Pathogens and Disease

Define pathogen

Pathogen: an organism or a virus that causes a disease.

State one example of a disease caused by members of the following groups: viruses, bacteria, protozoa, fungi, flatworms and roundworms.

Viruses: HIV Bacteria: Cholera Protozoa: Malaria Fungi: Ringworm Flatworms: pork tapeworm Roundworms: Hookworm

List at least six methods by which pathogens are transmitted and gain entry to the body.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Airborne/inhalation Direct contact Cuts Ingestion of contaminated food or water Sexual intercourse Insects Blood transfusions

Describe the cause, transmission and effects of one human bacterial disease.

Cholera: is a waterborne disease caused by the bacterium Vibrio cholerae.

Cause: Cholera is caused by the bacteria Vibrio cholerae which produces potentially lethal secretory diarrhea. Transmission: Cholera is transmitted through the ingestion of feces contaminated by the bacteria. The contamination usually

occurs when sewage gets into drinking water. It's a huge problem in developing countries, which lack a developed sewage system, and also right after natural disasters such as floods. The recent Tsunami brought fears of Cholera.

Effect: Cholera causes a lethal secretory diarrhea and dehydration. Other symptoms may include cramping, fever, and nausea.

Explain why antibiotics are effective against bacteria but not viruses.

Antibiotics are drugs which kill or slow the growth of bacteria. Antibiotics block metabolic pathways of bacteria, inhibiting cell

wall formation and protein synthesis, resulting in the death of foreign bacteria. However, viruses are not alive and utilize the organisms host cells to replicate, which are not targeted by antibiotics. In order to kill a virus by antiobiotics human cell has to be killed as well

Explain the cause, transmission, and social implications of AIDS.

AIDS or Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome is a collection of symptoms and infections caused by infection with the human

immunodeficiency virus (HIV).

Transmission: HIV is transmitted via direct contact of the mucous membrane with a bodily fluid containing HIV such as blood,

semen, or breast milk. The transmission could be through anal or penetrative sex, blood transfusion, contaminated needles, or during pregnancy. Most researches think that the virus originated from the Sub-Sahara, but the exact cause is unknown.

Social Implications Fear and apprehension for those associated with the disease, the lifestyle associated with the disease is

attacked, trouble getting a job or even getting health insurance- distanced from society

Defense Against Infectious Diseases

Explain how skin and mucous membranes act as barriers against pathogens.

The skin and mucous membranes form a barrier that prevents most pathogens from entering the body. The other layers of the

skin are tough and form a physical barrier. These dry, keratinised layers of skin discourage pathogen growth. The skin also produces a thin layer of acid and oils. Mucus contain an enzyme called lysozyme which kills bacteria.

Outline how phagocytic leukocytes ingest pathogens in the blood and in body tissue.

Phagocytes are a type of leukocytes which ingest and destroy foreign matter through phagocytosis.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

They can easily move through the walls of blood capillaries and the site in which there is an infection. A phagocyte comes in contact with pathogen cells and does not recognize the glycoprotein struture on its cell wall. The pathogen is then ingested through endocytosis. Plasma membrane forms around pathogen. Pathogen vacuole then binds with lysosome containing digestive enzymes which break down the pathogen. Large numbers of phagocytes form pus.

State the difference between antigens and antibodies.

Antigens are macromolecules that elicit an immune response by lymphocytes.

Antibodies are proteins secreted by plasma cells that bind to a particular antigen and mark it for elimination.

Explain antibody production.

Antibodies are made by lymphocytes, which recognize an enormous number of antigens, but each individual cell recognizes

only one type of antigen. Each lymphocyte puts some of the antibody that it makes into its cell surface with the antigen-combining site projecting outwards. When a pathogen enters the body, its antigens bind to the antibodies in the cell surface of one type of lymphocyte. The selected lymphocyte proliferates to give rise to a clone of identical cells bearing receptors for the selecting antigen. Some of the cells develop into short-lived plasma cells that secrete antibody specific for the antigen. Others develop into long-lived memory cells that can respond rapidly upon subsequent exposure to the same antigen.

Outline the effects of HIV on the immune system.

HIV attacks T-cells which are part of the immune system that are important for the formation of Beta lymphocytes. The virus

enters the T-Cells and replicates there. As reproduction increases, the cell breaks up and the virus RNA is spread to other T-cells. The virus keeps infecting and killing other T-cells, paralyzing the immune system. This enables other organisms usually kept under control by the immune system to be able to affect the body.

Discuss the cause, transmission and social impacts of AIDS

The cause of AIDS is that the HIV retro-virus develops further enough to change into AIDS. HIV doesnt survive outside of the body and cant easily pass through the skin. Transmission involves the transfer of body fluids

from an infected person to an uninfected one.

1. 2. 3. 4.

Through small cuts or tears in the vagina, penis, mouth or intestine during vaginal, anal or oral sex. In traces of blood on a hypodermic needle that is shared by intravenous drug abusers. Across the placenta from a mother to a baby, or through cuts during childbirth or in milk during breast feeding. In transfused blood or with blood products such as Factor VIII used to treat haemophiliacs.

Social implications

Friends and families suffer grief. Families become poorer if the individual with AIDS was the wage earner and is refused life insurance. Individuals infected with HIV may become stigmatized and not find partners, housing or employment. Sexual activity in a population may be reduced because of the fear of AIDS.

Gas Exchange

List the features of the alveoli that adapt them to gas exchange.

1. 2. 3. 4.

Cells secrete fluid making the inner surface moist. Increase in surface area. Single layer of cells allowing for short diffusion distance Dense network of capillaries near the surface.

State the difference between ventilation, gas exchange and cell respiration.

Ventilation: Is the process of inhaling and exhaling, with oxygen entering the alveoli (large surface area). Gas exchange: Process of exchanging one gas for the other between the alveoli and capillaries. (Carbon dioxide for oxygen). Cell Respiration: The chemical process occurring in the mitochondria where energy is released as ATP.

Explain the necessity for a ventilation system.

A ventilation system is needed in order to obtain oxygen for living organisms and to get rid of carbon dioxide. Surface diffusion

utilized by many smaller organisms is not sufficient in supplying the oxygen needs of the body. It is also needed to maintain a concentration gradient in the alveoli.

Draw a diagram of the ventilation system including trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and lungs. Explain the mechanism of ventilation in human lungs, including the action of the internal and external intercostals muscles, the diaphragm, and the abdominal muscles.

(You can try this in an exam room if you can't remember.)

When we inhale, the diaphragm moves down and becomes flat because abdominal muscles relax(allowing for more air). The

volume of the thorax increases, air flows into the lungs. External intercostal muscles contract.

When we exhale, abdominal muscles contract and the diaphragm becomes dome-shaped, moving up. The volume of the thorax

decreases and intercostal muscles contract causing pressure to increase. Air flows out to equalize pressure gradient.