesystemintegrityinordertoassurethe accuracyofpositioning.Integrityisunderstoodtobethereliabilityofinformationanddataprovided.Userswill quickly(within6seconds)receiveawarningwhenthesystemaccuracyfallsbelowthegivenminima.The GALILEOoperatorsareoftheopinionthatthesewarningsareprovidedsoonenoughevenforcritical applications(e.g.aircraftlandings).Eachserviceprovidesdifferentdemandsonfunction,accuracy,availability, integrityandotherparameters.
3.3.2.1 Open Service, OS
OpenService(OS)isforeseenformass-marketapplications.Itprovidesfreesignalsforthedeterminationof positionandtime.Applicationswithlowerdemandsforaccuracywillusecheapersingle-frequencyreceivers. BecausethetransmittedfrequenciesfromGALILEOandGPS(L1)arethesameforthisapplication,navigation receiverswillbeabletocombinethesignals.Duetotheincreaseinthenumberofsatellitesignalsreceivedthere willbeanimprovementinthereceptionpropertieseveninsuboptimalconditions(e.g.inurbanenvironments). OSwillnotbeprovidedwithSystemIntegrityInformationandtheGALILEOoperatorsmakenoguaranteesof availabilityandacceptnoliability.

3.3.2.2 Commercial Service, CS
TheCommercialService(CS)isenvisagedformarketapplicationswithhigherperformancedemandsthanthe OS.CSisdesignedtoprovideavarietyofbeneficialservicestoitscustomersonafeeforusagebasis.Typical examplesoftheseapplicationswouldbeservicesprovidinghigh-speeddatatransmission,guaranteesof availability,exact-timerelatedservices,aswellaslocalcorrectionsignalsformaximalinpositioningaccuracy.

3.3.2.3 Safety of Life Service, SoL
TheSafetyofLifeService(SoL)isenvisagedprimarilyfortransportationapplicationsforwhichanimpairmentof thenavigationsystemwithoutadequatewarningcouldresultinalife-threateningsituation.Theprimary differencetoOSistheworldwidehighlevelofinformationintegrityprovidedtosuchcrucialapplicationsas maritimenavigation,aviationandrailtraffic.Thisserviceisonlyaccessiblebyusingacertifieddoublefrequency receiver.ToachievethenecessarysignalprotectionSoLwillbedeployedusingtheaviationcommunication channels(L1andE5).

3.3.2.4 Public Regulated Service, PRS
GALILEO is a civilian system that will also provide stable and access-protected services for governmental (includingmilitary)purposes.ThePublicRegulatedService(PRS)willbeavailabletosuchclientsaspoliceandfire departmentsandborderpatrols.Accesstothisserviceisrestrictedandcontrolledbyacivilianagency.ThePRS mustbeavailablecontinuallyandunderallconditions,especiallyduringcrisissituationswhereotherservicescan bedisrupted.ThePRSwillbeindependentoftheotherservicesandwillbecharacterizedbyahighlevelofsignal stability.PRSwillalsobeprotectedagainstelectronicinterferenceanddeception.
3.3.2.5 Search and Rescue, SAR
TheSARservicewillbeusedbyhumanitariansearchandrescueservices.Emergencytransmittersandsatellites enablethelocationofindividualpersons,craftsandvehiclesinaviation,landandmaritimeemergencies.Atthe end of the 1970s the USA, Canada, the USSR and France developed a satellite system for the location of activated distress beacons.The system is referred toas SARSAT (Search And Rescue Satellite-Aided Tracking). TheRussiannameforthesystemisCOSPAS.TheCOSPAS-SARSATsystememployssixLEO(LowEarthOrbit) andfiveGEO(geostationary)satellites.TheGALILEO-SARserviceisplannedtoexpandandimprovetheexisting COSPAS-SARSATsystem[x]inthefollowingways:
AlmostinstantaneousreceptionofemergencycallsfromanylocationonEarth(currentlythereare delaysofanaverageofonehour).

Exactdeterminationofpositionofthedistressbeacons(towithinmetersinsteadofthecurrentaccuracy of5km).
ImprovedeffectivenessoftheSpaceSegmentthroughtheavailabilityofmoresatellitestoovercome localizedhindrancesduringsuboptimalconditions(30GALILEOsatellitesinmediumorbitalswill supplementtheexistingLEOandGEOsatellitesoftheCOSPAS-SARSATsystem). GALILEOwillintroduceanewSARfunction;thedistresssignalreply(fromtheSARoperatortotheemergency transmitterradio)willbegin.Thisshouldsimplifyrescuemeasuresandreducethenumberoffalsealarms.The GALILEOSARservicewillbedefinedincooperationwithCOSPAS-SARSAT,withthecharacteristicsandfunctions of the service being governed by the IMO (International Maritime Organization) and ICAO (International Civil AviationOrganization).
SARSAT-COSPAS Downlink 1544.5MHz Satellite Control Center
GALILEO Downlink 1544.1MHz Satellite Control Center
Distress Signal 121.5MHZ 243MHZ 406MHZ Rescue Team Rescue Center
Distress Signal 406MHZ
Uplink 5.01GHz Distress Reply: E2,L1undE1
Rescue Team Emergency Rescue Center
Emergency
Figure 33: Unlike SARSAT-COSPAS, GALILEO's Search And Rescue service also provides a reply to the distress signal

3.3.3 Accuracy
DependingontheserviceGALILEOwillprovidedifferinglevelsofaccuracy[xi].Whentwofrequencyreceivers are used the accuracy can be improved by compensating for signal travel time errors caused by ionospheric conditions.Byutilizinglocalmeasures(e.g.DGPS)theprecisioncanbeincreasedtowithincentimeters.Table3 showstheanticipatedaccuracyof95%ofallmeasurements. Service OS CS PRS SoL ReceiverType SingleFrequency DoubleFrequency DoubleFrequency SingleFrequency DoubleFrequency HorizontalPositioningAccuracy 15m 4m <1m 6.5m 4-6m VerticalPositioningAccuracy 35m 8m <1m 12m 4-6m
Table 3: Planned positioning accuracies for GALILEO
3.3.4 GALILEO Technology

ThespacesegmentofGALILEOwillconsistof30satellites(3ofwhichwillbeactivereservesatellites).Theywill beplacedincircularorbitsatanaltitudeof23,616kmprovidingforworldwidecoverage.Thesatellites(each withaweightof680kganddimensionsof2.7mx1.2mx1.1m)willbeevenlydistributedover3orbitals, havinganangleof56totheequator(Figure34)andanorbitalperiodof14hoursand5minutes.
Figure 34: Constellation of the GALILEO satellites (picture: ESA-J.Huart)
TheGALILEOsatellitesareexpectedtohaveanoperationallifespanof15years.Therequiredpowerof1500W willbegeneratedbylargeareasolarpanels.Inordertomaintaincurrentnavigationdata,thesatelliteswillbein radiocontacttothegroundsegmentofthesystematregularintervalsof100minutes.
Figure 35: GALILEO satellite (Picture: ESA-J.Huart)
Thegroundsegmentofthesystemwillconsistofaseriesofcontrolcenters,togetherwithaglobalnetworkof stationsforvarioustasks.Thisincludesthemonitoringofsignalintegrityandthecoordinationoftheforeseen extensiveSearchandRescueservices. There are worldwide control centers planned for navigation and satellite control. The core of the ground segmentwillconsistoftwoGALILEOcontrolcentersinGermanyandItaly[xii].Themaincontrolcenterwillbe

theGermanAerospace(DLR)CenteratOberpfaffenhofen.Fromtherethecontrolofnormaloperationofthe30 satellites is planned for at least 20 years. A second comprehensive control center with its own specific responsibilities for normal operation will be located at Fucino in Italy. This is also to be a backup to the main controlcenterintheeventofanyproblemsthatshouldarisethere.Controlofthepositioningofthe30satellites willbeevenlydividedbetweentheEuropeanSatelliteControlCenter(ESA/ESOC)inDarmstadt,Germany,and theFrenchNationalSpaceStudiesCenter(CNES)inToulouse,France.Achainofabout30IntegrityMonitoring Stations (IMS) distributed worldwide will control the integrity of the satellite signals. Two control centers will evaluatetheIMSinformationandsoundanalarmintheeventofanexcessivedeviationinpositiondata. ItisplannedthatthreeArianne5rockets,eachcarryingeightsatellites(Figure36),andthreeSoyuzrockets,each carryingtwoGALILEOsatelliteswilltransportthesatellitesintoMiddleEarthOrbit(MEO).
Figure 36: Ariane 5 Rocket delivering 8 GALILEO satellites into space (GALILEO-industries.net)
3.3.4.1
Signal Frequencies
Depending on the services, there will be different frequencies, modulation forms, and data transmission rates used(SeeTable4andFigure37).TheprincipalmodulationformswillbeBPSKandBOC.AsanexceptionE5a andE5bemployaslightlymodifiedversionofBOCmodulationknownasAltBOC.
Band:Frequency (MHz) E5:1191.795 E6:1278.75 L1:1575.42 SignalName E5a E5b E6b E6a L1B E2&E1 FrequencyofMaxima(MHz) 1176.45 1207.14 1278.75 1268.52&1288.98 1574.397&1576.443 1560.075&1590.765 Services OS,CS OS,CS,SoL CS PRS OS,CS,SoL PRS Modulation AltBOC(15,10) AltBOC(15,10) BPSK(5) BOC(10,5) BOC(1,1) BOC(15,2.5) DataRate (Bit/s) 50 250 1000 100 250 100
Table 4: Frequency plan of GALILEO and distribution of services

1191.795MHz 1278.75MHz 1575.42MHz
E5
E5a E5b
E6
E6a E6b E6a E2 L1B L1B
L1
E1
1176.45MHz
1268.52MHz
1560.075MHz
1576.443MHz
1207.14MHz
1288.98MHz
1574.397MHz 1590.765MHz
Figure 37: Frequency Plan for GALILEO
AdditionallyE5a,E5b,E6andL1transmitapilotchannel.Thepilotchannelisfreeofnavigationdataandthe phaseisshiftedat90totheothersignals.Thisreducestheacquisitiontimeofthereceiver. AboveallintheL1band,GALILEOandGPSwillneedtosharefrequencies.InthisbandGPShas3signals:C/ASignal,P(Y)-SignalandthenewM-Signal.GALILEOwillonlyusetwosignals:theL1B-SignalandtheE2/E1pair. Thecommonuseofthisfrequencybandhasattimesbroughtaboutintenseconflicts.ItwasnotuntilJune2004 thattheUSAandtheEUcouldcometoagreementonassignmentandmodulationformsonthisfrequency. InFigure38thepowerdensityofthesignalsontheL1bandaredepicted,withtheassumptionthatthepower ofallofthesignalsisthesame(standardizedat1W).
Power density (dBm/Hz)
Deviation from median frequency
Figure 38: The L1 band will be intensively used by GALILEO and GPS (Power Density standardized at 1 W per signal)
3.3.4.2
Time Frame
On June 26, 2004, after many years of difficult negotiations, the USA and the EU were able to sign an agreement in Dublin. The goal of the agreement was to secure the smooth cooperation (interoperability) and compatibilityofGALILEOand its American counterpart GPS. Contentious issuessuchasfrequencyassignment and modulation forms were also regulated. This should make future close coexistence of GALILEO and GPS possible. On December 10, 2004, upon the recommendation of the European Commission, the European Councilconfirmedthetechnicalcharacteristicsofthesystem(withemphasisontheservicestobeoffered[xiii]). TheCounciladdressedthetransitionfromtheimplementationphase(2006-2008)totheoperationalphaseand confirmed the participation of the EU in the financing of these two phases. According to the European CommissionGALILEOshouldbecomeoperationalin2008.Commercialoperationswillprobablynotbeginuntil 2012. ThecorporationoperatingGALILEOwillhaveitsseatinToulouseandLondon[xiv].

Theconstructionofthesystemwilltakeplaceinfourphases:
Project definition: The goal of the definition phase was to establish the fundamental parameters and specificationsofthesystem.Thispartoftheoverallprojectwascompletedin2003. Development and tests in orbit:OnDecember28,2005,thefirstexperimentalsatelliteGIOVE-Awas launchedintoorbitfromtheRussianCosmodromeatBaikonurinKasachstan(Figure39).GIOVEisan acronymforGALILEOIn-OrbitValidationElementaswellasbeingtheItaliannamefortheplanetJupiter. OnJanuary12,2006,GIOVE-Atransmitteditsfirstsignals.Thesignalswereregisteredandanalyzedatthe ObservationStationforAtmosphericandRadiowaveResearchinChilboltoninBritainaswellastheESA groundstationatReduinBelgium[xv].ThesecondexperimentalsatelliteGIOVE-Bwillbelaunchedinto orbitbytheendof2007.WithGIOVE-AandBtheEUwillsecurethefrequencybandsforGALILEO operationanddeterminetheorbitalsforthetestphasesatellites.Thesepioneersatelliteswillalsoservein thetestingofimportanttechnology,suchasatomicclocks,inthehardconditionsofspace.GIOVE-Ahas twoRubidiumatomicclocks(withastabilityofapproximately10nanosecondsperday)andGIOVE-Bwill havetwopassiveHydrogen-Maseratomicclocks(withastabilityoflessthan1nanosecondperday) onboard.ShouldtheexperimentalphasewithGIOVE-AandGIOVE-Bbesuccessful,foursatelliteswillbe launchedintoorbitandtested(thesatelliteswereorderedonDecember21,2004).Withthisminimum constellationscientistscantestifthesatellitescandeliverexactpositionandtimedatatotestlocationson theground.Theentiretestphaseinspaceshouldbecompletedby2008,withthetotalcostsoftheproject definitionandtestingphaseamountingto1.1billion($US1.4billion).
Figure 39: GIOVE-A and its launch on December 28, 2005 (PictureESA)
Implementation and start-up of complete system:Iftheresultsofthefirsttwophasesarepositive,the systemwillthenbebuiltupforfulloperation.Theremainingsatellites(fourshouldbythistimealreadybe operational) will be finished and launched into orbit and the necessary ground stations completed. The plannedtimeframeisforcompletionby2011withtotalcostsof2.1billion($US2.75billion).Ofthis1/3is tobepubliclyfinancedand2/3financedbytheprivatesector. Use: As soon as all the satellites are in orbit the system can begin operation. At the end of the build-up phasethereshouldbe27operationsand3reservesatellitesinorbit.Thegroundstationsaswellaslocaland regional service stations will be constructed. The annual operations costs have been estimated at 220 million($US288million)ofwhichthepublicsectorwillovertakeanexceptionalsumof500million($US 655million)duringthestart-upyears.Inthefollowingyearsthesecostsshallbecompletelyassumedbythe privatesector.

OnJanuary12,2006theRepublicofKoreacommitteditselftoparticipatingintheGALILEOsystem.Itisthesixth country outside of the EU after Morocco, China, Israel, the Ukraine and India to participate in GALILEO. NegotiationsarecurrentlyongoingwithArgentina,Australia,Brazil,Canada,Chile,MalaysiaandMexico.Other AfricanandAsiancountrieshavealsoexpressedtheirinterestinparticipating.[xvi].
3.3.5 Most Important Properties of the three GNSS Systems

Table5liststhemostimportantpropertiesofthethreeexisting(resp.planned)GNSSsystems.
Startofdevelopment st 1 SatelliteLaunch NumberSatellites Orbitals Inclination Altitude OrbitalPeriod GeodeticData TimeSystem SignalCharacteristic Frequencies Encryption Services Responsibility IntegritySignal
10
GPS 1973 Feb.22,1978 Minimum:24/Maximum:32 6 55 20,180km 11hours58min WorldGeodeticSystem1984 (WGS84) GPS-Time 11 CDMA rd 2frequencies,withwitha3 frequencyplanned MilitarySignal 2(civilian+military)/4 USDepartmentofDefense Currentlynonebutplanned
Glonass 1972 October12,1982 Planned:24+3passivereserves 3 64.8 19,100km 11hours15.8min ParametryZemli1990(PZ-90) Glonass-Time 12 FDMA 24 MilitarySignal 2(civilian+military) RussianDefenseMinistry none
GALILEO 2001 December28,2005 Planned:27+3activereserves 3 56 23,616km 14hours5min GalileoTerrestrialReferenceFrame (GTRF) GST(GALILEOSystemTime) CDMA rd 2frequencies,withwitha3 frequencyplanned CSandPRSservices 5 CivilianGovernmentsoftheEU Planned
Table 5: Comparison of the most important properties of GPS, GLONASS and GALILEO

10 11
DeviationfromUTCisindicated CodeIdentification:Codeisdifferentforeverysatellite 12 FrequenyIdentification:Frequenyisdifferentforeverysatellite EssentialsofSatelliteNavigation GPS-X-02007-C
4 Calculating Position
If you would like to . . . o o o o o
understandhowco-ordinatesandtimearedetermined knowwhatpseudorangeis understandwhyaGNSSreceivermustproduceapositionestimateatthestartofacalculation understandhowanon-linearequationissolvedusingfourunknownvariables knowwhatdegreeofaccuracyisassertedbytheGPSsystemoperator
4.1 Introduction
GNSS systems combine sophisticated satellite and radio technology to provide navigation receivers with radio signals indicating among other things the time of transmission and the identity of the transmitting satellite. Calculating the position from these signals requires mathematical operations that will be examined in this chapter.
4.2 Calculating a position

4.2.1 The principle of measuring signal travel time (evaluation of pseudorange)
InorderforaGNSSreceivertodetermineitsposition,itmustreceivetimesignalsfromfourseparatesatellites (Sat1...Sat4),inordertocalculatethesignaltraveltimest1...t4(Figure40).
Sat 2 Sat 3 Sat 1 t2 t1 t3 t4 Sat 4
U se r
Figure 40: Four satellite signals must be received
Calculations are effected in a Cartesian, three-dimensional coordinate system with a geocentric origin (Figure 41).TherangeoftheuserfromeachofthefoursatellitesR1,R2,R3andR4canbedeterminedwiththehelpof
CalculatingPosition page48

signaltraveltimest1,t2,t3andt4betweenthefoursatellitesandtheuser.AsthelocationsXSat,YSatandZSatof thefoursatellitesareknown,theuserco-ordinatescanbecalculated.
Sat 2 Sat 1 XSat_2, YSat_2, ZSat_2

t1
Sat 3 XSat_3, YSat_3, ZSat_3

Ra ng e: R
XSat_1, YSat_1, ZSat_1 Rang e: R1
Ra ng e: R
t2
2
Z
t3
3
Sat 4
t4
Range: R4
User Zuser Origin Yuser Xuser
XSat_4, YSat_4, ZSat_4
X
Figure 41: Three-dimensional coordinate system
Duetotheatomicclocksonboardthesatellites,thetimeatwhichthesatellitesignalistransmittedisknownvery precisely.AllsatelliteclocksareadjustedorsynchronizedwitheachotherandUTC(universaltimecoordinated). In contrast, the receiver clock is not synchronized to UTC and is therefore slow or fast by t0. The sign t0 is positivewhentheuserclockisfast.Theresultanttimeerrort0causesinaccuraciesinthemeasurementofsignal traveltimeandthedistanceR.Asaresult,anincorrectdistanceismeasuredthatisknownaspseudodistanceor pseudorangePSR[xvii].
tmeasured = t + t 0
(1a) (2a) (3a)
PSR = tmeasured c = (t + t 0 ) c
PSR = R + t 0 c
R: c:
truerangeofthesatellitefromtheuser speedoflight signaltraveltimefromthesatellitetotheuser differencebetweenthesatelliteclockandtheuserclock pseudorange
t: t0:
PSR:

ThedistanceRfromthesatellitetotheusercanbecalculatedinaCartesiansystemasfollows:
R=
( XSat XUser ) + ( YSat YUser ) + ( ZSat ZUser )

2 2 2 2
(4a)
thus(4)into(3)
PSR =
( XSat XUser ) + ( YSat YUser ) + ( ZSat ZUser )
+ c t0
(5a)
In order to determine the four unknown variables (t0 , XUser, YUser and ZUser), four independent equations are necessary. Thefollowingisvalidforthefoursatellites(i=1...4):
PSRi =
( XSat_i XUser ) + ( YSat_i YUser ) + ( ZSat_i ZUser )

2 2
+ c t0
(6a)
4.2.2 Linearization of the equation

Thefourequationsin6aproduceanon-linearsetofequations.Inordertosolvetheset,therootfunctionisfirst linearizedaccordingtotheTaylormodel,thefirstpartonlybeingused(Figure42).
f(X)
f'(x0)
f(x) f(x0)
function
X x
x0
Figure 42: Conversion of the Taylor series
Generally(with x = x x 0 ): Simplified(1stpartonly):
f (x ) = f (x 0 ) +
f' (x 0 ) x + f ' ' (x 0 )2 x + f ' ' ' (x 0 )3 x + ... 3! 2! 1 !

(7a)
f (x ) = f (x 0 ) + f ' (x 0 ) x
Inordertolinearizethefourequations(6a),anarbitrarilyestimatedvaluex0mustthereforebeincorporatedin thevicinityofx.ThismeansthatinsteadofcalculatingXUser,YUserandZUserdirectly,anestimatedpositionXTotal, YTotalandZTotalisinitiallyused(Figure43).

Sat 2 Sat 1 X Sat_2, YSat_2 , ZSat_2 R Total_1 X Sat_1, Y Sat_1, ZSat_1 error considerations estimated position y user X x z Y Total user R Total_2 Z R Total_3 Sat 3 XSat_3 , YSat_3 , ZSat_3 Sat 4 R Total_4 estimated position Z Total Y X Total X Sat_4, Y Sat_4, ZSat_4
Figure 43: Estimating a position
Theestimatedpositionincludesanerrorproducedbytheunknownvariablesx,yandz. XUser=XTotal+x YUser=YTotal+y ZUser=ZTotal+z (8a)
ThedistanceRTotalfromthefoursatellitestotheestimatedpositioncanbecalculatedinasimilarwaytoequation (4a):
RTotal _ i =
( XSat _ i XTotal ) + ( YSat _ i YTotal ) + ( ZSat _ i ZTotal )

2 2
(9a)
Equation(9a)combinedwithequations(6a)and(7a)produces:
PSRi = RTotal _ i +
(RTotal _ i ) (RTotal _ i ) (RTotal _ i ) x + y + z + c t 0 x y z
(10a)
Aftercarryingoutpartialdifferentiation,thisgivesthefollowing:
PSRi = RTotal _ i +
XTotal XSat _ i YTotal YSat _ i ZTotal ZSat _ i x + y + z + c t 0 RTotal _ i RTotal _ i RTotal _ i
(11a)
4.2.3 Solving the equation

After transposing the four equations (11a) (for i = 1 ... 4) the four variables (x, y, z and t0) can now be solvedaccordingtotherulesoflinearalgebra:
XTotal XSat _ 1 RTotal _ 1 PSR1 RTotal _ 1 XTotal XSat _ 2 PSR 2 RTotal _ 2 = RTotal _ 2 PSR 3 RTotal _ 3 XTotal XSat _ 3 RTotal _ 3 PSR 4 RTotal _ 4 XTotal XSat _ 4 RTotal _ 4 XTotal XSat_1 RTotal_1 XTotal XSat_2 x y = RTotal_2 XTotal XSat_3 z RTotal_3 t0 XTotal XSat_4 RTotal_4
YTotal YSat _ 1 RTotal _ 1 YTotal YSat _ 2 RTotal _ 2 YTotal YSat _ 3 RTotal _ 3 YTotal YSat _ 4 RTotal _ 4
ZTotal ZSat _ 1 RTotal _ 1 ZTotal ZSat _ 2 RTotal _ 2 ZTotal ZSat _ 3 RTotal _ 3 ZTotal ZSat _ 4 RTotal _ 4 c c c c
1
c c c c
x y z t0
(12a)
YTotal YSat_1 RTotal_1 YTotal YSat_2 RTotal_2 YTotal YSat_3 RTotal_3 YTotal YSat_4 RTotal_4
ZTotal ZSat_1 RTotal_1 ZTotal ZSat_2 RTotal_2 ZTotal ZSat_3 RTotal_3 ZTotal ZSat_4 RTotal_4
PSR1 RTotal_1 PSR2 RTotal_2 PSR3 RTotal_3 PSR4 RTotal_4
(13a)
Thesolutionofx,yandzisusedtorecalculatetheestimatedpositionXTotal,YTotalandZTotalinaccordancewith equation(8a). XTotal_New=XTotal_Old+x YTotal_New=YTotal_Old+y ZTotal_New=ZTotal_Old+z (14a)
TheestimatedvaluesXTotal_New,YTotal_NewandZTotal_Newcannowbeenteredintothesetofequations(13a)usingthe normaliterativeprocess,untilerrorcomponents x, yand zaresmallerthanthedesirederror(e.g.0.1m). Dependingontheinitialestimation,threetofiveiterativecalculationsaregenerallyrequiredtoproduceanerror componentoflessthan1cm.
4.2.4 Summary
Inordertodetermineaposition,theuser(ortheusersreceiversoftware)willeitherusethelastmeasurement value, or estimate a new position and calculate error components (x, y and z) down to zero by repeated iteration.Thisthengives: XUser=XTotal_New YUser=YTotal_New ZUser=ZTotal_New (15a) Thecalculatedvalueoft0correspondstoreceivertimeerrorandcanbeusedtoadjustthereceiverclock.

4.2.5 Error analysis and DOP
4.2.5.1 Introduction
Upuntilnow,themagnitudeoferrorhasnotbeentakenintoconsiderationincalculations.InGNSStechnology, differentcausescancontributetothetotalerror:
Satellite clocks: although, for example, every GPS satellite is provided with four highly accurate atomic clocks,atimeerrorofonly10nsisenoughtoproduceapositioningerrorintheorderofmagnitudeof3m. Satelliteorbits:generallyspeaking,theexactnessofthesatellitepositionisonlyknownuptoapproximately 1...5m. Speedoflight:thesignalsfromthesatellitestravelatthespeedoflight.Theseslowdownwhencrossing theionosphereandtroposphereandcannot,therefore,beassumedtobeaconstant.Thisdeviationfrom thenormalspeedoflightcreatesanerrorinthecalculatedposition. Signaltraveltimeerrormeasurement:theGNSSreceiverisonlyabletodeterminethetimeoftheincoming satellitesignalwithlimitedaccuracy. Multipath:Theerrorlevelisfurtherincreasedbythereceptionofreflectedsignals. Satellite geometry: determining of position is more difficult if the four reference satellites being used for measurementaretooclosetogether.Theeffectofsatellitegeometryonmeasurementaccuracyisreferred toasDOP(DilutionOf Precision)(SeeTable6).
There are various causes of measurement error. Table 1 shows the extent of horizontal position errors from differentsource. Byimplementingcorrectivemeasures(DifferentialGPS,DGPS)thenumberoferrorsourcescanbeeliminatedor reduced.
Error cause Error without DGPS Error with DGPS
Ephemerisdata Satelliteclocks Effectoftheionosphere Effectofthetroposphere Multipathreception Effectofthereceiver TotalRMSvalue

Total RMS value (filtered, i.e. slightly averaged)
Table 6: Error causes (typical ranges)
2.1m 2.1m 4.0m 0.7m 1.4m 0.5m 5.3m

5.0m
0.1m 0.1m 0.2m 0.2m 1.4m 0.5m 1.5m

1.3m
4.2.5.2
Effect of satellite geometry: DOP (Dilution of Precision)
Positioning accuracy using GNSS in the navigation mode depends, on the one hand on the accuracy of the measurement ofthe individual pseudoranges,and on theother hand onthegeometrical configuration of the satellites used; expressed through a scalar integer which is termed DOP (Dilution of Precision) in navigation literature. VariousDOPdesignationsareinuse:
GDOP:GeometricalDOP(Positioninspaceincludingclockdriftincludedinsolution) PDOP:PositionDOP(Positioninspace) HDOP:HorizontalDOP(Positioninthehorizontal) VDOP:VerticalDOP(Onlyheight)
PDOP: low (1,5)
PDOP: high (5,7)
Figure 44:Satellite geometry and PDOP
The DOP value is the reciprocal of the tetrahedron volume that is formed by the satellite and user positions (Figure 44 and Figure 45). The best geometrical situation is produced when the volume is the maximum and therebythePDOPaminimum.
HDOP = 1,2 DOP = 1,3 PDOP = 1,8
HDOP = 2,2 DOP = 6,4 PDOP = 6,8
Figure 45: Effect of the satellite constellation on the DOP value
InopenareasthesatellitecoverageissofavorablethatthePDOPandGDOPvaluesrarelyexceed3(Figure46 andFigure47).
Figure 46: GDOP value and the quantity of visible satellites according to the time
In mountainous areas and in forests the DOP value plays an important role in the planning of measurement campaignsgiventhattherearefrequentlyphaseswithhighlyunfavorablegeometricalconstellations. As such, it is necessary to plan measurements in accordance with DOP values (e.g. HDOP) or to evaluate the targetaccuracyinaccordancewiththis,especiallysincedifferentDOPvaluesappearwithinthespaceofafew minutes. Inallplanningandcalculationprogramsprovidedbyleadingequipmentmanufacturers,theDOPvaluescanbe shown.Figure27showstheexampleoftheHDOPcourse,whenthereisnoshadowing(themaximumHDOP valueisapprox.1.9).Figure48showstheexampleoftheHDOPcourse,whenthereismarkedshadowing(here themaximumHDOPvalueof20isexceededseveraltimes!).Theareabetween180to270isshadowedbya high-risebuildingandintheareabetween270to180themountainsilhouettesareshown.
Shadow
Time Figure 47: HDOP value over a 24h period, without shadowing (max. value is 1.9)
Shadow Time Figure 48: HDOP value over a 24h period, with shadowing (max. value is greater than 20)
In the case of this massive shadowing only a few time slots (See Figure 48) with a favorable DOP value are possible(Lessthan2).TimeslotswithDOPvaluesover6should,ifatallpossible,beavoided.
4.2.5.3 Total Error
Measurement accuracy is proportionally dependent on the DOP value. This means that when the DOP value doubles,thepositioningerrorisalsotwiceasgreat. Generallyapplicable:Error(1) = 1 TotalRMSValueDOPValue Error(2) = 2 TotalRMSValueDOPValue InTable7the1Sigmavalue(1 =68%)andthe2Sigmavalue(2 =95%)aregiven.Thevaluesarevalidfora mediumsatelliteconstellationofHDOP=1.3.Theimplementationofsuitablecorrectionmethods(suchasusing several linked receivers (Differential GPS, DGPS (see chapter 6)) can eliminate or reduce the number of error sources(typicallyto1...2m,1Sigmavalue).
Type of error
TotalRMSvalue(filtered,i.e.slightlyaveraged) Horizontalerror(1Sigma(68%)HDOP=1.3) Horizontalerror(2Sigma(95%)HDOP=1.3) Table 7: Total error in HDOP = 1.3
Error without DGPS

5.0m 6.5m 13.0m
Error with DGPS

1.5m 2.0m 4.0m
Usually the accuracy is better than shown. Long-term measurements available to the US-Federal Aviation Administrationhaveshownthatin95%ofallmeasurementsthehorizontalerrorwaslessthan7.4mandthe verticalerrorwaslessthan9.0m.Thetimeperiodforthemeasurementwasalways24hours. TheU.S.DoDmaintainsthattheirsystemwillprovidestandardcivilianapplicationswithahorizontalaccuracyof 13m, a vertical accuracy of 22 m and a time accuracy of ~40ns. By employing additional measures such as, DGPS,longermeasuringtime,andspecialmeasuringtechniques(phasemeasurement),positionalaccuracycan beincreasedtowithinacentimeter.
5 Coordinate systems
If you would like to . . . o o o o o o o o
knowwhatageoidis understandwhytheEarthisdepictedprimarilyasanellipsoid understandwhyover200differentmapreferencesystemsareusedworldwide knowwhatWGS-84means understandhowitispossibletoconvertonedatumintoanother knowwhatCartesianandellipsoidalco-ordinatesare understandhowmapsofcountriesaremade knowhowcountryco-ordinatesarecalculatedfromtheWGS-84co-ordinates
5.1 Introduction
A significant problem to overcome when using a GNSS system is the fact that there are a great number of differing co-ordinate systems worldwide. As a result, the position measured and calculated does not always correspondwithonessupposedposition. InordertounderstandhowGNSSsystemsfunction,itisnecessarytoexaminesomeofthebasicsofgeodesy: thesciencethatdealswiththesurveyingandmappingoftheEarthssurface.Withoutthisbasicknowledge,itis difficulttounderstandtheapparentlybewilderingnecessityofcombiningtheappropriatemapreferencesystems (datums)andgrids.Ofthesetherearemorethan100differentdatumsandapprox.10differentgridstoselect from.Ifanincorrectcombinationismade,apositioncanbeoutbyseveralhundredmeters.
5.2 Geoids
WehaveknownthattheEarthisroundsinceColumbus.Buthowroundisitreally?Describingtheshapeofour blue planet has always been an imprecise science. Over the centuries several different models have been presentedtorepresentthetrueshapeoftheEarthasfaithfullyaspossible.Ageoidisacloseapproximationof thistrueshape. ThegeometricalsurfaceoftheEarthisanidealizedsmoothandlevelsurfacesetattheaverageheightofsea level.UsingtheGreekwordforEarth,theshapeofthissurfaceisdescribedasageoid(Figure49). Ageoidcanonlybedefinedasamathematicalfigurewithalimiteddegreeofaccuracyandonlywithcertain arbitraryassumptions.This is becausethe distributionofthe mass of theEarth isuneven and,asaresult, the level surface of the oceans and seas do not lie on the surface of a geometrically definable shape; instead approximationshavetobeused. Differing from the actual shape of the Earth, a geoid is a theoretical body whose surface intersects the gravitationalfieldlineseverywhereatrightangles. Ageoidisoftenusedasareferencelevelformeasuringheight.Forexample,thereferencepointinSwitzerland formeasuringheightistheReprePierreduNiton(RPN,373.600m)intheGenevaharborbasin.Thisheight originatesfrompointtopointmeasurementswiththeportofMarseilles(meanheightabovesealevel0.00m).
Coordinatesystems page57
Land
Sea
Geoid
Earth
Macro image of the earth
Geoid (exaggerated form)
Figure 49: A geoid is an approximation of the Earths surface
5.3 Ellipsoid and datum

5.3.1 Ellipsoid
A geoid is a difficult shape to manipulate when conducting calculations. A simpler, more definable shape is therefore needed when carrying out daily surveying operations. Such a substitute surface is known as an ellipsoid.Ifthesurfaceofanellipseisrotatedaboutitssymmetricalnorth-southpoleaxis,aspheroidisobtained asaresult(Figure50). Anellipsoidisdefinedbytwoparameters:
Semimajoraxisa(ontheequatorialplane) Semiminoraxisb(onthenorth-southpoleaxis)
Theamountbywhichtheshapedeviatesfromtheidealsphereisreferredtoasflattening(f).
f=
a b a
(16a)
North pole Rotation b E q u a to rial p la n e a
South pole
Figure 50: Producing a spheroid

5.3.2 Customized local reference ellipsoids and datum
5.3.2.1 Local reference ellipsoids
Whendealingwithanellipsoid,caremustbetakentoensurethatthenaturalperpendiculardoesnotintersect verticallyatapointwiththeellipsoid,butratherwiththegeoid.Normalellipsoidalandnaturalperpendicularsdo not therefore coincide, they are distinguished by vertical deflection (Figure 52), i.e. points on the Earths surfaceareincorrectlyprojected.Inordertokeepthisdeviationtoaminimum,eachcountryhasdevelopedits owncustomizednon-geocentricellipsoidasareferencesurfaceforcarryingoutsurveyingoperations(Figure51). Thesemiaxesaandbaswellasthemid-pointareselectedinsuchawaythatthegeoidandellipsoidmatch nationalterritoriesasaccuratelyaspossible.
5.3.2.2 Datum, map reference systems
National or international map reference systems based on certain types of ellipsoids are called datums. Depending on the map used when navigating with GNSS receivers, care should be taken to ensure that the relevantmapreferencesystemhasbeenenteredintothereceiver. There are over 120 map reference systems available, such as: CH-1903 for Switzerland, NAD83 for North America,andWGS-84astheglobalstandard.
ry unt Co
ry unt Co
Customized ellipsoid for country A
Customized ellipsoid for country B Geoid (exaggerated shape)

Figure 51: Customized local reference ellipsoid
An ellipsoid is well suited for describing the positional co-ordinates of a point in degrees of longitude and latitude.Informationonheightiseitherbasedonthegeoidorthereferenceellipsoid.Thedifferencebetween themeasuredorthometricheightH,i.e.basedonthegeoid,andtheellipsoidalheighth,basedonthereference ellipsoid,isknownasgeoidondulationN(Figure52).
P Vertical deviation H h N
Earth
Geoid
Ellipsoid
Figure 52: Difference between geoid and ellipsoid

5.3.3 National Reference Systems
Different reference systems are used throughout Europe, and each reference system employed for technical applicationsduringsurveyinghasitsownname.Thenon-geocentricellipsoidsthatformthebasisoftheseare summarizedinthefollowingtable(Table8).Ifthesameellipsoidsareused,theyaredistinguishedfromcountry tocountryinrespectoftheirlocalreferences
Country Name Reference ellipsoid Local reference Semi major axis Flattening a (m) (1: ...)
Germany France Italy Netherlands Austria Switzerland International
Potsdam NTF SI1940 RD/NAP MGI CH1903 Hayford
Bessel1841 Clarke1880 Hayford1928 Bessel1841 Bessel1841 Bessel1841 Hayford
Rauenberg Pantheon,Paris MonteMario,Rome Amersfoort Hermannskogel
6377397.155 6378249.145 6378388.0 6377397.155 6377397.155
299.1528128 293.465 297.0 299.1528128 299.1528128 299.1528128 297.000
OldObservatoryBern 6377397.155 Countryindependent 6378388.000
Table 8: National reference systems
5.3.4 Worldwide reference ellipsoid WGS-84

ThedetailsdisplayedandcalculationsmadebyaGNSSreceiverprimarilyinvolvetheWGS-84(WorldGeodetic System1984)referencesystem.TheWGS-84co-ordinatesystemisgeocentricallypositionedwithrespecttothe centreoftheEarth.SuchasystemiscalledECEF(EarthCentered,EarthFixed).TheWGS-84co-ordinatesystem is a three-dimensional, right-handed, Cartesian co-ordinate system with its original co-ordinate point at the centreofmass(=geocentric)ofanellipsoid,whichapproximatesthetotalmassoftheEarth. The positive X-axis of the ellipsoid (Figure 53) lies on the equatorial plane (that imaginary surface which is encompassedbytheequator)andextendsfromthecentreofmassthroughthepointatwhichtheequatorand theGreenwichmeridianintersect(the0meridian).TheY-axisalsoliesontheequatorialplaneandisoffset90 totheeastoftheX-axis.TheZ-axisliesperpendiculartotheXandY-axisandextendsthroughthegeographical NorthPole.
Z
North Pole Ellipsoid Equatorial plane
b
z Origin y
Y
x
Greenwich Meridian
Equator
Figure 53: Illustration of the Cartesian co-ordinates
ParameterofWGS-84ReferenceEllipsoids

Semimajoraxisa(m) 6,378,137.00
Table 9: The WGS-84 ellipsoid
Semiminoraxisb(m) 6,356,752.31
Flattening(1:....) 298,257223563
Ellipsoidal co-ordinates (, , h), rather than Cartesian co-ordinates (X, Y, Z) are generally used for further processing(Figure54). correspondstolatitude, tolongitudeandhtotheellipsoidalheight,i.e.thelengthof theverticalPlinetotheellipsoid.
Z
North Pole Ellipsoid Equatorial plane h P
Greenwich Meridian Equator
Figure 54: Illustration of the ellipsoidal co-ordinates
5.3.5 Transformation from local to worldwide reference ellipsoid

5.3.5.1 Geodetic datum
Asarule,referencesystemsaregenerallylocalratherthangeocentricellipsoids.Therelationshipbetweenalocal (e.g.CH-1903)andaglobal,geocentricsystem(e.g.WGS-84)isreferredtoasthegeodeticdatum.Intheevent thattheaxesofthelocalandglobalellipsoidareparallel,orcanberegardedasbeingparallelforapplications withinalocalarea,allthatisrequiredfordatumtransitionarethreeshiftparameters,knownasthedatumshift constantsX,Y,Z. Afurtherthreeanglesofrotationx,y,z andascalingfactorm(Figure55)mayhavetobeaddedsothatthe complete transformation formula contains 7 parameters. The geodetic datum specifies the location of a local three-dimensionalCartesianco-ordinatesystemwithregardtotheglobalsystem.
Z-CH Z-WGS z y Y-CH
Z x Y X-CH X-WGS X
Y-WGS
Streching of Factor m
Figure 55: Geodetic datum
Thefollowingtable(Table10)showsexamplesofthevariousdatumparameters.Additionalvaluescanbefound under[xviii].
Country Name
X (m)
586 -168 -225 565.04
Y (m)
87 -60 -65 49.91
Z (m)
409 320 9 465.84
x ()
-0.52 0 - 0.4094
x ()
-0.15 0 -
-0.3597 1.4742
x ()
2.82 0 - 1.8685 5.2970 0.9542
m (ppm)
Germany France Italy Netherlands Austria Switzerland
Potsdam NTF SI1940 RD/NAP MGI CH1903
9 1 - 4.0772 -2.4232 5.66
-577.326 -577.326 -463.919 5.1366 660.077 13.551 369.344 0.8065
0.5789
Table 10: Datum parameters
5.3.5.2
Datum conversion
Converting a datum means by definition converting one three-dimensional Cartesian co-ordinate system (e.g. WGS-84)intoanother(e.g.CH-1903)bymeansofthree-dimensionalshift,rotationandextension.Thegeodetic datummustbeknown,inordertoeffecttheconversion.Comprehensiveconversionformulaecanbefoundin specialist literature [xix], or conversion can be carried out directly via the Internet [xx]. Once conversion has takenplace,Cartesianco-ordinatescanbetransformedintoellipsoidalco-ordinates.
5.3.6 Converting Co-ordinate Systems

5.3.6.1 Converting Cartesian to ellipsoidal co-ordinates
Cartesianandellipsoidalco-ordinatescanbeconvertedfromtheonerepresentationtotheother.Conversionis, however,dependentonthequadrantinwhichoneislocated.TheconversionforcentralEuropeisgivenhereas anexample.Thismeansthatthex,yandzvaluesarepositive.[xxi]

1 = tan 2 a b2 z + b 2 b sin tan 1 z a x2 + y2 b
3
a2 b2 x2 + y2 a2
a cos
tan 1
z a x2 + y2
(17a)
y = tan 1 x
h= cos ( ) x2 + y2
(18a)
a a b 1 a2
2 2
[sin ( )]2
(19a)
5.3.6.2
Converting ellipsoidal to Cartesian co-ordinates
Ellipsoidalco-ordinatescanbeconvertedintoCartesianco-ordinates.
a x = 2 2 1 a b a2
a y = 2 2 1 a b a2
[sin ( )]2
+ h cos ( ) cos ( )
+ h cos ( ) sin ( )
(20a)
(21a)
[sin ( )]2
a z= 2 2 1 a b a2
[sin ( )]2
a 2 b 2 1 a 2 + h sin ( )
(22a)
5.4 Planar regional coordinates, projection

UsuallytheordnancesurveydepictsthepositionofapointPonthesurfaceoftheearththroughtheellipsoid coordinates latitude and longitude (in relation to the reference ellipsoid) and height (in relation to the ellipsoidorgeoid). Giventhatgeoidcalculations(e.g.thedistancebetweentwobuildings)onanellipsoidarenumericallyawkward, generalsurveytechnicalpracticesprojecttheellipsoidontoaplane.Thisleadstoplanar,right-angledXandY regionalcoordinates.Mostmapsfeatureagrid,whichenablesfindingapointintheopeneasily.Inthecaseof planar regional coordinates there are mappings (projections) of ellipsoid coordinates of the survey reference ellipsoidinacalculationplane.Theprojectionoftheellipsoidinaplaneisnotpossiblewithoutdistortions.Itis possible,however,tochoosetheprojectioninsuchaswaythatthedistortionsarekepttoaminimum.Usual

projection processes are cylindrical or Mercator projection or the Gauss-Krger and UTM projection. Should positioninformationbeusedinconjunctionwithmapmaterial,itmustberememberedwhichreferencesystem andwhichprojectionconfigurationisgoingtobeusedformakingthemaps.
5.4.1 Gauss-Krger projection (Transversal Mercator Projection)

TheGauss-KrgerprojectionisatangentialconformaltransverseMercatorprojectionandisonlyapplicabletoa limited area or region. An elliptical cylinder is laid around the earths rotation ellipsoid (e.g. Bessel ellipsoid), wherebythecylindersurfacetouchestheellipsoidinthecentralmeridian(animportantmeridianfortheregion to be illustrated, e.g. 9) along its whole longitude and in the poles. The cylinder position with regard to the ellipsoidistransversal,e.g.rotatedby90(Figure56)).Inordertokeepthelongitudinalandsurfacedistortions to a minimum, 3 wide zones of the rotation ellipsoid are used. The zone width is fixed around the central meridian.Differentcentralmeridiansareuseddependingontheregion(e.g.6,9,12,15,....).
Greenwich meridian
N
Mapping of the Greenwich meridians

N
Cylinder
Equator
Mapping of the equator 1st step: projection onto cylinder
Local spheroid (Bessel ellipsoid)

Figure 56: Gauss-Krger projection
Processing the cylinder: map with country co-ordinates
Thevaluesinthenorth-southdirectionarecountedasthedistancefromtheequator.Inordertoavoidnegative valuesinthewest-eastdirectionthevalueof+500000m(Offset)isacceptedforthecentralmeridian.Thecentral meridiansnumberofdegreesisdividedby3andplacedinfrontofthisvalue. Exampleofaposition: Ellipsoidcoordinates: N:46.86154 E9.51280
Gauss-Krger(Centralmeridian:9):
N-S:5191454 W-E:3539097
Thepositionisatadistanceof5191454mfromtheequatorand399097mfromthecentralmeridian(9).
5.4.2 UTM projection

IncontrasttotheGauss-KrgerprojectiontheUTM(UniversalTransversalMercator)systemprojectsalmostthe entire surface of the earth on 6020 = 1200 planes. The actual projection of the rotation ellipsoid on the transversalcylinderiscarriedoutinaccordancewiththesameprocessasintheGauss-Krgerprojection. The UTM system is often based on the WGS84 ellipsoid. However, it only defines the projection and the coordinatesystemandnotthereferenceellipsoidandthegeodesicdatum. TheUTMsystemdividesthewholeworldinto6widelongitudinalzones(Figure57).Thesearenumberedfrom 1to60beginningwith180W,andendingwith180E.If,forexamplezone1stretchesfrom180Wto174 W,thecentralmeridianofthiszone1issituatedat177W,zone2stretchesfrom174Wto168,thecentral meridianofthiszone2issituatedat171W,etc.

Thecentralmeridiansforeachprojectionzoneare3,9,15,21,27,33,39,45,51,57,63,69,75, 81,87,93,99,105,111,117,123,129,135,141,147,153,159,165,171,177east(E)and west(W)(longitude)(Figure58). Inthenorth-southdirection(tothepoles)thezonesaresubdivided,withanexceptioninthe8beltoflatitude, andareidentifiedwithlettersbeginningwithC.Onlytheareabetween80southto84northisadmitted.The linefrom80southto72southisdesignatedasSectionC,thelinefrom72southto64southSectionD,etc. AnexceptiontothisisbeltknownaslatitudeXbetween72northand84north.Itis12wide.
Figure 57: Principle of projecting one zone (of sixty)
Figure 58: Designation of the zones using UTM, with examples EssentialsofSatelliteNavigation GPS-X-02007-C

AsisthecasewithGauss-KrgerProjection,thenorth-southvalueismeasuredinkilometersasthedistanceof the point from the equator. In order to avoid negative values in the southern hemisphere, the equator is arbitrarilyassignedthevalueof10,000,000m. The west-east values are the distance of the point from the central meridian, which (also as with the GaussKrgerProjection)isgiventhevalueof500,000m. AnexampleofUTMcoordinatesincomparisontoWGS84wouldbe: WGS84: UTM:32T N46,86074 E9,51173
5189816(N-S) 0539006(W-E)
5.4.3 Swiss projection system (Conformal Double Projection)

The Bessel ellipsoid is conformally projected onto a plane in two steps, i.e. angle preserving. Initially there is conformalprojectionoftheellipsoidonasphere,thenthesphereisconformallyprojectedontoaplaneusingan oblique cylindrical projection. This process is called double projection (Figure 59). A main point is fixed in the planeontheellipsoid(oldobservatoryfromBern)intheprojectionoftheorigin(withOffset:YOst =600,000m andXNord=200,000m)ofthecoordinatesystem. OnSwitzerlandsmap(e.g.scale1:25000)therearetwodifferentpiecesofcoordinateinformation:
Theregionalcoordinatesprojectedintheplane(XandYinkilometers)withtheaccompanyinggridand Thegeographicalcoordinates(Longitudeandlatitudeindegreesandseconds)relatedtotheBesselellipsoid
200'000
BERN
600'000 Local reference ellipsoid (Bessel ellipsoid) 1st step: projection onto sphere 2nd step: projection onto sphere Processing the cylinder: map with country co-ordinates
Figure 59: The principle of double projection
Thesignaltransittimefrom4satellitesmustbeknownbythetimethepositionalco-ordinatesareissued.Only then, after considerable calculation and conversion, is the position issued in Swiss land survey co-ordinates (Figure60).
Known signal transit time from 4 satellites
Calculation of WGS-84 Cartesian co-ordinaten
Conversion into CH-1903 Cartesian co-ordinaten
Projection onto sphere
Projection onto oblique-angled cylinder
Figure 60: From satellite to position

5.4.4 Worldwide conversion of coordinates
Internetoffersvariouspossibilitiesforconvertingcoordinatesfromonesystemintoanother[xxii].
5.4.4.1 Example: conversion of WGS-84 coordinates to CH-1903 coordinates
(Fromreferencesystemsinpractice,UrsMarti,DieterEgger,SwissFederalOfficeofTopography)
Note:accuracyiswithin1meter!
1. Conversion of latitude and longitude:
ThelatitudeandlongitudeoftheWGS-84datahavetobeconvertedintosexagesimalseconds[]. Example: 1. Thelatitude(WGS-84)of46238,87onceconvertedis165758.87.Thisintegerisdescribedas B:B=165758.87. 2. Thelongitude(WGS-84)of84349,79onceconvertedis31429.79.Thisintegerisdescribedas L:L=31429.79.

2. Calculation of auxiliary integers:
B 169028.66 10000
= 0.326979 = 0.464729
L 26782.5 10000
Example:
3. Calculation of the abscissa (W---E): y
y [m] = 600072.37 + (211455.93 ) (10938.51 ) (0.36 2 ) (44.54 3 )

Example: y=700000.0m
4. Calculation of the ordinate (S---N): x
x [m] = 200147.07 + (308807.95 ) + (3745.25 2 ) + (76.63 2 ) (194.56 2 ) + (119.79 3 )

Example: x=100000.0m
5. Calculation of the height H:
H [m] = ( HeightWGS 84 49.55) + (2.73 ) + (6.94 )

Example: HeightWGS-84=650.60mresultsfromtheconversion:H=600m
6 Improved GPS: DGPS, SBAS, A-GPS and HSGPS
If you would like to . . . o o o o o o o
Knowwhichkindsoferrorsinfluencetheaccuracyofdeterminingposition KnowwhatDGPSmeans Knowhowcorrectionvaluesaredeterminedandrelayed UnderstandhowtheD-signalcorrectserroneouspositionalmeasurements KnowwhatDGPSservicesareavailableinCentralEurope KnowwhatEGNOSandWAASmean KnowhowA-GPSfunctions
Then this chapter is for you!
6.1 Introduction
The forerunnerofallGNSS systems isGPS. Infactthis is so much the case thatGPS is often usedtoreferto satellite navigation in general. In its development GPS has shown some limitations, which have required refinements and improvements in the technology. This chapter examines some of these technological enhancementstoGPS,whichhavebecomestandardstoGNSS. Althoughoriginallyintendedformilitarypurposes,theGPSsystemisusedtodayprimarilyforcivilapplications, such as surveying, navigation, positioning, measuring velocity, determining time, monitoring etc, etc, etc.GPS wasnotinitiallyconceivedforapplicationsdemandinghighprecision,securitymeasures,orutilizationinclosed rooms.Forthisreasonimprovementshavebeenimplemented.
Toincreasetheaccuracyofpositioning,Differential-GPS(D-GPS)wasintroduced. Toimprovetheaccuracyofpositioningandtheintegrity(reliability,importantforsecurityapplications)SBAS (SatelliteBasedAugmentationSystem)suchasEGNOSandWAASwasimplemented. Toimprovethesensitivityinclosedrooms,orrespectivelytoreducetheacquisitiontime,Assisted-GPS(AGPS)serviceswereoffered. ThereceptionpropertiesofGPSreceiversarecontinuallybeingimprovedandincreasethesensitivityofthe receiverswithHighSensitivity-GPS(HSGPS).
6.2 Sources of GPS Error

Thepositioningaccuracyofapprox.13mfor95%ofallmeasurements(withHDOPtheaccuracyiswithin1.3m) discussed in the previous chapter is not sufficient for all applications. In order to achieve accuracy to within a meter or better, extra efforts are necessary. Different sources can contribute to the total error in GPS measurements.ThesecausesandthetotalerrorarelistedinTable11.Thesevaluesshouldbeviewedastypical averagesandcanvaryfromreceivertoreceiver.
ImprovedGPS:DGPS,SBAS,A-GPSandHSGPS page68
Error Source Error
Ephemerisdata Satelliteclocks Effectoftheionosphere Effectofthetroposphere Multipathreception Effectofthereceiver TotalRMSvalue

Total RMS value (filtered, i.e. slightly averaged)
Table 11:Error Source and total error
2.1m 2.1m 4.0m 0.7m 1.4m 0.5m 5.3m

5.0m
Theerrorcausesarestudiedinmoredetailbelow:
Ephemeris data:thesatellitepositionatthetimeofthesignalemissionis,asageneralrule,onlyknownto beaccurateuptoapprox.1...5m. Satellite clocks:althougheachsatelliteincludesfouratomicclocks,thetimebasecontainsdefects.Atime errorof10nsisreachedatanoscillatorstabilityofapprox.10-13perday.Atimeerrorof10nsimmediately resultsinadistanceerrorofabout3m. Effect of the ionosphere:theionosphereisanatmosphericlayersituatedbetween60to1000kmabove theEarthssurface.Thegasmoleculesintheionosphereareheavilyionized.Theionizationismainlycaused bysolarradiation(onlyduringtheday!).Signalsfromthesatellitestravelthroughavacuumatthespeedof light.Intheionospherethevelocityofthesesignalsslowsdownandthereforecannolongerbeviewedas constant.Thelevelofionizationvariesdependingontimeandlocation,andisstrongestduringthedayand attheequator.Iftheionizationstrengthisknownthiseffectcan,toacertainextent,becompensatedwith geophysical correction models. Furthermore, given that the change in the signal velocity is frequency dependent,thiscanadditionallybecorrectedbytheuseofdualfrequencyGPSreceivers. Effect of the troposphere: thetroposphereistheatmosphericlayerlocatedbetween0...15kmabovethe Earthssurface.Thecauseoftheerrorhereisthevaryingdensityofthegasmoleculesandtheairhumidity. Thedensitydecreasesastheheightincreases.Theincreaseindensityorhumidityretardsthespeedofthe satellite signals. In order to correct this effect, a simple model is used which is based on the standard atmosphere(P)andtemperature(T): o o o
H=Height[m] T=288.15K6.510-3h[K] P=1013.25mbar(T/288.15K)5,256[mbar]
Multipath: GPS signals can be reflected from buildings, trees, mountains etc. and make a detour before arrivingatthereceiver.Thesignalisdistortedduetointerference.Theeffectofmultipathcanbepartially compensated by the selection of the measuring location (free of reflections), a good antenna and the measuringtime(Figure41)).
effective reflection
ineffective reflection
Figure 61: Effect of the time of measuring on the reflections
Effect of the receiver:furthererrorsareproducedduetoGPSreceivermeasurementnoiseandtimedelays inthereceiver.Advancedtechnologiescanbeusedtoreducethiseffect. Effect of the satellite constellation, including shadowing (DOP):thiseffectwasdiscussedindetailin chapter4.2.5.2.
6.3 Possibilities for reducing measurement error

Reducingtheeffectofmeasurementerrorscanconsiderablyincreasepositioningaccuracy.Differentapproaches areusedforreducingthemeasurementerrorandareoftencombined.Theprocessesmostfrequentlyusedare:
Dual frequency measurement: L1/L2 signals are used to compensate for the effect of the ionosphere. Such receivers measure the GPS L1 and L2 frequency signals. If a radio signal is transmitted through the ionosphere,itisdeceleratedreverselyproportionaltoitsfrequency.Bycomparingthearrivaltimesofboth signals,thedelaycanbedeterminedandthustheeffectoftheionization. Geophysical correction models. This is used primarily for the compensation of the effect of the ionosphereandtroposphere.Correctionfactorsareonlyuseful,ifappliedtoaspecifiedandlimitedarea. Differential GPS (DGPS):bycomparingwithoneorseveralbasestations,variouserrorscanbecorrected. The evaluation of the correction data available from these stations can take place either during post processing or in Real Time (RT). Real Time solutions (RT DGPS) require data communication between the basestationandthemobilereceiver.DGPSemploysavarietyofdifferentprocesses: o
RTDGPS,normallybasedontheRTCMSC104standard DGPS derived from signal travel time delay measurement (Pseudorange corrections, achievableaccuracyapprox.1m) DGPS derived from the phase measurement of the carrier signal (achievable accuracy approx.1cm)
Post-processing(subsequentcorrectionandprocessingofthedata).
Choice of location and of the measurement time for improving the visibility or line of sight contacttothesatellites(SeeexplanationonDOP4.2.5).

6.3.1 DGPS based on Signal Travel Time Delay measurement
TheprincipleofDGPSbasedonsignaltraveltimemeasurement(pseudorangeorC/Acodemeasurement)isvery simple.AGPSreferencestationislocatedataknownandaccuratelysurveyedpoint.TheGPSreferencestation determinesitsGPSpositionusingfourormoresatellites.GiventhatthepositionoftheGPSreferencestationis exactlyknown,thedeviationofthemeasuredpositiontotheactualpositionandmoreimportantlythemeasured pseudorange to each of the individual satellites can be calculated. These variations are valid for all the GPS receiversaroundtheGPSreferencestationinarangeofupto200km.Thesatellitepseudorangescanthereby be used for the correction of the measured positions of other GPS receivers (Figure 62). The differences are either transmitted immediately by radio or used afterwards for correction (See post-processing, section 6.3.3) aftercarryingoutthemeasurements. Itisimportantthatthecorrectionbebasedonthesatellitepseudorangevaluesandnotthespecificdeviationin positionoftheGPSreferencestation.Deviationsarebasedonthepseudorangestothespecificsatellites,and thesevarydependingonpositionaswellaswhichsatellitesareused.Acorrectionbasedsimplyonthepositional deviationofthereferencebasestationfailstotakethisintoaccountandwillleadtofalseresults.
Sat. 2 Sat. 1 Sat. 3 Sat. 4
Basel
Zurich
Berne
GPS reference station
Chur
GPS receiver
Geneva
Figure 62: Principle of DGPS with a GPS base station
6.3.1.1
Detailed description of how it runs
Theerrorcompensationiscarriedoutinthreephases: 1. Determinationofthecorrectionvaluesatthereferencestation 2. TransmissionofthecorrectionvaluesfromthereferencestationtotheGPSuser 3. CompensationforthedeterminedpseudorangestocorrectthecalculatedpositionoftheGPSuser

6.3.1.2 Definition of the correction factors
A reference station with exactly known position measures the L1 signal travel time to all visible GPS satellites (Figure 63) and uses these values to calculate its position relative to the satellites. These measured values will typically include errors. Since the real position of the reference station is known, the actual distance (nominal value)toeachGPSsatellitecanbecalculated.Thedifferencebetweenthenominalandthemeasureddistances

can be calculated by a simple subtraction and corresponds toa correction factor. These correction factors are differentforallGPSsatellitesandarealsoapplicabletoGPSuserswithinaradiusofseveralhundredkilometers.
GPS satellite
Satellite antenna RF receiving antenna

GPS
GPS user
924'26" 4648'41"
RF transmit antenna
RF
RF
RTCM SC-104
Decoder Reference station
Figure 63: Determination of the correction factors
6.3.1.3
Transmission of the correction values
Given that the correction values can be used by other GPS users within a large area to compensate for the measured pseudoranges, they are immediately transmitted by using a suitable medium (telephone, radio, etc) (Figure64).
GPS satellite

GPS
GPS user
924'26" 4648'41"
RF transmitting antenna
RF
RF
RTCM SC-104
Figure 64: Transmission of the correction factors
6.3.1.4
Correction of the measured pseudo ranges
Afterreceivingthecorrectionvalues,theGPSusercancompensateforthepseudorangesinordertodetermine theactualdistancetothesatellites(Figure65).Theseactualdistancescanthenbeusedtocalculatetheexact positionoftheuser.Allerrors,whicharenotcausedbyreceivernoiseandmultipathreception,canbeovercome inthisway.

GPS satellite

GPS
GPS user
924'26" 4648'41"
RF transmitting antenna
RF
RF
RTCM SC-104
Figure 65: Correction of the measured pseudoranges
6.3.2 DGPS based on Carrier Phase measurement

TheDGPSaccuracyof1meterachievedbymeasuringsignaltraveltimeisnotenoughforsomerequirements such as solving survey problems. In order to obtain a precision within millimeters, the carrier-phase of the satellitesignalmustbeevaluated. Thewavelength ofthecarrierwaveisapprox.19cm.Thedistancetoasatellitecanbedeterminedasshown below(Figure66).
D = (N . ) + ( . )
Wave length
Phase t
Number of complete cycles N Distance D Satellite

Figure 66: Principle of the phase measurement
User
SinceNisunknownthephasemeasurementisambiguous.Byobservingseveralsatellitesatdifferenttimesand continuallycomparingresultsfromuserandreferencestationreceivers(duringorafterthemeasurement),the position can be calculated using an extensive series of mathematical equations to an accuracy of a few millimeters.
6.3.3 DGPS post-processing (Signal Travel Time and Phase Measurement)

DGPSpost-processingimplementsthedeterminedcorrectionfactorsbyusingappropriatesoftwareafter carrying out field measurements. Reference data is either obtained from private reference stations or from publicly accessible server systems. The disadvantage is that problems with the field data (e.g. poor satellite reception, damagedfilesetc.)aresometimesnotdetecteduntilafterthecorrectionfactorsarecalculatedandbroadcast, necessitatingarepetitionofthewholeprocess.

6.3.4 Transmitting the correction data
DGPS services collectdatafromreference stationsandtransmit it by radio to themobile receiver.There area variety of channelsavailable over whichto broadcast this correction data. Each of these broadcasting systems possesses individual radio-technical properties and frequency ranges which have specific advantages and disadvantagesforDGPS(Table12).
Broadcasting system Frequency range Advantages Disadvantages Transmission of correction data
Longandmediumwave broadcasters(LW,MW) Maritimeradiobeacon
100-600KHz
Extensiverangeof Lowbitrates transmission (1000km) Extensiverangeof Lowbitrates transmission (1000km) Extensiverangeof Lowbitrates transmission (1000km)
RTCMSC104
283-315KHz
RTCMSC104
Aviationradiobeacon
255-415KHz
RTCMSC104
Shortwavebroadcaster (KW) VHFandUKW
330MHz
Extensiverangeof Lowbitrates,quality RTCMSC104 transmission dependsonthetimeand frequency Highbitrates,joint Rangeoftransmission useoftheexisting limitedbythequasiopticalconditions infrastructure Limitedrangeof transmission, synchronizationproblem Highinvestmentcost RTCMSC104
30-300MHz
450,900,1800 Jointuseof Mobile existingnetworks communication/telephone MHz networks(GSM,GPRS) GEOsatellitesystem 1.21.5GHz Extensivearea coverage
RTCMSC104
RTCMSC104 (forMSAT, Omnistar, Landstar, Starfire) RTCADO-229C (forSBAS systemssuchas WAAS,EGNOS, MSAS)
Table 12: Transmission process of the differential signal (for code and phase measurement)
Manycountriesprovidetheirownsystemsfortransmittingcorrectiondata.Acomprehensivedescriptionofall thesesystemsisbeyondthescopeofthiscompendium.Someindividualsystemswillbedescribedbelow.
6.3.5 DGPS classification according to the broadcast range

ThevariousDGPSservicesavailablearecategorizedaccordingtothebroadcastrangeofthecorrectionsignals:
Local DGPS: Local Area Augmentation System (LAAS). These are sometimes called Ground Based AugmentationSystems(GBAS). RegionalDGPS Wide Area DGPS (WADGPS) or Satellite Based Augmentation Systems (SBAS): Employ satellites to transmitDGPScorrectiondata.Inthesecasesnotjustsinglereferencestations,butwholenetworksof referencestationsareused.
6.3.6 Standards for the transmission of correction signals

DGPS broadcasters transmit the signal travel time and carrier phase corrections. For most GBAS and some satellite based WADGPS systems (LandStar-DGPS, MSAT, Omnistar or Starfire) the DGPS correction data is transmitted according to the RTCM SC-104 standard. Typically the receiver must be equipped with a service specificdecoderinordertoreceiveandprocessthedata. SatelliteBasedAugmentationSystemssuchasWAAS,EGNOSandMSASusetheRTCADO-229standard.Since RTCA frequencies and data formats are compatible with those of GPS, modern GNSS receivers can calculate RTCAdatawithouttheuseofadditionalhardware,incontrasttoRTCM(Figure67). Table13liststhestandardsusedforDGPScorrectionsignalsaswellasthereferencespertainingspecificallyto GNSS.
Standard References pertaining to GNSS
RTCMSC104:
RadioTechnicalCommissionforMaritime Services,SpecialCommittee104
RTCMRecommendedStandardsfor DifferentialNavstarGPSService,Version2.0and 2.1 RecommendedStandardsforDifferential GNSSService,Version2.2and2.3
RTCA:
RadioTechnicalCommissionfor Aeronautics
DO-229C,MinimumOperationalPerformance StandardsforGlobalPositioningSystem/Wide AreaAugmentationSystemAirborne Equipment.
Table 13: Standards for DGPS correction signals

RTCM Decoder
Figure 67: Comparison of DGPS systems based on RTCM and RTCA standards
6.3.7 Overview of the different correction services
GPS
Uncorrected
Corrected (DGPS)
PostProcessing (Code+Phase)
TwoFrequency
(L1/L2)
RTCMSC-104 (Code+Phase)
Phase Measurement
RTCADO-229C (SBASoverGEOSatellites) WAAS
Proprietary Formats (Code+Phase)
Measurement basedon Code
GBAS+LAAS transmissionover LandStation
WADGPS transmissionover GEO-Sat. Omnistar Landstar StarFire
EGNOS MSAS
LW/MW/KW UKW/VHF GSM,etc
6.4 DGPS services for real-time correction

Allcorrectiondataistransmittedintheuserreceiverreceptionareaviaasuitablebroadcaster(LW,KW,UKW, radio, GSM, internet, satellite communication, etc). In North America and Europe, the correction signals from multiplepublicDGPSservicescanbereceived.Dependingontheservice,anannuallicensefeemayberequired oraone-timefeeischargedwhenpurchasingtheDGPSreceiver. In the following section a few selected European GBAS services will be described. Subsequently the satellitebasedDGPSserviceswillbediscussedindetail.
6.4.1 GBAS Services

Worldwide there are far too many ground-based DGPS services, also known as Ground Based Augmentation Services (GBAS), to describe themall indetail here. In many countries there aremultiple systems offered. The followinglistdescribesafewGBASservicesavailableinEurope.
6.4.2 European GBAS Services
SAPOS:(GermanSurveyingandMappingAdministrationSatellitePositioningService)isaDGPSservice inpermanentoperation.ThisserviceisavailableinallofGermany.Thebasisofthesystemisanetwork of GPS reference stations. For real-time correction values the data is transmitted using UKW radio, longwave,GSMandtheirown2-meterband(VHF)frequencies.UKWradiotransmittersbroadcastthe correction data signals in RASANT (Radio Aided Satellite Navigation Technique) format. This is a conversionofRTCM2.0fordatatransmissionintotheRadioDataSystem(RDS)formatusedbyUKW soundbroadcasting.SAPOSincludesfourserviceswithdifferentfeaturesandaccuracies: o o o o
SAPOSEPS: SAPOSHEPS: SAPOSGPPS: SAPOSGHPS:
Real-TimePositioningService High-PrecisionReal-TimePositioningService GeodeticPrecisionPositioningService GeodeticHigh-PrecisionPositioningService
ALF:(AccuratePositioningbyLowFrequency)broadcaststhecorrectionvalueswithanoutputof50kW from Mainflingen, Germany (near Frankfurt). The longwave broadcaster DCF42 (LW, 123.7 kHz) transmits the correction values over an area of 6001000 km. This upper sideband (USB) is phasemodulated (Bi-Phase-Shift-Keying BPSK). The German Federal Office for Cartography and Geodesy, in cooperationwiththeGermanTelecomservice(DTAG),providestheservice.Whenbuyingtherequired decoder,theuserpaysaone-timefee.Duetolongwavepropagationpatternsthecorrectiondatacan bereceiveddespiteshadowing. AMDS:(AmplitudeModulatedDataSystem)isusedfordigitaltransmissionovermediumandlongwave frequenciesusingexistingradiobroadcasters.Thedataisphase-modulatedandtransmittedoveranarea of6001000km. Swipos-NAV: (Swiss PositioningService)distributes correction datausing FM-RDS orGSM. The Radio DataSystemRDSisaEuropeanstandardforthedistributionofdigitaldataviatheUKWbroadcasting network (FM, 87-108 MHz). RDS was developed in order to provide travelers with traffic information overUKW.TheRDSdataismodulatedatafrequencyof57kHzontheFMcarrier.Theuserrequiresan RDSdecoderinordertoextracttheDGPScorrectionvalues.Toguaranteegoodreception,thereshould generallybeline-of-sightcontactwithaUKWbroadcaster.Usersofthisservicecaneitherpayanannual subscriptionoraone-timefee. Radio Beacons: radio beacons are navigation installations distributed worldwide primarily along the coasts.DGPScorrectionsignalsareusuallytransmittedalongafrequencyofapproximately300kHz.The signalbitratevariesdependingonthebroadcasterbetween100and200bitpersecond.
6.5 Wide Area DGPS (WADGPS)

6.5.1 Satellite Based Augmentation Systems, SBAS (WAAS, EGNOS)
6.5.1.1 Introduction
SatelliteBasedAugmentationSystems(SBAS)areusedtoenhancetheGPS,GLONASSandGALILEO(onceitis operational) functions. Correction and integrity data for GPS or GLONASS is broadcast from geostationary satellitesovertheGNSSfrequency.
6.5.1.2 The most important SBAS functions
SBASisaconsiderableimprovementcomparedtoGPSbecausethepositioningaccuracyandthereliabilityofthe positioninginformationisgreater.SBAS,incontrasttoGPS,deliversadditionalsignalsbroadcastfromdifferent geostationarysatellites.
Increased positioning accuracy using correction data: SBAS provides differential correction data with whichtheGNSSpositioningaccuracyisimproved.Firstofalltheionosphericerror,whicharisesduetothe signaldelaysintheionosphere,hastobecorrected.Theionosphericerrorvarieswiththetimeofdayandis different from region to region. To ensure that the data is continentally valid, it is necessary to operate a complicatednetworkofearthstationsinordertobeabletocalculatetheionosphericerror.Inadditionto the ionospheric values, SBAS passes on correction information concerning the satellite position location (Ephemeris)andtimemeasurement. Increased integrity and security: SBAS monitors each GNSS satellite and notifies the user of a satellite errororbreakdowninaquickadvancewarningtimeof6s.Thisyes/noinformationisonlytransmittedifthe qualityofthereceivedsignalsremainsbelowspecificlimits. Increased availability through the broadcasting of navigation information: SBAS geostationary satellites emit signals, which are similar to the GNSS signals although missing the accurate time data. A GNSSreceivercaninterpretpositionfromthesesignalsusingaprocedureknownaspseudoranging. Overview of existing and planned systems
6.5.1.3
AlthoughallSatelliteBasedAugmentationSystems(SBAS)includelargerregions(e.g.Europe)itmustbeensured that they are compatible with each other (interoperability) and that the SBAS providers cooperate with each otherandagreeontheirapproach.CompatibilityisguaranteedbyusingtheRTCADO-229Cstandard.Atthe currenttime,theSBASsystemsidentifiedfortheareasbelowarecurrentlyinoperationordevelopmentandare (orwillbe)compatible(Figure68):
North America (WAAS, Wide Area Augmentation System):theUSFederalAviationAdministration (FAA)isleadingthedevelopmentoftheWideAreaAugmentationSystem(WAAS),whichcoversmost of the continental United States and large parts of Alaska and Canada. WAAS operates over the satellitesPORandAOR-W.Thesesatellitesshouldbecomeactiveduring2007/2008.Theuninterrupted continuationofthisservicewillbeachievedthroughtwonewsatellitessituatedat133Wand107W.It is planned to extend the service into Canada through the augmentation of WAAS with a Canadian CWAASsystem. Europe (EGNOS, European Geostationary Overlay Service): the European group of three comprising ESA, the European Union and EUROCONTROL, is developing EGNOS, the European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service. EGNOS is intended for the region of the European Civil AviationConference(ECAC).AsofJune2006EGNOSwasnotyetfullyapprovedforoperationforhigh securityapplications(e.g.aviation).Thedefinitivereleaseofthesystemisscheduledfor2007/2008.The currenttransmissionstatusoftheEGNOSsatellitescanbeviewedunder[xxiii]. Japan (MSAS, Multifunctional Satellite Based Augmentation System): the Japanese Office for Civil Aviation is developing the MTSAT based Augmentation System (MSAS) that is intended to cover theAirTrafficControlAirspaceassociatedwithJapan.
India (GAGAN, GPS and GEO Augmented Navigation): the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO)istryingtodevelopasystem,whichiscompatiblewiththeotherSBASsystems.Thisistobegin with the launch oftheGSAT-4 satellite, planned for2007.This isplannedtobeapreparationforan independent GNSS system for India to be known as the Indian Regional Navigational Satellite System (IRNSS). China (Beidou): Beidouinvolvesthreegeostationarysatellites(140E,110.5Eand80E)belongingto the Chinese government and is foreseen as a regional expansion system for the proposed Chinese satellitenavigationsystemCOMPASS.Thedefinitivetimeframefortheactivationofthissystemremains unclear.
Anik-F1R 107.3W PRN 138 Galaxy XV 133W PRN 135
GSAT- 4 111.5E PRN 127
Figure 68: Position and provision of WAAS, EGNOS, GAGAN and MSAS
Thegeostationarysatellites(Table14)broadcasttheirsignalsfromanaltitudeofapprox.36,000kmabovethe equator in the direction of the area of use. The Pseudo Random Number (PRN) for each satellite has been allocated.ThebroadcastingfrequencyofthesignalsisthesameasGPS(L1,1575.42MHz).
Service Satellite description Position PRN
WAAS WAAS WAAS WAAS EGNOS EGNOS EGNOS
Inmarsat3F3POR(PacificOceanRegion)
178E
134 122 135
Inmarsat3F4AOR-W(AtlanticOceanRegionWest) 54W IntelsatGalaxyXV TeleSatAnikF1R Inmarsat3F2AOR-E(AtlanticOceanRegionEast) Artemis Inmarsat3F5IOR-W(IndianOceanRegionWest) 133W
107.3W 138 15.5W 21.5E 25E 111.5E 140E 145E 120 124 126 127 129 137
GAGAN GSAT-4 MSAS MSAS MTSAT-1R MTSAT-2
Table 14: The GEO satellites used (or to be used) with WAAS, EGNOS and MSAS EssentialsofSatelliteNavigation GPS-X-02007-C

6.5.1.4 System description
Thecomplexgroundsegmentiscomposedofseveralreferencebase-stations,groundcontrolcentersand2to3 satellite earth stations (Figure 69). Each system uses its own designation for its stations. Table 15 below comparesthedesignations.
General description EGNOS designation WAAS designation MSAS designation
ReferenceBaseStation
RIMS:Referenceand IntegrityMonitoring Station MCC:MissionControl Center
WRS:WideAreaBase GMS:GroundMonitor station Station WMS:WAASMaster Station MCS:MasterControl Station NES/GES:Navigation EarthStation/Ground EarthStation
ControlCenter SatelliteGroundStation
NLES:NavigationLand GES:GroundEarth EarthStation Station
Table 15: Designation of the SBAS stations
Figure 69: Principle of all Satellite Based Augmentation Systems SBAS
Reference Station:intheSBASareathereareseveralreferencebasestations,whicharenetworkedto eachother.ThebasestationsreceivetheGNSSsignals.Theyareexactlysurveyedwithregardtotheir position.Eachbasestationdeterminesthedeviationbetweentheactualandcalculatedpositionsrelative tothesatellites(thepseudorange).Thisdataisthentransmittedtoacontrolcenter. Control Center:thecontrolcenterscarryouttheevaluationofthecorrectiondatafromthereference base stations, determine the accuracy of all GNSS signals received by each base station, detect inaccuracies, possibly caused by turbulence in the ionosphere, and monitor the integrity of the GNSS system.Dataconcerningthevariationsarethenintegratedintoasignalandtransmittedviadistributed satelliteearthstations. Satellite Ground Station:thesestationsbroadcastsignalstothedifferentgeostationarysatellites.
GEO satellites: the SBAS GEO (geostationary) satellites receive the signals from the satellite ground stationsandbroadcastthemtotheGNSSusers.UnliketheGNSSsatellites,theseGEOsatellitesdonot have onboard signal generators but rather are equipped with transponders, which relay the signals processedonthegroundandtransmittedtothem.ThesignalsaretransmittedtoearthontheGNSS-L1frequency (1575.42MHz). The SBAS signals are received and processed by suitably equipped GNSS receivers.
6.5.2 Satellite DGPS services using RTCM SC-104

Severalgeostationarysatellitescontinuouslybroadcastcorrectiondataworldwide.Belowarelistedsomeofthese services.TheseservicesusetheRTCMSC-104standardandrequireaspecialdecoder.
MSAT: developedbytheNationalResearchCouncilofCanada,thisservicebroadcaststheCanada-Wide DGPS(CDGPS)signalsusingtwogeostationarysatellites. Omnistar (Fugro Group) and LandStar-DGPS, (Thales Company), independently broadcast correction datavia6GEOsatellites(Figure70).Theservicesmustbepaidforandtheusermusthaveaccesstoa specialreceiver/decoderforusingtheservice.OmnistarandLandstarbroadcasttheirinformationinLband(1-2GHz)toearth.Basestationsaredistributedworldwide.Thegeostationarysatellitesarelocated inthecentrallatitudedeepoverthehorizon(10...30).Line-of-sightcontactisrequiredinorderto establishradiocontact.
Figure 70: LandStar-DGPS and Omnistar illumination zone
StarfirePropertyofNavComTechnology,Inc.,broadcastscorrectiondatavia3InmarsatGEOsatellites. Theservicehastobepaidforandtheusermusthaveaccesstoaspecialreceiver/decoderinorderto use the service. Starfire broadcasts its information in L-band (1-2 GHz) to earth. The respective base stationsaredistributedthroughoutthewholeworld.Theserviceisavailableworldwideovertherange of76latitude.
6.6 Achievable accuracy with DGPS and SBAS

Table16showstypicallyachievablepositioningaccuracywithandwithoutDGPS/SBAS.
Error cause and type Error without DGPS/SBAS Error with DGPS/SBAS
Ephemerisdata Satelliteclocks Effectoftheionosphere Effectofthetroposphere Multipathreception Effectofthereceiver TotalRMSvalue TotalRMSvalue(filteredi.e.slightlyaveraged) Horizontalerror(1-Sigma(68%)HDOP=1.3)

Horizontal error (2-Sigma (95%) HDOP=1.3)
Table 16: Positioning accuracy without and with DGPS/SBAS
2.1m 2.1m 4.0m 0.7m 1.4m 0.5m 5.3m 5.0m 6.5m

13.0m
0.1m 0.1m 0.2m 0.2m 1.4m 0.5m 1.5m 1.3m 1.7m

3.4m
6.7 Assisted-GPS (A-GPS)

6.7.1 The principle of A-GPS
It can be assumed that devices for Location Based Services (LBS, see 9.2.1) arent always in operation. This is especially so in cases where localization is achieved with GNSS because battery operation is prevented during longerstationaryperiodsinordertominimizepowerconsumption.BecausetheGNSSdeviceisonlyinfrequently inoperationitisprobablethatnoinformationisavailableregardingsatelliteposition.Afterbeinginactivefor2 ormorehourstheorbitaldataofthesatellitesmustfirstbedownloadedinordertostartup.AGNSSreceiver normallyrequiresatleast18-36secondsinordertoobtaintheorbitaldataandcalculatethefirstposition.Under difficult reception conditions (e.g. in urban areas where high buildings block direct sight to the sky) the calculationofthefirstpositioncanrequireminutesforcompletion(ifatall). IntheabsenceoftheorbitaldatatheGNSSreceiversmustcarryoutacompletesearchprocedureinorderto findtheavailablesatellites,downloadthedataandcalculatetheposition.SearchingfortheGPSsatellites(for example)intheCode-Frequency-Levelisverytimeconsuming.Thecorrelationtimenormallyrequiresatleast1 ms(1C/ACodePeriod)perpositionintheCode-Frequency-Level.Shouldthefrequencyrangebebrokeninto50 steps(i.e.thefrequencyintervalamountsto(2x6000/50Hz=240Hz)thentherecanbeasmanyas1023x 50=51,150positions(bins)tobesearchedfor(thisrepresents51seconds).Seealsosection6.8. ThisproblemcanberemediedbymakingthesatelliteorbitaldataandotherGNSSinformationavailablethrough othercommunicationschannels,forexampleviaGSM,GPRS,CDMAorUMTS.ThisisreferredtoasAidingand isemployedbyAssisted-GPS.Assisted-GPS(orA-GPS)isafunctionorservicethatusesAiding-Datainorderto expeditethepositioncalculation.TheGNSSreceiverobtainsAiding-Dataoveramobilecommunicationsnetwork (perhapsdirectlyovertheinternet).TheAiding-Dataincludesinformationoversuchthingsas:
SatelliteConstellation(Almanac) PreciseOrbitalData(Ephemeris,Orbits) TimeInformation DopplerFrequencyandFrequency-Offset(Error)oftheGNSSReceiver

WiththeavailabilityofthishelpinformationtheGNSSreceivercanveryquicklycalculateposition,evenunder poorconditions.Dependingonthecomplexityandcompletenessofthehelpinformationthereductionofthe start-uptimecanbesignificant.Thestart-uptimeremainsdependantonthestrengthoftheGNSS-Signal.Itis generallytrue,however,thatthemorehelpinformationavailable,thefasterthestart-uptime. A mobile transmitter station with integrated GNSS device still requires sight to at least four satellites. To use A-GPStheGNSSreceiversrequireaninterfacethroughwhichtoreceivetheAiding-Data. Thegreatesttimesavingoccursthrougheliminatingthereceptiontimefortheorbitaldata.Inadditiontothis, thesearchareacanbelimitedwhentheDopplerFrequencyandFrequencyOffsetoftheGNSSreceiverisknown (Figure71).ThiscausestheSignalAcquisitiontobeacceleratedwhichsavesadditionaltime.
Locationof Maximum
1023 767
Correlation Factor
1 255 0 -6KHz 0 +6KHz
511
S de Co
t hif
FrequencyShift
Figure 71: Acceleration of the search procedure with A-GPS by reducing the search area
TwodifferenttechniquesareemployedtousetheHelpInformation:
WiththeOnline PrincipletheAiding-Dataaredirectlydownloadedfromaserverasneededinreal- time.Thisinformationisonlyvalidforalimitedtime.(e.g.AssistNow Onlinebyu-bloxAG) WiththeOffline PrincipletheAiding-Data(generallypredeterminedEphemerisorAlmanac information)isdownloadedfromaserverandstoredintheGNSSdevicepriortotheapplication.The datacanremainvalidforuptoseveraldays.Asneededthestoreddatacanbeutilizedinorderto acceleratethestart-up.(e.g.AssistNow Offlinebyu-bloxAG)
The help information is collected from a network of GNSS-Reference Stations (GNSS Reference Network) distributedworldwide. A typical A-GPS system, as illustrated in the below block diagram (Figure 72), consists of a global reference networkofGNSSreceivers,acentralserverthatdistributes Aiding-Data,andA-GPScapablereceivers(theGNSS enddevices).TheGNSSreceiversoftheglobalreferencenetworkreceivetherelevantsatelliteinformationand forwardittotheserver.TheservercalculatestheAiding-Dataandtransmitsit(overamobilecommunications networkorovertheInternet)uponrequesttotheGNSSenddevices,whichinturncanmorequicklycalculate theirfirstposition.
GPS Satellites Internet Reference Network

M obile Com m . Network (GSM ,
Central Server
GPRS, UM TS, CDMA)
Aiding Data (over mobile comm. network)

Mobile Station GPS-Receiver with A-GPS interface
Aiding Data (directly over internet)

Figure 72: Assisted-GPS system
6.7.2 A-GPS with Online Aiding Data (Real-time A-GPS)

WiththeOnlineorRealtimePrincipletheAidingDataaredirectlydownloadedfromtheserverasneededandare only valid fora shorttime. The disadvantage ofthisprinciple istherelatively slow connection time (GPRS, for example,requiresupto30seconds)orinadequateavailabilityofInternetAccessPoints.
6.7.3 A-GPS with Offline Aiding Data (Predicted Orbits)

A-GPS with Offline Aiding Data is a system providing the GNSS receiver with predetermined orbital data (PredictedOrbits).Thereceiverstoresthisinformation,andtheconnectiontotheserveristerminated.Thenext timetheGNSSreceiverstartsupthestoredinformationisusedtodeterminethecurrentorbitalinformationfor navigation. Consequently it is no longer necessary to wait until all of this information has been downloaded from the satellites and the receiver can immediately begin navigating. Depending on the provider the Aiding Data can be valid for up to 10 days, although it should be considered that the resulting positional accuracy decreaseswithtime.
6.7.4 Reference Network

Predetermining the orbitals with which to supply Real-time A-GPS Data requires an extensive and worldwide network of monitoring stations, which continually and accurately monitor satellite movements. A high performance server uses this data to predict satellite movements over the next days. An example of such a networkistheonedevelopedbytheInternationalGNSS-Service(IGS,orInternationalGPS-Service[xxiv]),which worldwideoperatesapermanentnetwork(Figure73).
Figure 73: IGS reference stations (as of October 2006) with approx. 340 active stations
6.8 High Sensitivity GPS (HSGPS)

Whilecertainapplications,suchascallingemergencynumbersorLocationBasedServices,requireclearreception in buildings or in urban canyons, the reception performance of GNSS-Receivers is being continually improved. Theprimaryfocusesoftheseeffortsare:
IncreasedSignalSensitivity Quickeracquisitionuponactivationofthereceiver(timetofirstfix,TTFF) Reducedsensitivitytointerference(e.g.multipathinterference,orelectromagneticinterferenceEMC) Variousstrategiesarebeingemployedbydifferentmanufacturersinordertoachieveimprovements.Themost importantofthesearediscussedinthischapterincluding:

ImprovedOscillatorStability Antennas NoiseFigureconsiderations Increasingthecorrelatorsandthecorrelationtime
6.8.1 Improved Oscillator Stability

The development and use of increasingly stable oscillators is an attempt to reduce or compensate for the temperaturedependenceofquartzinordertodecreasesignalacquisitiontimeintherequiredfrequencyareas. Thismostlyinvolvestheemploymentoftemperaturecompensatedcrystaloscillators(TCXO). Additionally,studieshaveshown[xxv]thatnormalquartzoscillatorscanproducemicrovariationsinfrequency (several10-9Hz).Thecausesofthesefrequencychangesaregenerallystructuralimpurityofthequartzcrystal.On thebasisofthesesuddenfrequencyshiftstheacquisitiontimeisincreasedbecausethesearchintheFrequencyCode-Levelduringthecorrelationprocessisdisrupted.Developingquartzoscillatorswithreducedtendenciesto microvariationscanreducethisdisturbance.
6.8.2 Antennas
Antennas can be made to be less sensitive to disturbances and to selectively receive GNSS frequencies. The disadvantageofthisperformanceimprovementisanincreaseinsize.Thiscontradictsthegeneraltrendtowards miniaturizationofmobilestations.
6.8.3 Noise Figure Considerations

TheNoiseFigure(NF)isameasurethatindicatestowhatextentthesignaltonoiseratioofanincomingsignalis decreasedbytheadditionalnoiseofthereceiver.Minimizingthenoiseandmaximizingtheamplificationatthe

firstamplificationstage(LNA),minimallyimprovesthereceiversensitivity.Asisthecasewitheveryreceiverthe firststageamplificationdeterminesthenoisecharacteristicsfortheentirereceiver. Thisisdemonstratedinthebelowequationaswellasinthesimplifiedblockdiagram(Figure74)withtheLNA andthecombinedsubsequentstages(SS):
NFTotal = NFLNA +
NFSS GLNA
NF:NoiseFigure(dB)oftheStage G:GainoftheStage
Received GPS-Signal OutputSignal forfurther processing
LNA NFLNA(dB) GLNA
SS
NFSS(dB)
Figure 74: Block Diagram of input stages
With typical noise figures for the first and subsequent amplification stages- of 20 dB and 1.6 dB respectively, onlymarginalimprovementsarepossiblewithnewLNAdevelopments[xxvi].Furtheradvancementinthisarea appearstobeunlikely.
6.8.4 Correlators and Correlation Time

ThespectralpowerdensityofthereceivedGNSSsignalsisapprox.16dBbelowthepowerdensityofthethermal background noise (see Figure16). The demodulationand de-spreading ofthe received GNSS signals createsa systemgainGGof43dB(seeFigure24). Increasingthecorrelationtime(IntegrationTimeorDwell-Time)improvesthesensitivityofaGNSSmodule.The longeracorrelatorremainsataspecificcode-frequencylevel,thelowertherequiredstrengthoftheGNSSsignal at the antenna. If the correlation time is increased by a factor of k, then there will be an increase GR in the separationtothethermalbackgroundnoiseof: GR=log10(k) Doubling the Correlation time results in an increase of the signal-background noise separation of 3 dB. In practiceanincreaseinthecorrelationtimeof20msisnotaproblem.Whenthevalueofthetransmitteddata bitsisknownthistimecanbeadditionallyincreased.Otherwiseitispossiblethroughanon-coherentintegration toincreasethecorrelationtimetoover1second,however,thisprocedureresultsinaone-timelossofseveral dB. Inordertoincreasetheacquisitionsensitivitythenumberofimplementedcorrelatorsissignificantlyincreased. ModernGNSSreceiverstypicallypossessasensitivityofapproximately160dBm.GiventhattheGPSoperator (USDepartmentofDefense)guaranteessignalstrengthof130dBm,GNSSreceiverscanthereforefunctionin buildingsthatweakenthesignalbyupto30dB.
6.9 GNSS-Repeater or Reradiation Antenna

A GNSS-Repeater (also known as a Reradiation Antenna or Transceiver) receives GNSS-Signals from visible satellites through an externally situated antenna, amplifies the signals and transmits them to another location (e.g.intoabuilding).TheyrequirenodirectconnectiontotheGNSSdevice.Thereceptionantennaisinstalled outdoorsinalocationfavorableforreceivingsatellitesignals.TheGNSS-Repeater(Figure75)consistsof:
ExternalAntenna(ReceptionAntenna) InternalAntenna(TransmissionAntenna) Electricaladapter Amplifier Cable
Figure 75: GNSS Repeater (external antenna, electrical adapter and power cord, amplifier and internal antenna)
6.10 Pseudolites for indoor applications

APseudolite(shortformforpseudosatellite)isaground-basedtransmitter,whichfunctionslikeaGNSSsatellite. Pseudolitesare oftenusedin aviationto supportaircraft landingapproaches.This procedure is not commonly usedforindoorapplicationsbecausethenecessarycomponentsarerelativelyexpensive.
7 Data Formats and Hardware Interfaces
If you would like to . . . o o o o o
knowwhatNMEAandRTCMmean knowwhataproprietarydatasetis knowwhatdatasetisavailableinthecaseofallGNSSreceivers knowwhatanactiveantennais knowwhetherGNSSreceivershaveasynchronizedtimingpulse
7.1 Introduction
GNSS receivers require different signals in order to function (Figure 76). These variables are broadcast after positionandtimehavebeensuccessfullycalculated.Toensurethatthedifferenttypesofappliancesareportable there are either international standards for data exchange (NMEA and RTCM), or the manufacturer provides defined(proprietary)formatsandprotocols.
Antenna Power supply DGPS signal (RTCM SC-104) GNSS receiver
Data interface (NMEA-Format) Data interface (Proprietary format) Timing mark (1PPS)
Figure 76: Block diagram of a GNSS receiver with interfaces
DataFormatsandHardwareInterfaces page88
7.2 Data interfaces

7.2.1 The NMEA-0183 data interface
InordertorelaycomputedGNSSvariablessuchasposition,velocity,courseetc.toaperipheral(e.g.computer, screen,transceiver),GNSSmoduleshaveaserialinterface(TTLorRS-232level).Themostimportantelementsof receiverinformationarebroadcastviathisinterfaceinaspecialdataformat.Thisformatisstandardizedbythe NationalMarineElectronicsAssociation(NMEA)toensurethatdataexchangetakesplacewithoutanyproblems. Nowadays,dataisrelayedaccordingtotheNMEA-0183specification.NMEAhasspecifieddatasetsforvarious applications e.g. GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System), GPS, Loran, Omega, Transit and also for various manufacturers. The following seven data sets are widely used with GNSS modules to relay GNSS information [xxvii]: 1. GGA(GPSFixData,fixeddatafortheGlobalPositioningSystem) 2. GGL(GeographicPositionLatitude/Longitude) 3. GSA(GPSDOPandActiveSatellites,degradationofaccuracyandthenumberofactivesatellitesinthe GlobalSatelliteNavigationSystem) 4. GSV(GNSSSatellitesinView,satellitesinviewintheGlobalSatelliteNavigationSystem) 5. RMC(RecommendedMinimumSpecificGNSSData) 6. VTG(CourseoverGroundandGroundSpeed,horizontalcourseandhorizontalvelocity) 7. ZDA(Time&Date)
7.2.1.1
Structure of the NMEA protocol
InthecaseofNMEA,therateatwhichdataistransmittedis4800Baudusingprintable8-bitASCIIcharacters. Transmissionbeginswithastartbit(logicalzero),followedbyeightdatabitsandastopbit(logicalone)added attheend.Noparitybitsareused.
TTLLevel
1 ( ca. Vcc) 0 ( ca. 0V)
Start Bit D0 D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7
Stop Bit
Data Bits
RS-232Level
0 ( U>0V) 1 ( U<0V)
Stop Bit
Data Bits
Figure 77: NMEA format (TTL and RS-232 level)
ThedifferentlevelsmustbetakenintoconsiderationdependingonwhethertheGNSSreceiverusedhasaTTLor RS-232interface(Figure77):
InthecaseofaTTLlevelinterface,alogicalzerocorrespondstoapprox.0Vandalogicaloneroughlyto theoperatingvoltageofthesystem(+3.3V...+5V) InthecaseofanRS-232interfacealogicalzerocorrespondstoapositivevoltage(+3V...+15V)anda logicaloneanegativevoltage(-3V...15V).
If a GNSS module with a TTL level interface is connected to an appliance with an RS-232 interface, a level conversionmustbeeffected(see7.3.4). MostGNSSreceiversallowthebaudratetobeincreased(upto115200bitspersecond). EachGNSSdatasetisformattedinthesamewayandhasthefollowingstructure: $GPDTS,Inf_1,Inf_2,Inf_3,Inf_4,Inf_5,Inf_6,Inf_n*CS<CR><LF> Table17explainsthefunctionsofindividualcharactersandcharactergroups.

Field $ GP DTS Inf_1toInf_n , * CS <CR><LF> Description Startofthedataset InformationoriginatingfromaGNSSappliance Datasetidentifier(e.g.RMC) Informationwithnumber1...n(e.g.175.4forcoursedata) Commausedasaseparatorfordifferentitemsofinformation Asteriskusedasaseparatorforthechecksum Checksum(controlword)forcheckingtheentiredataset Endofthedataset:carriagereturn(<CR>)andlinefeed,(<LF>)
Table 17: Description of the individual NMEA DATA SET blocks
Themaximumnumberofcharactersusedmustnotexceed79.Forthepurposesofdeterminingthisnumber,the startsign$andendsigns<CR><LF>arenotcounted. ThefollowingNMEAprotocolwasrecordedusingaGNSSreceiver(Table18):
$GPRMC,130303.0,A,4717.115,N,00833.912,E,000.03,043.4,200601,01.3,W*7D<CR><LF> $GPZDA,130304.2,20,06,2001,,*56<CR><LF> $GPGGA,130304.0,4717.115,N,00833.912,E,1,08,0.94,00499,M,047,M,,*59<CR><LF> $GPGLL,4717.115,N,00833.912,E,130304.0,A*33<CR><LF> $GPVTG,205.5,T,206.8,M,000.04,N,000.08,K*4C<CR><LF> $GPGSA,A,3,13,20,11,29,01,25,07,04,,,,,1.63,0.94,1.33*04<CR><LF> $GPGSV,2,1,8,13,15,208,36,20,80,358,39,11,52,139,43,29,13,044,36*42<CR><LF> $GPGSV,2,2,8,01,52,187,43,25,25,074,39,07,37,286,40,04,09,306,33*44<CR><LF> $GPRMC,130304.0,A,4717.115,N,00833.912,E,000.04,205.5,200601,01.3,W*7C<CR><LF> $GPZDA,130305.2,20,06,2001,,*57<CR><LF> $GPGGA,130305.0,4717.115,N,00833.912,E,1,08,0.94,00499,M,047,M,,*58<CR><LF> $GPGLL,4717.115,N,00833.912,E,130305.0,A*32<CR><LF> $GPVTG,014.2,T,015.4,M,000.03,N,000.05,K*4F<CR><LF> $GPGSA,A,3,13,20,11,29,01,25,07,04,,,,,1.63,0.94,1.33*04<CR><LF> $GPGSV,2,1,8,13,15,208,36,20,80,358,39,11,52,139,43,29,13,044,36*42<CR><LF> $GPGSV,2,2,8,01,52,187,43,25,25,074,39,07,37,286,40,04,09,306,33*44<CR><LF>
Table 18: Recording of an NMEA protocol

7.2.1.2 GGA data set
TheGGAdataset(GPSFixData)containsinformationontime,longitudeandlatitude,thequalityofthesystem, thenumberofsatellitesusedandtheheight. AnexampleofaGGAdataset: $GPGGA,130305.0,4717.115,N,00833.912,E,1,08,0.94,00499,M,047,M,,*58<CR><LF> ThefunctionoftheindividualcharactersorcharactersetsisexplainedinTable19. Field $ GP GGA 130305.0 4717.115 N 00833.912 E 1 08 0.94 00499 M 047 M ,, 0000 * 58 <CR><LF> Description Startofthedataset InformationoriginatingfromaGNSSappliance Datasetidentifier UTCpositionaltime:13h03min05.0sec Latitude:4717.115min Northerlylatitude(N=north,S=south) Latitude:833.912min Easterlylongitude(E=east,W=west) GPSqualitydetails(0=noGPS,1=GPS,2=DGPS) Numberofsatellitesusedinthecalculation HorizontalDilutionofPrecision(HDOP) Antennaheightdata(geoidheight) Unitofheight(M=meter) Heightdifferentialbetweenanellipsoidandgeoid Unitofdifferentialheight(M=meter) AgeoftheDGPSdata(inthiscasenoDGPSisused) IdentificationoftheDGPSreferencestation Separatorforthechecksum Checksumforverifyingtheentiredataset Endofthedataset
Table 19: Description of the individual GGA data set blocks
7.2.1.3
GLL data set
TheGLLdataset(geographicpositionlatitude/longitude)containsinformationonlatitudeandlongitude,time andhealth. ExampleofaGLLdataset: $GPGLL,4717.115,N,00833.912,E,130305.0,A*32<CR><LF> ThefunctionoftheindividualcharactersorcharactersetsisexplainedinTable20. Field $ GP GLL 4717.115 N 00833.912 E 130305.0 A * 32 <CR><LF> Description Startofthedataset InformationoriginatingfromaGNSSappliance Datasetidentifier Latitude:4717.115min Northerlylatitude(N=north,S=south) Longitude:833.912min Easterlylongitude(E=east,W=west) UTCpositionaltime:13h03min05.0sec Datasetquality:Ameansvalid(V=invalid) Separatorforthechecksum Checksumforverifyingtheentiredataset Endofthedataset
Table 20: Description of the individual GGL data set blocks
7.2.1.4
GSA data set
TheGSAdataset(GNSSDOPandActiveSatellites)containsinformationonthemeasuringmode(2Dor3D),the number of satellites used to determine the position and the accuracy of the measurements (DOP: Dilution of Precision). ExampleofaGSAdataset: $GPGSA,A,3,13,20,11,29,01,25,07,04,,,,,1.63,0.94,1.33*04<CR><LF> ThefunctionoftheindividualcharactersorsetsofcharactersisdescribedinTable21. Field $ GP GSA A 3 13 20 11 29 01 25 07 04 ,,,,, 1.63 0.94 1.33 * 04 <CR><LF> Description Startofthedataset InformationoriginatingfromaGNSSappliance Datasetidentifier Calculatingmode(A=automaticselectionbetween2D/3Dmode,M=manualselection between2D/3Dmode) Calculatingmode(1=none,2=2D,3=3D) IDnumberofthesatellitesusedtocalculateposition IDnumberofthesatellitesusedtocalculateposition IDnumberofthesatellitesusedtocalculateposition IDnumberofthesatellitesusedtocalculateposition IDnumberofthesatellitesusedtocalculateposition IDnumberofthesatellitesusedtocalculateposition IDnumberofthesatellitesusedtocalculateposition IDnumberofthesatellitesusedtocalculateposition DummyforadditionalIDnumbers(currentlynotused) PDOP(PositionDilutionofPrecision) HDOP(HorizontalDilutionofPrecision) VDOP(VerticalDilutionofPrecision) Separatorforthechecksum Checksumforverifyingtheentiredataset Endofthedataset
Table 21: Description of the individual GSA data set blocks
7.2.1.5
GSV data set
The GSV data set (GNSS Satellites in View) contains information on the number of satellites in view, their identification,theirelevationandazimuth,andthesignal-to-noiseratio. AnexampleofaGSVdataset: $GPGSV,2,2,8,01,52,187,43,25,25,074,39,07,37,286,40,04,09,306,33*44<CR><LF> ThefunctionoftheindividualcharactersorcharactersetsisexplainedinTable22. Field $ GP GSV 2 2 09 01 52 187 43 25 25 074 39 07 37 286 40 04 09 306 33 * 44 <CR><LF> Description Startofthedataset InformationoriginatingfromaGNSSappliance Datasetidentifier TotalnumberofGVSdatasetstransmitted(upto1...9) CurrentnumberofthisGVSdataset(1...9) Totalnumberofsatellitesinview Identificationnumberofthefirstsatellite Elevation(0....90) Azimuth(0...360) Signal-to-noiseratioindb-Hz(1...99,nullwhennottracking) Identificationnumberofthesecondsatellite Elevation(0....90) Azimuth(0...360) Signal-to-noiseratioindB-Hz(1...99,nullwhennottracking) Identificationnumberofthethirdsatellite Elevation(0....90) Azimuth(0...360) Signal-to-noiseratioindb-Hz(1...99,nullwhennottracking) Identificationnumberofthefourthsatellite Elevation(0....90) Azimuth(0...360) Signal-to-noiseratioindb-Hz(1...99,nullwhennottracking) Separatorforthechecksum Checksumforverifyingtheentiredataset Endofthedataset
Table 22: Description of the individual GSV data set blocks
7.2.1.6
RMC data set
The RMC data set (Recommended Minimum Specific GNSS) contains information on time, latitude, longitude andheight,systemstatus,speed,courseanddate.AllGNSSreceiversrelaythisdataset. AnexampleofanRMCdataset: $GPRMC,130304.0,A,4717.115,N,00833.912,E,000.04,205.5,200601,01.3,W*7C<CR><LF> ThefunctionoftheindividualcharactersorcharactersetsisexplainedinTable23. Field $ GP RMC 130304.0 A 4717.115 N 00833.912 E 000.04 205.5 200601 01.3 W * 7C <CR><LF> Description Startofthedataset InformationoriginatingfromaGNSSappliance Datasetidentifier Timeofreception(worldtimeUTC):13h03min04.0sec Datasetquality:Asignifiesvalid(V=invalid) Latitude:4717.115min Northerlylatitude(N=north,S=south) Longitude:833.912min Easterlylongitude(E=east,W=west) Speed:0.04knots Course:205.5 Date:20thJune2001 Adjusteddeclination:1.3 Westerlydirectionofdeclination(E=east) Separatorforthechecksum Checksumforverifyingtheentiredataset Endofthedataset
Table 23: Description of the individual RMC data set blocks
7.2.1.7
VTG data set
TheVGTdataset(CourseoverGroundandGroundSpeed)containsinformationoncourseandspeed. AnexampleofaVTGdataset: $GPVTG,014.2,T,015.4,M,000.03,N,000.05,K*4F<CR><LF> ThefunctionoftheindividualcharactersorcharactersetsisexplainedinTable24. Field $ GP VTG 014.2 T 015.4 M 000.03 N 000.05 K * 4F <CR><LF> Description Startofthedataset InformationoriginatingfromaGNSSappliance Datasetidentifier Course14.2(T)withregardtothehorizontalplane Angularcoursedatarelativetothemap Course15.4(M)withregardtothehorizontalplane Angularcoursedatarelativetomagneticnorth Horizontalspeed(N) Speedinknots Horizontalspeed(Km/h) Speedinkm/h Separatorforthechecksum Checksumforverifyingtheentiredataset Endofthedataset
Table 24: Description of the individual VTG data set blocks
7.2.1.8
ZDA data set
TheZDAdataset(timeanddate)containsinformationonUTCtime,thedateandlocaltime. AnexampleofaZDAdataset:
$GPZDA,130305.2,20,06,2001,,*57<CR><LF>
ThefunctionoftheindividualcharactersorcharactersetsisexplainedinTable25. Field $ GP ZDA Description Startofthedataset InformationoriginatingfromaGNSSappliance Datasetidentifier UTCtime:13h03min05.2sec Day(0031) Month(112) Year Reservedfordataonlocaltime(h),notspecifiedhere Reservedfordataonlocaltime(min),notspecifiedhere Separatorforthechecksum Checksumforverifyingtheentiredataset Endofthedataset
130305.2
20 06 2001 * 57 <CR><LF>
Table 25: Description of the individual ZDA data set blocks
7.2.1.9
Calculating the checksum
Thechecksumisdeterminedbyanexclusive-oroperationinvolvingall8databits(excludingstartandstopbits) fromalltransmittedcharacters,includingseparators.Theexclusive-oroperationcommencesafterthestartofthe dataset($sign)andendsbeforethechecksumseparator(asterisk:*). The 8-bit result is divided into 2 sets of 4 bits (nibbles) and each nibble is converted into the appropriate hexadecimalvalue(0...9,A...F).ThechecksumconsistsofthetwohexadecimalvaluesconvertedintoASCII characters. Theprincipleofchecksumcalculationcanbeexplainedwiththehelpofabriefexample: ThefollowingNMEAdatasethasbeenreceivedandthechecksum(CS)mustbeverifiedforitscorrectness. $GPRTE,1,1,c,0*07 Procedure: 1. Onlythecharactersbetween$and*areincludedintheanalysis:GPRTE,1,1,c,0 2. These13ASCIIcharactersareconvertedinto8bitvalues(seeTable26) 3. Eachindividualbitofthe13ASCIIcharactersislinkedtoanexclusive-oroperation(N.B.Ifthenumberof onesisuneven,theexclusive-orvalueisone) 4. Theresultisdividedintotwonibbles 5. Thehexadecimalvalueofeachnibbleisdetermined 6. BothhexadecimalcharactersaretransmittedasASCIIcharacterstoformthechecksum
(07 isthechecksum)
Character ASCII (8 bit value)
G P R T E , 1 , 1 , C , 0
Exclusive-or value
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0
0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0111 7
7
1 0 0 0 Directionto 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 proceed
Nibble Hexadecimalvalue ASCIICScharacters (meetsrequirements!)
0000 0
0
Table 26: Determining the checksum in the case of NMEA data sets
7.2.2 The DGPS correction data (RTCM SC-104)

The RTCM SC-104 standard is used to transmit correction values. RTCM SC-104 stands for Radio Technical CommissionforMaritimeServicesSpecialCommittee104andiscurrentlyrecognizedaroundtheworldasthe industry standard [xxviii]. There are two versions of the RTCM Recommended Standards for Differential NAVSTARGPSService
Version2.0(issuedinJanuary1990) Version2.1(issuedinJanuary1994)
Version2.1isareworkedversionof2.0andisdistinguished,inparticular,bythefactthatitprovidesadditional informationforrealtimenavigation(RealTimeKinematic,RTK). Both versions are divided into 63 message types, numbers 1, 2, 3 and 9 being used primarily for corrections basedoncodemeasurements.

7.2.2.1 The RTCM message header
Each message type is divided into words of 30 bits and, in each instance, begins with a uniform header comprising two words (WORD 1 and WORD 2). From the information contained in the header it is apparent which message type follows [xxix] and which reference station has determined the correction data (Figure 78from[xxx]).
Figure 78: Construction of the RTCM message header
Contents PREAMBLE MESSAGETYPE: STATIONID PARITY MODIFIEDZ-COUNT SEQUENCENO. LENGTHOFFRAME STATIONHEALTH
Name Preamble Messagetype ReferencestationIDNo. Errorcorrectioncode ModifiedZ-count FramesequenceNo. Framelength Referencestationhealth
Description Preamble Messagetypeidentifier Referencestationidentification Parity Modified Z-Count, incremental timecounter Sequentialnumber Lengthofframe Technicalstatusofthereference station
Table 27: Contents of the RTCM message header
Thespecificdatacontentforthemessagetype(WORD3...WORDn)followstheheader,ineachcase.
7.2.2.2
RTCM message type 1
Message type 1 transmits pseudorange correction data (PSR correction data, range correction) for all GNSS satellites visible to the reference station, based on the most up-to-date orbital data (ephemeris). Type 1 additionallycontainstherate-of-changecorrectionvalue(Figure79,extractfrom[xxxi],onlyWORD3toWORD 6areshown).
Figure 79: Construction of RTCM message type 1

Contents SCALEFACTOR UDRE SATELLITEID PSEUDORANGE CORRECTION RANGE-RATE CORRECTION ISSUEOFDATA PARITY Name Pseudorangecorrectionvaluescalefactor Userdifferentialrangeerrorindex SatelliteIDNo. Pseudorangecorrectionvalue Pseudorangerate-of-changecorrectionvalue DataissueNo. Errorcorrectioncode Description PSRscalefactor Userdifferentialrangeerror index Satelliteidentification Effectiverangecorrection Rate-of-changeofthe correctiondata Issueofdata Checkbits
Table 28: Contents of RTCM message type 1
7.2.2.3
RTCM message type 2 to 9
Messagetypes2to9aredistinguishedprimarilybytheirdatacontent:
Message type 2 transmits delta PSR correction data, based on previous orbital data. This information is required whenever the GNSS user has been unable to update his satellite orbital information. In message type 2, the difference between correction values based on the previous and updated ephemeris is transmitted. Message type 3 transmitsthethreedimensionalco-ordinatesofthereferencestation. Message type 9relaysthesameinformationasmessagetype1,butonlyforalimitednumberofsatellites (max.3).Dataisonlytransmittedfromthosesatelliteswhosecorrectionvalueschangerapidly.
InorderfortheretobeanoticeableimprovementinaccuracyusingDGPS,thecorrectiondatarelayedshould notbeolderthanapprox.10to60seconds(differentvaluesaresupplieddependingontheserviceoperator,the exactvaluealsodependsontheaccuracyrequired,seealso[xxxii]).Accuracydecreasesasthedistancebetween thereferenceanduserstationincreases.TrialmeasurementsusingthecorrectionsignalsbroadcastbytheLW transmitterinMainflingen,Germany,(seesectionA1.3)producedanerrorrateof0.51.5mwithinaradiusof 250km,and13mwithinaradiusof600km[xxxiii].
7.2.3 Proprietary data interfaces

The majority of manufacturers offer proprietary data interfaces for their GNSS receivers. In comparison to the NMEAstandard,proprietarydatainterfaceshavethefollowingadvantages:
Emissionofanaugmenteddatascope;e.g.informationwhichisnotsupportedbytheNMEAProtocol. Higherdatadensity:mostproprietaryprotocolsusebinarydataformatswithwhichnumericalandBoolean information can be transmitted in a more consolidated way. Data intensive notifications e.g. satellite ephemeris, can be contained in a notification. With higher data density, a higher emission interval witha constantdatatransmissionspeedcanbecarriedout. ExtensiveconfigurationpossibilitiesfortheGNSSreceiver. Optimal linking to manufacturer-specific evaluation and visualization tools enables precise analysis of the receptionbehavior. Possibility of downloads from the current versions of the manufacturer-specific GNSS firmware. This functionisonlysupportedinGNSSreceiverswiththesuitableFlashmemory.
From the GNSS manufacturers point of view, an improved distribution of GNSS information to different datasetswiththeobjectiveofavoidingredundancyandthetransmissionofdatawhicharenotrequiredfor theapplication. Verygoodintegritysecurityprovidedbychecksums. Minimum work for the host computer in reading and accepting the received data. The conversion of numericaldataintoASCIIformatinaninternalbinaryformatisnotrequired.
Threedifferenttypesofproprietarydatainterfacesaretypicallyused:
AdditionalNMEAdatasets:theinformationiscodedintousualNMEAdataformat(textbased,separationof the data with commas etc.). However, immediately after the initial symbol (Dollar sign) a manufacturerspecificaddressdatafollows.ManyGNSSmanufacturersusetheadditionalnotificationstoconveyfurther frequently used information. The NMEA format is, however, not suitable for efficiently sending large amountsofinformationduetoinadequatedatadensityandtheintensiveconversionofbinarydataintotext format. Binaryformat(e.g.u-bloxUBX). Textbasedformat.
7.2.3.1
Example: UBX protocol for u-blox 5 GNSS receivers by u-blox AG
Apart from NMEA and RTCM, the ANTARIS and u-blox 5 GNSS receivers by u-blox support the binary UBX protocol.AswiththeNMEAformat,aframeworkformatisgivenasfollows:
Symbol Explanation SYNC CHAR1,2 Synchronization character 2 CLASS Message class 1 ID Message identification 1 LENGTH Length of the datablock PAYLOAD Structureddata content LENGTH CHECKSUM Checksum
Length(Bytes)
2 Checksumcoveragearea
Figure 80: Structure of the UBX data sets
Eachdatasetbeginswithtwoconstantsynchronizationcharacters(Hexadecimalvalues:alwaysB5,62).These charactersareusedforrecognizingthestartofanewdataset.Thefollowingtwofields,CLASSandID,identify thedatasettype.Thistwo-tieridentificationallowsacleanstructuringofthedifferentdatasetsaccordingto classes. The overview is obtained also after adding new data sets. Symbolic concepts, which are easy to understand such as NAV-POSLLH (CLASS 01, ID 02), are used for the documentation. Following this, the length information and the actual data content are given. u-blox stipulates specific data types for the data content.Finally,eachdatasetendswitha2-bytechecksum.Adatasetisonlyvalidifthecorrectsynchronization charactersareavailableandthecalculatedandpredeterminedchecksumcoincide.

Messageclass NAV(01) RXM(02) CFG(06) ACK(05) MON(0A) Description Navigationinformation ReceiverManagement: AmplifiedGNSSreceptiondata Configurationnotifications (Configureandrequest) Receptionconfirmationofthe configurationnotifications OperationalstatusoftheGNSSreceiver Content(Extract) Position,speed,time,DGPSandSBAS information GNSSrawdata,e.g.pseudo-ranges, ephemeris,yearbook,satellitestatus Serialinterfaces,emissioninterval,receptionand navigationparameters,energysavingmethods Acceptedorrejected CPUcapacityutilization,conditionofthe operatingsystem,useofsystemresources, antennamonitoring Ephemeris,yearbook,coldstart,lastposition, time,satellitestatus
AID(0B) INF(04) TIM(0D) UPD(09) USR(4*)
Feedingofauxiliaryinformationto acceleratethestartup.
Issuingoftextbasedinformationnotifications Configurationtimepulseandtimemeasurementofinputsignals Downloadofnewsoftware Userspecificnotifications
Table 29: Message classes (Hexadecimal values in brackets)
With the aid of customer specific software additional data sets can be integrated to existing protocols or additionaluser-specificprotocols.Furthermore,ANTARISand u-blox-5supportsseveralprotocolsonthesame interface,e.g.nestedNMEAandUBXdatasetsinbothdirectionssothattheadvantagesofseveralprotocolscan bemadeuseof.
7.3 Hardware Interfaces

7.3.1 Antennas
GNSS signalsare right-hand circular polarized (RHCP). Thisrequires a differenttype ofantenna than thewellknownwhipantennastypicallyusedforlinearpolarizedsignals. GNSSmodulesoperatewitheitherapassiveoractiveantenna.Anactiveantennacontainsabuilt-inLNA(Low NoiseAmplifier)preamplifier.TheGNSSreceiverprovidespowertotheactiveantennaovertheRFsignalline.For mobilenavigationpurposesacombinedantenna(e.g.GSM/FMandGNSS)issupplied. Asmallerantennawillpresentasmalleraperturetocollectthesignalenergyfromtheskyresultinginalower overall gain. There is no way to get around this problem. Amplifying the signal after the antenna will not improvethesignaltonoiseratio. ThetwomostcommontypesofGNSSantennaavailableonthemarketarethePatchandtheHelixantenna.This sectionwilldescribeavarietyofdifferentkindsofantennasusedinGNSStechnology.
7.3.1.1 Patch Antenna
ThemostcommonantennatypeforGNSSapplicationsisthepatchantenna. Patchantennasareflat,generallyhaveaceramicandmetalbodyandaremountedonametalbaseplate.They areoftencastinahousing. Patchantennasareidealforapplicationswheretheantennaismountedonaflatsurface,e.g.therooforthe dashboardofacar.Patchantennascandemonstrateaveryhighgain,especiallyiftheyaremountedontopofa largegroundplane(70x70mm).Ceramicpatchantennasareverypopularbecauseoflowcostsandthehuge varietyofavailablesizes.
Figure 81: Patch Antennas
7.3.1.2
Helix Antenna
AnothertypeofantennausedinGNSSapplicationsisthehelixantenna. Helixantennasarecylindricalinshapeandaretypicallyusedwheremultipleantennaorientationsarepossible. Theyarerobustandshowgoodnavigationperformance. Theactualgeometricsizedependsonthedielectricthatisusedtofillthespacebetweentheactivepartsofthe antenna. If the antenna is only filled with air it needs to be comparatively large (60mm length x 45mm diameter).Usingmaterialswithahighdielectricconstantresultsinamuchsmallerformfactor.Sizesintheorder of18mmlengthx10mmdiameterareavailableonthemarket.Thesmallerthedimensionsoftheantenna,the greatertheinfluencetightmanufacturingtoleranceshaveonperformance.

Figure 82: Helix Antennas
7.3.1.3
Chip Antenna
Chipantennasaresmallerthanpatchorhelicalantennas.Theyofferawiderangeofsizesdownto(11.0x1.6x 1.6mm).Sincecurrenttrendsareforincreasingminiaturization,theyarebecomingmorepopular.Theavailable ground plane has a significant impact on their performance. Chip antennas are not recommended for applicationswherenavigationprecisionisacorefeature.
Figure 83: Chip Antenna
7.3.1.4
Fractal Element Antennas (FEA)
Afractalantennaisanantennathatusesaself-similardesigntomaximizethelength,orincreasetheperimeter (oninsidesectionsortheouterstructure),ofmaterialthatcanreceiveortransmitelectromagneticsignalswithin agiventotalsurfacearea.Forthisreason,fractalantennasareverycompact. Fractalantennashavea3dBlosscomparedtohelicalorpatchantennasduetothelinearpolarization.Andthey showastrongdependencyonthesizeofthegroundplane.
Figure 84: Fractal Chip Antenna top and bottom view
7.3.1.5 Dipole Antenna
Dipoleantennascanbeaverycosteffectivesolution,especiallywhenprintedonPCB.Theyshowanacceptable performanceinindoorenvironments.Thefielddoesnotdependonthegroundplane. Dipoleantennasarelinear,notcircularpolarized.Thisresultsina3dBlossinopenspaceforGPSbuthassome advantageforthebacklobe,whichishelpfulforindoorreception.
Figure 85: Dipole and Printed PCB Dipole Antenna

7.3.1.6 Loop Antenna
Loop antennas are typically printed on a sticker, which can for example be attached to a windshield. When mountedthiswayloopantennasdemonstrategoodnavigationperformance.Sincethefieldisnotdependanton agroundplane,theimpedanceandcenterfrequencyarenotverysensitivetoobjectsnearthefield.

Figure 86: Loop Antenna, Laser Antenna 775
7.3.1.7
Planar Inverted F Antenna (PIFA)
ThePIFAantennaliterallylooksliketheletter'F'lyingonitssidewiththetwoshortersectionsprovidingfeed and ground points and the 'tail' (or top patch) providing the radiating surface. PIFAs make good embedded antennasinthattheyexhibitasomewhatomnidirectionalpatternandcanbemadetoradiateinmorethanone frequencyband.Theyarelinearpolarizedwithonlymoderateefficiency.PIFAareusedincellularphones(E-911) butitisnotrecommendedtousetheminapplicationswherenavigationprecisionisacorefeature.
Figure 87: Planar inverted-f-antenna (PIFA)
Figure 88: Ceramic Planar inverted-f-antenna (PIFA) and PIFA for a cellular phone
7.3.1.8
High Precision GNSS Antennas
For applications requiring high accuracysuch as surveying or timing, some very preciseantenna systemsexist. Commontothesedesignsarelargesize,highpowerconsumptionandhighprice.Highprecisionantennasare notgenerallyusedformass-marketGNSSapplications. These antnenna designs are highly optimized to suppress multi-path signals reflected from the ground (choke ringantennas,multi-pathlimitingantennas,MLA).Anotherareaofoptimizationisaccuratedeterminationofthe phasecenteroftheantenna.ForprecisionGNSSapplicationswithpositionresolutioninthemillimeterrangeitis importantthatsignalsfromsatellitesatallelevationsvirtuallymeetatexactlythesamepointinsidetheantenna. Forthistypeofapplicationreceiverswithmultipleantennainputsareoftenrequired.
7.3.1.8.1 Choke Ring and PinwheelTM technology (Novatel) antennas
Choke Ring antennas are high performance GPS antennas. The co-central rings around are suppressing the reflectedsignalsfromthegroundandthereforeitsmulti-pathsensitivity. PinwheelTechnologyoffersexcellentmultipathsuppression,withthesuppressionringsbeingprintedonPCB.

Figure 89: Leica Choke Antenna AT504 and Pinwheel
TM
Antenna (Novatel)
7.3.2 Supply
GNSSmodulesmustbepoweredfromanexternalvoltagesourceof3.3Vto6Volts.Ineachcase,thepower drawisverydifferent.
7.3.3 Time pulse: 1PPS and time systems

Most GNSS receivers generate a time pulse every second, referred to as 1 PPS (1 pulse per second), which is synchronizedtoUTC.ThissignalusuallyhasaTTLlevel(Figure90).
1s40ns
ca. 200ms
Figure 90: 1PPS signal
Thetimepulsecanbeusedtosynchroniescommunicationnetworks(PrecisionTiming). As time can play a fundamental part when GNSS is used to determine a position, a distinction is drawn here betweenfiveimportantGNSStimesystems:
7.3.3.1 Atomic time (TAI)
The International Atomic Time Scale (Temps Atomique International) was introduced in order to provide a universal 'absolute' time scale that would meet various practical demands and at the same time also be of significanceforGNSSpositioning.Since1967,thesecondhasbeendefinedbyanatomicconstantinphysics, thenon-radioactiveelementCaesium 133Csbeingselectedasareference.Theresonantfrequencybetweenthe selected energy states of this atom has been determined at 9 192 631 770 Hz. Time defined in this way is therefore part of the SI system (Systme International). The start of atomic time took place on 01.01.1958 at 00.00hours.
7.3.3.2 Universal Time Coordinated (UTC)
UTC (Universal Time Coordinated) was introduced, in order to have a practical time scale that was oriented towardsuniversalatomictimeand,atthesametime,adjustedtouniversalcoordinatedtime.Itisdistinguished from TAI in the way the seconds are counted, i.e. UTC = TAI - n, where n = complete seconds that can be alteredon1stJanuaryor1stJuneofanygivenyear(leapseconds).
7.3.3.3 GPS time
GPSsystemtimeisspecifiedbyaweeknumberandthenumberofsecondswithinthatweek.Thestartdatewas Sunday,6thJanuary1980at0.00hours(UTC).EachGPSweekstartsinthenightfromSaturdaytoSunday,the continuoustimescalebeingsetbythemainclockattheMasterControlStation.Thetimedifferencethatarises betweenGPSandUTCtimeisconstantlybeingcalculatedandappendedtothenavigationmessage(theseare theleapsecondsorUTCoffset).

7.3.3.4 Satellite time
Because of constant, irregular frequency errors in the atomic clocks onboard the GNSS satellites, individual satellitetimeisatvariancewithGPSsystemtime.Controlstationsmonitorsatelliteclocksandanyapparenttime disparity is relayed to Earth. Any time differences must be taken into account when conducting local GNSS measurements.
7.3.3.5
Local time
Local time is the time referred to within a certain area. The relationship between local time and UTC time is determinedbythetimezoneandregulationsgoverningthechangeoverfromnormaltimetosummertime. Exampleofatimeframe(Table30)onJune21st,2001(Zurich) Timebasis Localtime UTC GPS TAI Timedisplayed(hh:min:sec) 08:31:26 06:31:26 06:31:39 06:31:58 DifferencentoUTC(sec) 7200(=2h) 0 +13 +32
Table 30: Time systems
The interrelationship of time systems (valid for 2006):
TAIUTC=+33sec GPSUTC=+14sec TAIGPS=+19sec
7.3.4 Converting the TTL level to RS-232

7.3.4.1 Basics of serial communication
ThepurposeoftheRS-232interfaceismainly
tolinkcomputerstoeachother(mostlybidirectional) tocontrolserialprinters toconnectPCstoexternalequipment,suchasGSMmodems,GNSSreceivers,etc.
The serial ports in PCs are designed for asynchronous transfer. Persons engaged in transmitting and receiving operationsmustadheretoacompatibletransferprotocol,i.e.anagreementonhowdataistobetransferred. Bothpartnersmustworkwiththesameinterfaceconfiguration,andthiswillaffecttherateoftransfermeasured inbaud.Thebaudrateisthenumberofbitspersecondtobetransferred.Typicalbaudratesare4800,9600, 19200, 38400, 57600and 115200baud, i.e. bits per second.These parameters are laiddown inthe transfer protocol. In addition, agreement must be reached by both sides on what checks should be implemented regardingthereadytotransmitandreceivestatus. During transmission, 7 to 8 data bits are condensed into a data word in order to relay the ASCII codes. The lengthofadatawordislaiddowninthetransferprotocol. Astartbitidentifiesthebeginningofadataword,andattheendofeveryword1or2stopbitsareappended. Acheckcanbecarriedoutusingaparitybit.Inthecaseofevenparity,theparitybitisselectedinsuchaway thatthetotalnumberoftransferreddataword1bitsiseven(inthecaseofunevenparitythereisanuneven number).Checkingparityisimportant,becauseinterferenceinthelinkcancausetransmissionerrors.Evenifone bitofadatawordisaltered,theerrorcanbeidentifiedusingtheparitybit.
7.3.4.2 Determining the level and its logical allocation
DataistransmittedininvertedlogicontheTxDandRxDlines.TstandsfortransmitterandRforreceiver. Inaccordancewithstandards,thelevelsare:
Logical0=positivevoltage,transmitmode:+5..+15V,receivemode:+3..+15V Logical1=negativevoltage,transmitmode:-5..-15V,receivemode-3..-15V
The difference between the minimum permissible voltage during transmission and reception means that line interferencedoesnotaffectthefunctionoftheinterface,providedthenoiseamplitudeisbelow2V. Converting the TTL level of the interface controller (UART, universal asynchronous receiver/ transmitter) to the requiredRS-232levelandviceversaiscarriedoutbyalevelconverter(e.g.MAX3221andmanymorebesides). The following figure (Figure 91) illustrates the difference between TTL and RS-232 levels. Level inversion can clearlybeseen.

Start Bit D0 0: ( ca. 0V) Data-Bits D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7 Stop Bit
TTLLevel
1: ( ca. Vcc)
RS-232Level
0: ( U>0V) 1: ( U<0V)
Stop Bit
Data-Bits
Figure 91: Difference between TTL and RS-232 levels
7.3.4.3
Converting the TTL level to RS-232
ManyGNSSreceiversandGNSSmodulesonlymakeserialNMEAandproprietarydataavailableusingTTLlevels (approx.0Vorapprox.Vcc=+3.3Vor+5V).ItisnotalwayspossibletoevaluatethisdatadirectlythroughaPC, asaPCinputrequiresRS232levelvalues. Asacircuitisneededtocarryoutthenecessaryleveladjustment,theindustryhasdevelopedintegratedcircuits specificallydesignedtodealwithconversionbetweenthetwolevelranges,toundertakesignalinversion,andto accommodate the necessary equipment to generate negative supply voltage (by means of built-in charge pumps). Acompletebidirectionallevelconverterthatusesa"MaximMAX3221"[xxxiv]isillustratedonthefollowing circuitdiagram(Figure92).Thecircuithasanoperationalvoltageof3V...5Vandisprotectedagainstvoltage peaks(ESD)of15kV.ThefunctionoftheC1...C4capacitorsistoincreaseorinvertthevoltage.
TTL- Level
RS-232 Level
Figure 92: Block diagram pin assignment of the MAX32121 level converter

Thefollowingtestcircuit(Figure93)clearlyillustratesthewayinwhichthemodulesfunction.Inthecaseofthis configuration,aTTLsignal(0V...3.3V)isappliedtolineT_IN.Theinversionandvoltageincreaseto5Vcanbe seenonlinesT_OUTandR_INoftheRS-232output.
TTL- Level
RS-232 Level
Figure 93: Functional test on the MAX3221 level converter
8 GNSS RECEIVERS

If you would like to . . . o o o o o o
knowhowaGNSSreceiverisconstructed understandwhyseveralstagesarenecessarytoreconstructGNSSsignals knowhowanRFstagefunctions knowhowthesignalprocessorfunctions understandhowbothstagesinteract knowhowareceivermodulefunctions
8.1 Basics of GNSS handheld receivers

AGNSSreceivercanbedividedintothefollowingmainstages(Figure61).
Ante nna 15 75 .4 2M Hz
LN A1
RF filter IF filter
Signal Processor RF Stage

. n Digita l IF 3 AG C Con trol Lo cal O scillator R efe ren ce O scillator T im in g Co ntrol Sync hron isatio n Co rrelator 2 1 . Spre ad sig na l pro cesso r (SSP) Da ta
LN A
M ixe r
AG C
ADC
Co ntrol
Interface C/A-Code generator T im e b ase (RT C )
Crysta l
Crysta l
Display
La t.: 1214 '15 '' Lo ng .: 0732 '28 ''
Controller
Micro controller
DG PS (RT C M )
Pow er Supply
Altitu de : 6 55 ,00 m
M em ory (RAM /R OM )
Keyboard
Figure 94: Simplified block diagram of a GNSS receiver
1 5 9 -
2 6 0
3 7 . * #
4 8 + =
GNSSRECEIVERS page115

Antenna: The antenna receives extremely weak satellite signals on a frequency of 1572.42MHz. Signal outputisaround163dBW.Some(passive)antennaehavea3dBgain. LNA 1:Thislownoiseamplifier(LNA)amplifiesthesignalbyapprox.15...20dB. RF filter: The GNSS signal bandwidth is approx. 2MHZ. The RF filter reduces the affects of signal interference.TheRFstageandsignalprocessoractuallyrepresentthespecialcircuitsinaGNSSreceiverand areadjustedtoeachother. RF stage:TheamplifiedGNSSsignalismixedwiththefrequencyofthelocaloscillator.ThefilteredIFsignal ismaintainedataconstantlevelinrespectofitsamplitudeanddigitalizedviaAmplitudeGainControl(AGC) IF filter: The intermediate frequency is filtered out using a bandwidth of several MHz. The image frequenciesarisingatthemixingstagearereducedtoapermissiblelevel. Signal processor: Up to 16 different satellite signals can be correlated and decoded at the same time. Correlation takesplace byconstant comparisonwiththe C/A code. The RF stage and signal processorare simultaneously switched to synchronize with the signal. The signal processor has its own time base (Real Time Clock, RTC). All the data ascertained is broadcast (particularly signal transit time to the relevant satellites determinedbythe correlator),and this is referredtoassource data.The signal processorcan be programmedbythecontrollerviathecontrollinetofunctioninvariousoperatingmodes. Controller: Usingthesourcedata,thecontrollercalculatesposition,time,speedandcourseetc.Itcontrols the signal processor and relays the calculated values to the display. Important information (such as ephemeris,themostrecentpositionetc.)aredecodedandsavedinRAM.Theprogramandthecalculation algorithmsaresavedinROM. Keyboard:Usingthekeyboard,theusercanselect,whichco-ordinatesystemhewishestouseandwhich parameters(e.g.numberofvisiblesatellites)shouldbedisplayed. Display: Theposition calculated (longitude, latitudeand height) must be madeavailable to the user.This can either be displayed using a 7-segment display or shown on a screen using a projected map. The positionsdeterminedcanbesaved,wholeroutesbeingrecorded. Power supply: Thepowersupplydeliversthenecessaryoperationalvoltage toallelectronic components.
8.2 GNSS Receiver Modules

8.2.1 Basic design of a GNSS module
GNSS modules have to evaluate weak antenna signals from at least four satellites, in order to determine a correct three-dimensional position. A time signal is also often emitted in addition to longitude, latitude and height. This time signal is synchronized with UTC (Universal Time Coordinated). From the position determined and the exact time, additional physical variables, such as speed and acceleration can also be calculated. The GNSSmoduleissuesinformationontheconstellation,satellitehealth,andthenumberofvisiblesatellitesetc. Figure95showsatypicalblockdiagramofaGNSSmodule. Thesignalsreceived(1575.42MHz)arepre-amplifiedandtransformedtoalowerintermediatefrequency.The referenceoscillatorprovidesthenecessarycarrierwaveforfrequencyconversion,alongwiththenecessaryclock frequency for the processor and correlator. The analogue intermediate frequency is converted into a digital signalbymeansofanADC. SignaltraveltimefromthesatellitestotheGNSSreceiverisdeterminedbycorrelatingPRNpulsesequences.The satellitePRNsequencemustbeusedtoestablishthistime,otherwisethereisnocorrelationmaximum.Datais recoveredbymixingitwiththecorrectPRNsequence.Atthesametime,theusefulsignalisamplifiedabovethe interferencelevel[xxxv].Upto16satellitesignalsareprocessedsimultaneously.Asignalprocessorcarriesout the control and generation of PRN sequences and the recovery of data. Calculating and saving the position, includingthevariablesderivedfromthis,iscarriedoutbyaprocessorwithamemoryfacility.

Power supply (3,3V ... 5V) Active Passive antenna antenna DGPS Input RTCM
LNA
Signal Supply
RF amplifier Mixer A/D converter
Correlators Signal processor PRN generator RAM
Time mark 1 PPS
Reference Oscillator
Processor
ROM
NMEA Interface
Figure 95: Typical block diagram of a GNSS module
Proprietary
8.2.2 Example: u-blox 5

u-blox 5chipshavebeenspecificallydesignedforapplicationswithtightcost,sizeandpowerconstraintsthat require ultra-fast acquisition and high-precision tracking. The highly integrated architecture brings full positioningfunctionality,fromantennainputtopositiondataoutput,inaself-containedsolutionthatrequires few external components. Moreover, innovative power hardware and software features enable the engine to operateonaslittleas50mW.Thisensureslongbatterylifetimes,acriticalfeatureforportableapplications. u-blox 5 chips compute positions instantly and accurately. A dedicated acquisition engine with over 1 million effectivecorrelatorsiscapableofmassiveparallelsearchesacrossthetime/frequencyspace.Thismakessatellite acquisitionpossibleinlessthan1secondwhilelongintegrationtimesenablea160dBmacquisitionsensitivity. Acquired satellites are then passed on to a tracking engine. This setup allows for the GNSS engine to simultaneouslytrackupto16satellitesandsearchfornewones.
Theon-chipPowerManagementUnit(PMU)enablesasinglesupplyvoltagesourceandfeaturesaswitch-mode DC/DCconverterthatoptimizespowerefficiencyandextendsthesupplyvoltagerange.AllrequiredcoreandI/O voltagesaregeneratedinternallybymeansofLDOs(Low-Drop-Out). WhenGALILEO-L1signalsbecomeavailable, u-blox 5receiverswillbecapableofreceivingandprocessingthem via a simple upgrade. The ability to receive and track GALILEO satellite signals will result in higher coverage, improved reliability and better accuracy. The chips advanced jamming suppression mechanism automatically filterssignalsfrominterferingsources,thusmaintaininghighGNSSperformance. Theu-blox5singlechipconsistsoftwoICsassembledintoasinglepackage,oftenreferredtoas'SiP'orSystem in Package. This enables the independent selection of the optimal technology for the RF-IC and for the baseband-IC. The RF-IC is diffused on 0.18 m RF-CMOS technology while the baseband-IC is on 0.13 m CMOS.Alternatively,thetwoICscanbeassembledintotwoseparatepackages.Thischipsetsolutionprovides anexternalbusinterfacetoconnectanexternalmemory.ForasimplifiedblockdiagramseeFigure96.
SAWFilter
UBX-G5010
Clock IF
Front-End with Integrated LNA
Baseband Processor
PowerControl
Crystalor TCXO
RTC
Figure 96: Block diagram of u-blox 5 chipset
9 GNSS Applications
If you would like to . . . o o o
knowwhatvariablescanbedeterminedusingGNSS knowwhatapplicationsarepossiblewithGNSS knowhowtimeispreciselydetermined
9.1 Introduction
UsingGNSSthefollowingtwovaluescanbedeterminedanywhereonEarth:
Exactposition(longitude,latitudeandheightco-ordinates)accuratetowithinarangeof20mtoapprox. 1mm Precisetime(UniversalTimeCoordinated,UTC)accuratetowithinarangeof60nstoapprox.1ns.
InAddition,othervaluescanalsobedetermined,suchas:
speed acceleration course localtime rangemeasurements
The established fields for GNSS usage are surveying, shipping and aviation. However, satellite navigation is currentlyenjoyingasurgeindemandforLocationBasedServices(LBS)andsystemsfortheautomobileindustry. Applications,suchasAutomaticVehicleLocation(AVL)andthemanagementofvehiclefleetsalsoappeartobe on the rise. In addition, GNSS is increasingly being utilized in communications technology. For example, the preciseGNSStimesignalisusedtosynchronizetelecommunicationsnetworksaroundtheworld.Since2001,the US Federal Communications Commission (FCC) has required that, when Americans call 911 in an emergency, theirpositionbeautomaticallydeterminedtowithinapprox.125m.Thislaw,knownasE-911(Enhanced911), necessitatesthatmobiletelephonesbeupgradedwiththisnewtechnology. In the leisure industry, GNSS is becoming increasingly widespread and important. Whether hiking, hunting, mountain biking, or windsurfing across Lake Constance in Southern Germany, a GNSS receiver provides invaluableinformationforagreatvarietyofsituations. GNSScanessentiallybeusedanywhereonEarthwheresatellitesignalreceptionispossibleandknowledgeof positionisofbenefit.
GNSSApplications page119
your position is our focus 9.2 Description of the various applications

GNSS aided navigation and positioning is used in many sectors of the economy, as well as in science, technology,tourism,researchandsurveying.GNSScanbeutilizedwhereverprecisethree-dimensionalpositional datahasasignificantroletoplay.Afewimportantsectorsaredetailedbelow.
9.2.1 Location Based Services (LBS)

LocationBasedServices(LBS)areservicesbasedonthecurrentpositionofauser(e.g.MobileCommunications Networkusersequippedwithacell-phone).Normallythemobilestation(e.g.cell-phone)mustbeloggedonand itspositiongiveninordertorequestorobtainspecificinformation/servicesfromtheprovider.Anexampleofthis isthedistributionoflocalinformation,suchasthelocationofthenearestrestaurantorautomaticallyproviding thecallerpositiontoemergencynumberservices(E-911orE-112). The prerequisite for LBS is the determination of accurate position information. Location is determined either throughsignalsfromthecell-phonenetworkorthroughusingsatellitesignals. Thelocationoftheuseriseithergivenwithabsolutegeographiccoordinates(longitudeandlatitude)orrelative to the position of a given reference point (e.g. the user is located within a radius of 500m to the monument).Therearebasicallytwokindsofservicesprovided,knownaspushservicesorpullservices. Apushservicesendstheuserinformationonthebasisofhisorherpositionwithouttheirhavingtorequestit (e.g.Inthevicinityis).Apullservicerequiresthattheuserfirstrequesttheinformationfromtheservice (e.g.callinganemergencynumberE-911orE-112). Knowinglocationisofcriticalimportanceforsurvivingemergencies.However,publicsecurityandrescueservices have shown in a study that 60% of those making emergency calls with mobile telephones were unable to communicatetheirexactposition(incomparisonto2%ofcallersfromfixed-nettelephones).Everyyearwithin theEuropeanUnionthereare80millionemergencycallsmade,ofthese50%aremadewithmobiletelephones. The determination of the users position can either be obtained within the mobile station or by the mobile network.Fordeterminingthepositionthemobilestationreferstoinformationfromthemobilecommunication networkorsatellitesignals. Countlesstechnologiesforpositioninghavealreadybeenintroducedandhavebeenstandardized.Fewofthese are currently being used and it remains to be seen if all the ideas will ever be realized. In Europe, the most commonapplicationscurrentlybeingusedare:
Positiondeterminationthroughtheidentificationofactivecellsinthecell-phonenetwork(Cell-ID).This procedureisalsoknownasCellofOrigin(COO)orCellGlobalIdentity(CGI). PositiondeterminationbythetimedelayofGSM-SignalsTA(TimingAdvance).TAisaparameterin GSM-Networksthroughwhichthedistancetothebasestationcanbedetermined. SatellitePositioningthroughSatelliteNavigation:e.g.GNSS
9.2.2 Commerce and Industry

Forthetimebeing,roadtransportationcontinuestobethebiggestmarketforGNSS.Ofatotalmarketvalue estimated at 60 billion US-$ in 2005, 21.6 billion alone was accounted for by road transportation and 10.6 billionbytelecommunicationstechnology[xxxvi].Vehicleswillbeequippedwithacomputerandascreen,so thatasuitablemapshowingpositioncanbedisplayedatalltimes.Thiswillenableselectingthebestroutetothe destination.Duringtrafficjamsalternativeroutescanbeeasilydeterminedandthecomputerwillcalculatethe journeytimeandtheamountoffuelneededtogetthere. Vehiclenavigationsystemswilldirectthedrivertohisorherdestinationwithvisualandaudibledirectionsand recommendations. Using the necessary maps stored on CD-ROM and position estimates based on GNSS, the systemwilldeterminethemostfavorableroutes. GNSSisalreadyusedasamatterofcourseinconventionalnavigation(aviationandshipping).Manytrainsare equippedwithGNSSreceiversthatrelaythetrainspositiontostationsdowntheline.Thisenablespersonnelto informpassengersofthearrivaltimeofatrain.

GNSScanbeusedforlocatingvehiclesorasananti-theftdevice.Armoredcars,limousinesandtruckscarrying valuable or hazardous cargo will be fitted with GNSS. An alarm will automatically be set off if the vehicle deviatesfromitsprescribedroute.Withthepressofabuttonthedrivercanalsooperatethealarm.Anti-theft deviceswillbeequippedwithGNSSreceivers,allowingthevehicletobeelectronicallyimmobilizedassoonas monitoringcentersreceiveasignal. GNSS can assist in emergency calls. This concept has already been developed to the marketing level. An automobile is equipped with an onboard GNSS receiver connected to a crash detector. In the event of an accident this signals an emergency call center providing precise information about which direction the vehicle wastravelinganditscurrentlocation.Asaresult,theconsequencesofanaccidentcanbemadelesssevereand otherdriverscanbegivenadvancedwarning. Railways are other highly critical transportation applications, where human life is dependent on technology functioningcorrectly.Precautionsneedtobetakenhereagainstsystemfailure.Thisistypicallyachievedthrough backupsystems,wherethesametaskisperformedinparallelbyredundantequipment.Duringidealoperating situations, independent sources provide identical information. Well-devised systems indicate (in addition to a standardwarningmessage)iftheavailabledataisinsufficientlyreliable.Ifthisisthecase,thesystemcanswitch toanothersensorasitsprimarydatasource,providingself-monitoringandcorrection.GNSScanprovideavital rolehereinimprovingsystemreliabilityandsafety. OtherpossibleusesforGNSSinclude:
Navigationsystems Fleetmanagement Geographicaltachographs Railways Transportcompanies,logisticsingeneral(aircraft,water-bornecraftandroadvehicles) Automaticcontainermovements Extensivestoragesites Layingpipelines(geodesyingeneral) Positioningofdrillplatforms Developmentofopen-pitmining Reclamationoflandfillsites Explorationofgeologicaldeposits
9.2.3 Communications Technology

Synchronizingcomputerclocksisvitalinsituationswithseparatedprocessors.Thefoundationofthisisahighly accuratereferenceclockusedtoreceiveGNSSsatellitesignalsalongwithNetworkTimeProtocol(NTP),specified inRFC1305. OtherpossibleusesforGNSSinclude:
Synchronizationofsystemtime-staggeredmessagetransfer Synchronizationincommonfrequencyradionetworks
9.2.4 Agriculture and Forestry

GNSScontributestoprecisionfarmingintheformofareaandusemanagement,andthemappingofsitesin terms of yield potential. In a precision farming system, combined harvest yields are recorded by GNSS and processedinitiallyintospecificplotsondigitalmaps.SoilsamplesarelocatedwiththehelpofGNSSandthedata addedtothesystem.Analysisoftheseentriesthenservestoestablishtheamountoffertilizerthatneedstobe appliedtoeachpoint.Theapplicationmapsareconvertedintoaformthatonboardcomputerscanprocessand aretransferredtothesecomputerusingmemorycards.Inthisway,optimalpracticescanbedevisedoveralong termthatcanprovidehightime/resourcesavingsandenvironmentalconservation. OtherpossibleusesforGNSSinclude:
Useandplanningofareas Monitoringoffallowland Planningandmanagingofcroprotation Useofharvestingequipment Seedingandspreadingfertilizer Optimizingloggingoperations Pestmanagement Mappingdiseasedandinfestedareas
For the forest industry as well, there are many conceivable GNSS applications. The USDA (United States Department of Agriculture) Forest Service GPS Steering Committee 1992, has identified over 130 possible applicationsinthisfield. Examplesofsometheseapplicationsarebrieflydetailedbelow:
Optimizinglogtransportation:ByequippingcommercialvehiclefleetswithonboardcomputersandGNSS, andusingremotedatatransferfacilities,transportvehiclescanbeefficientlydirectedfromcentraloperations units. Inventory Management: Manual identification prior to timber harvesting is made redundant by satellite navigation.Fortheworkersonsite,GNSScanbeusedasatoolforcarryingoutspecificinstructions. SoilConservation:ByusingGNSS,remoteroadsandtracksusedinharvestingwoodcanbeidentifiedand theirfrequencyofuseestablished. Managementofprivatewoodlots:Inwoodedareasdividedupintosmallparcels,cost-effectiveandhighly mechanized harvesting processes can be employed using GNSS, allowing the transport of increased quantitiesoftimber.
9.2.5 Science and Research

With the advent of the use of aerial and satellite imaging in archaeology, GNSS has also become firmly established in this field. By combining GIS (Geographic Information Systems) with satellite and aerial photography,aswellasGNSSand3Dmodeling,ithasbeenpossibletoanswersomeofthefollowingquestions:
Whatconclusionsregardingthedistributionofculturescanbemadebasedonthelocationofthefinds? Isthereacorrelationbetweenareasfavoringthegrowthofcertainarableplantsandthespreadofcertain cultures? Whatdidthelandscapelooklikeinthisvicinity2000yearsago?
Surveyorsuse(D)GPS,inordertocarryoutsurveys(satellitegeodesy)quicklyandefficientlytowithinanaccuracy ofamillimeter.Forsurveyors,theintroductionofsatellite-basedsurveyingrepresentsaprogresscomparableto that between the abacus and the computer. The applications areendless. Theserangefrom land registry and

property surveys to surveying roads, railway lines, rivers and the ocean depths. Geological variations and deformationscanbemeasuredandlandslidesandotherpotentialcatastrophescanbemonitored,etc. In land surveying, GNSS has virtually become the exclusive method for pinpointing sites in basic grids. Everywherearoundtheworld,continentalandnationalGNSSnetworksaredevelopingthat,inconjunctionwith the global ITRF, provide consistent and highly accurate networks of points for density and point-to-point measurements. At a regional level, the number of tenders to set up GNSS networks as a basis for geoinformationsystemsandcadastrallandsurveysisgrowing. GNSS already has an established place in photogrammetry. Apart from determining co-ordinates for ground referencepoints,GNSSisregularlyusedtodetermineaerialsurveynavigationandcameraco-ordinatesforaerotriangulation. Using this method, over 90% of ground reference points can be dispensed with. Future reconnaissancesatelliteswillbeequippedwithGNSSreceiverstoaidtheevaluationofdataforproducingand updatingmapsinunderdevelopedcountries. In hydrography, GNSS can be used to determine the exact height of a survey boat. This can simplify the establishment of clearly defined reference points. The expectation is that usable GNSS procedures in this field willbeoperationalinthenearfuture. OtherpossibleareasofapplicationforGNSSare:
Archaeology Seismology(geophysics) Glaciology(geophysics) Geology(mapping) Surveyingdeposits(mineralogy,geology) Physics(flowmeasurements,timestandardizationmeasurement) Scientificexpeditions Engineeringsciences(e.g.shipbuilding,generalconstructionindustry) Cartography Geography Geo-informationtechnology Forestryandagriculturalsciences Landscapeecology Geodesy Aerospacesciences
9.2.6 Tourism / Sport

In sailplaneand hangglider competitions GNSSreceiversareoftenused tomaintain protocolswithno riskof bribery. GNSS can be used to locate persons who have found themselves in a maritime or alpine emergency. (SAR: SearchandRescue) OtherpossibleusesforGNSSinclude:
Route planning and selecting points of particular significance (natural and culturally/historically significant monuments) Orienteering(trainingroutes) Outdooractivitiesandtrekking Sportingactivities
9.2.7 Military
GNSS is used anywhere where combatants, vehicles, aircraft and guided missiles are deployed in unfamiliar terrain. GNSS is also suitable for marking the position of minefields and underground depots, as it enables a locationtobedeterminedandfoundagainwithoutanygreatdifficulty.Asarule,themoreaccurate,encrypted GNSSsignal(PPS)isusedformilitaryapplications,andcanonlybeusedbyauthorizedagencies.
9.2.8 Time Measurement

GNSS provides the opportunity to exactly measure time on a global basis. Around the world time (UTC UniversalTimeCoordinated)canbeaccuratelydeterminedtowithin1...60ns.MeasuringtimewithGNSSis much more accurate than with so-called radio clocks, which are unable to compensate for signal travel times between the transmitter and the receiver. If, for example, the receiver is 300 km from the radio clock transmitter, the signal travel time already accounts for 1ms, which is 10,000 times less accurate than time measuredbyaGNSSreceiver.Globallyprecisetimemeasurementsarenecessaryforsynchronizingcontroland communicationsfacilities,forexample. Currently,themostcommonmethodformakingprecisiontimecomparisonsbetweenclocksindifferentplaces is a common-view comparison with the help of GNSS satellites. Institutes that wish to compare clocks measurethesameGNSSsatellitesignalsatthesametimeandcalculatethetimedifferencebetweenthelocal clocksandGNSSsystemtime.Asaresultofthedifferencesinmeasurement,thedifferencebetweentheclocks at the two institutes can be determined. Because this involves a differential process, GNSS clock status is irrelevant.TimecomparisonsbetweenthePTBandtimeinstitutesaremadeinthiswaythroughouttheworld. ThePTBatomicclockstatus,determinedwiththehelpofGNSS,isalsorelayedtotheInternationalBureaufor WeightsandMeasures(BIPM)inParisforcalculatingtheinternationalatomictimescalesTAIandUTC.
GNSSApplicationsResourcesintheWorldWideWeb page124
A Resources in the World Wide Web

If you would like to... o o o
know,whereyoucangetmoreinformationaboutGNSS know,wheretheGPSsystemisdocumented becomeaGNSSexpert
A.1 Summary reports and links

GlobalPositioningSystemOverviewbyPeterH.Dana,UniversityofColorado http://www.colorado.edu/geography/gcraft/notes/gps/gps_f.html GlobalPositioningSystem(GPS)ResourcesbySamWormley, http://www.edu-observatory.org/gps/gps.html NMEA-0183andGPSInformationbyPeterBennett, http://vancouver-webpages.com/peter/ JoeMehaffey,YeazelandDaleDePriestsGPSInformation http://gpsinformation.net TheGlobalPositioningSystems(GPS)ResourceLibrary http://www.gpsy.com/gpsinfo/ GPSSPSSignalSpecification,2ndEdition(June2,1995),USCGNavigationCenter http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/pubs/gps/sigspec/default.htm
A.2 Differential GPS

DifferentialGPS(DGPS)bySamWormley, http://www.edu-observatory.org/gps/dgps.html DGPScorrectionsovertheInternet http://www.wsrcc.com/wolfgang/gps/dgps-ip.html EGNOSOperationsManager http://www.essp.be/ WideAreaDifferentialGPS(WADGPS),StanfordUniversity http://waas.stanford.edu/
A.3 GPS institutes

InstituteforappliedGeodesy:GPSinformationandobservingsystem http://gibs.leipzig.ifag.de/cgi-bin/Info_hom.cgi?de
ResourcesintheWorldWideWeb page125

GPSPRIMER:AerospaceCorporation http://www.aero.org/publications/GPSPRIMER/index.html U.S.CoastGuard(USCG)NavigationCenter http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/ U.S.NavalObservatory http://tycho.usno.navy.mil/gps.html RoyalInstituteofNavigation,London http://www.rin.org.uk/ TheInstituteofNavigation http://www.ion.org/ UniversityNAVSTARConsortium(UNAVCO) http://www.unavco.org
A.4 GNSS antennas

REELReinheimerElectronicLtd. http://www.reinheimer-elektronik.de/ WISI,WILHELMSIHNJR.KG http://www.wisi.de/ MatsushitaElectricWorks(Europe)AG http://www.mew-europe.com/gps/en/news.html KyoceraIndustrialCeramicCorporation http://www.kyocera.com/kicc/industrial/products/dielectric.htm M/A-COM http://www.macom.com/ EMTACTechnologyCorp. http://www.emtac.com.tw/ AllisCommunicationsCompany,Ltd. http://www.alliscom.com.tw/
A.5 GNSS newsgroup and GNSS technical journal

Newsgroup:sci.geo.satellite-nav http://groups.google.com/groups?oi=djq&as_ugroup=sci.geo.satellite-nav Technicaljournal:GPSWorld(appearsmonthly) http://www.gpsworld.com
ResourcesintheWorldWideWeb page126
B Index
B.1 List of Figures
Figure1:Thebasicfunctionofsatellitenavigation........................................................................................................................................ 10 Figure2:LaunchofGPSSatellite ................................................................................................................................................................. 11 Figure3:Determiningthedistanceofalightningflash ................................................................................................................................. 12 Figure4:InthesimplestcaseDistanceisdeterminedbymeasuringtheTravelTime...................................................................................... 13 Figure5:WithtwotransmittersitispossibletocalculatetheexactpositiondespiteTimeErrors. ................................................................. 14 Figure6:FoursatellitesareneededtodetermineLongitude,Latitude,AltitudeandTime ............................................................................. 14 Figure7:Determiningthesignaltraveltime.................................................................................................................................................. 15 Figure8:Thepositionofthereceiverattheintersectionofthetwocircles ................................................................................................... 16 Figure9:Thepositionisdeterminedatthepointwhereallthreespheresintersect ....................................................................................... 16 Figure10:Foursatellitesarerequiredtodetermineapositionin3-Dspace. ................................................................................................. 17 Figure11:ThethreeGNSSsegments............................................................................................................................................................ 19 Figure12:GPSsatellitesorbittheEarthon6orbitalplanes .......................................................................................................................... 20 Figure13:24hourtrackingofaGPSsatellitewithitseffectiverange ........................................................................................................... 20 Figure14:PositionoftheGPSsatellitesat12:00hrsUTCon14thApril2001 ............................................................................................. 21 Figure15:AGPSsatellite ............................................................................................................................................................................. 22 Figure16:SpectralPowerDensityofreceivedsignalandthermalnoise ........................................................................................................ 23 Figure17:PseudoRandomNoise ................................................................................................................................................................. 24 Figure18:Simplifiedsatelliteblockdiagram ................................................................................................................................................. 25 Figure19:DatastructureofaGPSsatellite ................................................................................................................................................... 25 Figure20:DetailedblockdiagramofaGPSsatellite ..................................................................................................................................... 26 Figure21:Measuringsignaltraveltime ........................................................................................................................................................ 27 Figure22:Demonstrationofthecorrectionprocessacross30bits ................................................................................................................ 28 Figure23:SearchforthemaximumcorrelationintheCodefrequencylevel ................................................................................................. 29 Figure24:SpectralPowerDensityofthecorrelatedsignalandThermalSignalNoise .................................................................................... 29 Figure25:Structureoftheentirenavigationmessage .................................................................................................................................. 31 Figure26:Ephemeristerms .......................................................................................................................................................................... 33 Figure27:WithBPSKtheNavigationDataSignalisfirstspreadbyacode .................................................................................................... 34 Figure28:ModulationfortheFuture:BOC(10,5) ......................................................................................................................................... 35 Figure29:WithBPSK(1)andBOC(1,1)thesignalmaximaareseparated(signalstrengthnormalizedat1Wpersignal) ............................... 35 Figure30:WithModernizationtheavailabilityofGPSfrequencieswillbeincreased ..................................................................................... 36 Figure31:GLONASS-MSatellite(SourceESA).............................................................................................................................................. 38 Figure33:UnlikeSARSAT-COSPAS,GALILEO'sSearchAndRescueservicealsoprovidesareplytothedistresssignal ................................... 41 Figure34:ConstellationoftheGALILEOsatellites(picture:ESA-J.Huart) ....................................................................................................... 43 Figure35:GALILEOsatellite(Picture:ESA-J.Huart) ........................................................................................................................................ 43 Figure36:Ariane5Rocketdelivering8GALILEOsatellitesintospace(GALILEO-industries.net) ..................................................................... 44 Figure37:FrequencyPlanforGALILEO......................................................................................................................................................... 45 Figure38:TheL1bandwillbeintensivelyusedbyGALILEOandGPS(PowerDensitystandardizedat1Wpersignal)................................... 45 Figure39:GIOVE-AanditslaunchonDecember28,2005(PictureESA) ....................................................................................................... 46
Index page127

Figure40:Foursatellitesignalsmustbereceived .......................................................................................................................................... 48 Figure41:Three-dimensionalco-ordinatesystem ......................................................................................................................................... 49 Figure42:ConversionoftheTaylorseries..................................................................................................................................................... 50 Figure43:Estimatingaposition.................................................................................................................................................................... 51 Figure44:SatellitegeometryandPDOP......................................................................................................................................................... 54 Figure45:EffectofthesatelliteconstellationontheDOPvalue.................................................................................................................... 54 Figure46:GDOPvalueandthequantityofvisiblesatellitesaccordingtothetime ........................................................................................ 55 Figure47:HDOPvalueovera24hperiod,withoutshadowing(max.valueis1.9)......................................................................................... 55 Figure48:HDOPvalueovera24hperiod,withshadowing(max.valueisgreaterthan20)........................................................................... 56 Figure49:AgeoidisanapproximationoftheEarthssurface....................................................................................................................... 58 Figure50:Producingaspheroid ................................................................................................................................................................... 58 Figure51:Customizedlocalreferenceellipsoid ............................................................................................................................................ 59 Figure52:Differencebetweengeoidandellipsoid ....................................................................................................................................... 59 Figure53:IllustrationoftheCartesianco-ordinates ...................................................................................................................................... 60 Figure54:Illustrationoftheellipsoidalco-ordinates .................................................................................................................................... 61 Figure55:Geodeticdatum........................................................................................................................................................................... 62 Figure56:Gauss-Krgerprojection .............................................................................................................................................................. 64 Figure57:Principleofprojectingonezone(ofsixty) ..................................................................................................................................... 65 Figure58:DesignationofthezonesusingUTM,withexamples.................................................................................................................... 65 Figure59:Theprincipleofdoubleprojection................................................................................................................................................ 66 Figure60:Fromsatellitetoposition.............................................................................................................................................................. 66 Figure61:Effectofthetimeofmeasuringonthereflections........................................................................................................................ 70 Figure62:PrincipleofDGPSwithaGPSbasestation.................................................................................................................................... 71 Figure63:Determinationofthecorrectionfactors ....................................................................................................................................... 72 Figure64:Transmissionofthecorrectionfactors .......................................................................................................................................... 72 Figure65:Correctionofthemeasuredpseudoranges................................................................................................................................... 73 Figure66:Principleofthephasemeasurement ........................................................................................................................................... 73 Figure67:ComparisonofDGPSsystemsbasedonRTCMandRTCAstandards............................................................................................. 76 Figure68:PositionandprovisionofWAAS,EGNOS,GAGANandMSAS ...................................................................................................... 79 Figure69:PrincipleofallSatelliteBasedAugmentationSystemsSBAS.......................................................................................................... 80 Figure70:LandStar-DGPSandOmnistarilluminationzone ........................................................................................................................... 81 Figure71:AccelerationofthesearchprocedurewithA-GPSbyreducingthesearcharea............................................................................. 83 Figure72:Assisted-GPSsystem .................................................................................................................................................................... 84 Figure73:IGSreferencestations(asofOctober2006)withapprox.340activestations ............................................................................... 85 Figure74:BlockDiagramofinputstages ..................................................................................................................................................... 86 Figure75:GNSSRepeater(externalantenna,electricaladapterandpowercord,amplifierandinternalantenna) ......................................... 87 Figure76:BlockdiagramofaGNSSreceiverwithinterfaces......................................................................................................................... 88 Figure77:NMEAformat(TTLandRS-232level) ........................................................................................................................................... 90 Figure78:ConstructionoftheRTCMmessageheader ...............................................................................................................................100 Figure79:ConstructionofRTCMmessagetype1 ...................................................................................................................................... 101 Figure80:StructureoftheUBXdatasets ................................................................................................................................................... 103 Figure81:PatchAntennas.......................................................................................................................................................................... 105 Figure82:HelixAntennas........................................................................................................................................................................... 106
Index page128

Figure83:ChipAntenna ............................................................................................................................................................................ 106 Figure84:FractalChipAntennatopandbottomview................................................................................................................................ 107 Figure85:DipoleandPrintedPCBDipoleAntenna..................................................................................................................................... 107 Figure86:LoopAntenna,LaserAntenna775............................................................................................................................................. 108 Figure87:Planarinverted-f-antenna(PIFA) ................................................................................................................................................. 108 Figure88:CeramicPlanarinverted-f-antenna(PIFA)andPIFAforacellularphone ...................................................................................... 108 Figure89:LeicaChokeAntennaAT504andPinwheel Antenna(Novatel)................................................................................................ 109 Figure90:1PPSsignal ................................................................................................................................................................................ 110 Figure91:DifferencebetweenTTLandRS-232levels ................................................................................................................................. 113 Figure92:BlockdiagrampinassignmentoftheMAX32121levelconverter ............................................................................................... 113 Figure93:FunctionaltestontheMAX3221levelconverter ........................................................................................................................ 114 Figure94:SimplifiedblockdiagramofaGNSSreceiver .............................................................................................................................. 115 Figure95:TypicalblockdiagramofaGNSSmodule ................................................................................................................................... 117 Figure96:Blockdiagramofu-blox5chipset .............................................................................................................................................. 118
TM
B.2 List of Tables

Table1:L1carrierlinkbudgetanalysismodulatedwiththeC/Acode ........................................................................................................... 22 Table2:Comparisonbetweenephemerisandalmanacdata ........................................................................................................................ 33 Table3:PlannedpositioningaccuraciesforGALILEO .................................................................................................................................... 42 Table4:FrequencyplanofGALILEOanddistributionofservices................................................................................................................... 44 Table5:ComparisonofthemostimportantpropertiesofGPS,GLONASSandGALILEO............................................................................... 47 Table6:Errorcauses(typicalranges) ........................................................................................................................................................... 53 Table7:TotalerrorinHDOP=1.3................................................................................................................................................................ 56 Table8:Nationalreferencesystems.............................................................................................................................................................. 60 Table9:TheWGS-84ellipsoid...................................................................................................................................................................... 61 Table10:Datumparameters ........................................................................................................................................................................ 62 Table11:ErrorSourceandtotalerror............................................................................................................................................................ 69 Table12:Transmissionprocessofthedifferentialsignal(forcodeandphasemeasurement) ........................................................................ 74 Table13:StandardsforDGPScorrectionsignals ........................................................................................................................................... 75 Table14:TheGEOsatellitesused(ortobeused)withWAAS,EGNOSandMSAS ........................................................................................ 79 Table15:DesignationoftheSBASstations .................................................................................................................................................. 80 Table16:PositioningaccuracywithoutandwithDGPS/SBAS ....................................................................................................................... 82 Table17:DescriptionoftheindividualNMEADATASETblocks.................................................................................................................... 91 Table18:RecordingofanNMEAprotocol.................................................................................................................................................... 91 Table19:DescriptionoftheindividualGGAdatasetblocks ......................................................................................................................... 92 Table20:DescriptionoftheindividualGGLdatasetblocks .......................................................................................................................... 93 Table21:DescriptionoftheindividualGSAdatasetblocks .......................................................................................................................... 94 Table22:DescriptionoftheindividualGSVdatasetblocks .......................................................................................................................... 95 Table23:DescriptionoftheindividualRMCdatasetblocks ......................................................................................................................... 96 Table24:DescriptionoftheindividualVTGdatasetblocks .......................................................................................................................... 97 Table25:DescriptionoftheindividualZDAdatasetblocks .......................................................................................................................... 98 Table26:DeterminingthechecksuminthecaseofNMEAdatasets ............................................................................................................ 99
Index page129

Table27:ContentsoftheRTCMmessageheader ...................................................................................................................................... 100 Table28:ContentsofRTCMmessagetype1 ............................................................................................................................................. 102 Table29:Messageclasses(Hexadecimalvaluesinbrackets)........................................................................................................................ 104 Table30:Timesystems............................................................................................................................................................................... 111
Index page130
B.3 Sources
[i] GlobalPositioningSystem,StandardPositioningSystemService, SignalSpecification,2ndEdition,1995,page18, http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/pubs/gps/sigspec/gpssps1.pdf NAVCEN:GPSSPSSignalSpecifications,2ndEdition,1995, http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/pubs/gps/sigspec/gpssps1.pdf LemmeH.:SchnellesSpread-Spectrum-ModemaufeinemChip,Elektronik1996, H.15p.38top.45 http://www.maxim-ic.com/appnotes.cfm/appnote_number/1890 ParkinsonB.,SpilkerJ.:GlobalPositioningSystem,Volume1,AIAA-Inc. GPSStandardPositioningServiceSignalSpecification,2ndEdition,June2,1995 JournaloftheInstituteofNavigation,2002,Vol.48,No.4,pp227-246,Author:JohnW.Betz http://www.glonass-center.ru/nagu.txt http://www.dlr.de/dlr/News/pi_191004.htm http://www.cospas-sarsat.org/Status/spaceSegmentStatus.htm http://europa.eu.int/comm/dgs/energy_transport/galileo/documents/brochure_en.htm http://www.esa.int/esaCP/SEMT498A9HE_Austria_0.html http://europa.eu.int/scadplus/leg/de/lvb/l24004.htm http://www.spiegel.de/wissenschaft/weltraum/0,1518,392467,00.html http://www.esa.int/esaCP/SEMQ36MZCIE_Improving_0.html http://www.esa.int/esaCP/SEM0198A9HE_Germany_0.html ManfredBauer:VermessungundOrtungmitSatelliten,Wichman-Verlag,Heidelberg,1997, ISBN3-87907-309-0 http://www.geocities.com/mapref/mapref.html B.Hofmann-Wellenhof:GPSinderPraxis,Springer-Verlag,Wien1994,ISBN3-211-82609-2 BundesamtfrLandestopographie:http://www.swisstopo.ch ElliottD.Kaplan:UnderstandingGPS,ArtechHouse,Boston1996, ISBN0-89006-793-7 http://www.tandt.be/wis
[ii] [iii] [iv] [v] [vi] [vii] [viii] [ix] [x] [xi] [xii] [xiii] [xiv] [xv] [xvi] [xvii] [xviii] [xix] [xx] [xxi] [xxii]
[xxiii] http://www.egnos-pro.esa.int/IMAGEtech/imagetech_realtime.html [xxiv] http://igscb.jpl.nasa.gov/ [xxv] GPS-World,November2003:VittoriniundRobinson:OptimizingIndoorGPSPerformance,page40 [xxvi] www.maxim-ic.com/quick_view2.cfmDatenblattMAX2640,MAX2641
Index page131

[xxvii] NMEA0183,StandardForInterfacingMarineElectronicsDevices,Version2.30 [xxviii] http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/pubs/dgps/rctm104/Default.htm [xxix] [xxx] [xxxi] GlobalPositioningSystem:TheoryandApplications,VolumeII,BradfordW.Parkinson,page31 UserManual:SonyGXB100016-channelGPSreceivermodule UserManual:SonyGXB100016-channelGPSreceivermodule
[xxxii] swipos,PositionierungsdiensteaufderBasisvonDGPS,page6,BundesamtfrLandestopographie [xxxiii] http://www.potsdam.ifag.de/potsdam/dgps/dgps_2.html [xxxiv] http://www.maxim-ic.com [xxxv] SatellitenortungundNavigation,WernerMansfield,page157,ViewegVerlag [xxxvi] http://www.alliedworld.com
Index page132

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Essentials of Satellite Navigation

u-blox AG Zrcherstrasse68 8800Thalwil Switzerland www.u-blox.com Phone+41447227444 Fax+41447227447 info@u-blox.com

Theory and Principles Systems and Applications Overview

your position is our focus

your position is our focus

EssentialsofSatelliteNavigation Compendium GPS-X-02007-C

UpdateofChapters: IntroductiontoSatelliteNavigation SatelliteNavigationmadesimple

UpdateofSections: SpaceSegment UserSegment TheGPSMessage Calculatingaposition(equations) DGPSServicesforreal-timecorrection WideAreaDGPS HardwareInterfaces GNSSReceiverModules

your position is our focus

Sales Offices North, Central and South America

Europe, Middle East, Africa

Asia, Australia, Pacific

Technical Support: Phone: E-mail: +1(703)4833185 support_us@u-blox.com

your position is our focus

your position is our focus

Why read this book?

How did this book come about?

your position is our focus

GNSS Technology: The GPS example ........................................................................18

2.2.1 2.2.2 2.2.3 2.3 2.4 2.5

2.5.1 2.5.2 2.5.3 2.5.4 2.5.5 2.5.6 2.6 2.6.1 2.6.2

GLONASS and GALILEO..............................................................................................37

your position is our focus

3.2.1 3.3.1 3.3.2 3.3.3 3.3.4 3.3.5

4.2.1 4.2.2 4.2.3 4.2.4 4.2.5

Improved GPS: DGPS, SBAS, A-GPS and HSGPS .......................................................68

your position is our focus

GNSS-RepeaterorReradiationAntenna.............................................................................................. 87 Pseudolitesforindoorapplications .................................................................................................. 87

Data Formats and Hardware Interfaces....................................................................88

7.2.1 7.2.2 7.2.3 7.3 7.3.1 7.3.2 7.3.3 7.3.4

HardwareInterfaces ......................................................................................................................... 105

your position is our focus

9.2.1 9.2.2 9.2.3 9.2.4 9.2.5 9.2.6 9.2.7 9.2.8

A Resources in the World Wide Web..........................................................................125

your position is our focus

Longitude: 924'23.43'' Latitude: 4648'37.20'' Altitude: 709.1m Time: 12h33'07''

Figure 1: The basic function of satellite navigation

your position is our focus

Figure 2: Launch of GPS Satellite

EssentialsofSatelliteNavigation GPS-X-02007-C Introduction page11

your position is our focus

1 Satellite Navigation Made Simple

Then you should read this chapter!

1.1 The principle of measuring signal transit time

Eye d eterm ines t he

e op tim he st st mine deter Ear

Figure 3: Determining the distance of a lightning flash

distance = traveltime speedofsound

SatelliteNavigationfunctionsbythesameprinciple.Onecalculatespositionbyestablishingthedistancerelative toreferencesatelliteswithaknownposition.Inthiscasethedistanceiscalculatedfromthetraveltimeofradio wavestransmittedfromthesatellites.

your position is our focus

1.1.1 Basic Principles of Satellite Navigation

TimeSignal Transmitter Street DistanceD 300m

Calculated Positiondueto 1sTimeError

your position is our focus

your position is our focus

1.1.2 Signal travel time

Satellite and receiver clock display: 67.3ms

Signal transmission (start time)

Signal reception (stop time)

Figure 7: Determining the signal travel time

your position is our focus

1.1.3 Determining position