NAME:OKOGWU, CHIDIEBERE SAMUEL REG/NO: 2006/139223 DEPT: ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING COURSE: ECE 512(COMMUNICATION NETWORK) QUESTION 1 CIRCUIT SWITCHING

Circuit switching: This can be defined simply as a method of communication in which a physical circuit is established between two terminating equipment before communication begins to take place. This is analogous to an ordinary phone call. Circuit switching provides end-to-end connectivity in near real time. In circuit switching, a call connection between two terminating equipment corresponds to the allocation of a prescribedset of physical facilities that provide a transmission path of a certain bandwidth or transmission capacity. These facilities are dedicated to the users for the duration of the call. The primary performance issues, other than those related to quality of transmission, are related to whether or not a transmission path is available at call set-up time and how calls are handled if facilities are not available. There is a one-to-one correspondence between the number of trunks between nodes and the number of simultaneous calls that can be carried. That is, a trunk is a facility between two switches that can service exactly one call, and it does not matter how this transmission facility is derived. Major design issues include the specification of the number of trunks between node pairs and the routing strategy used to determine the path through a network in order to achieve a given call blocking probability. When blocked calls are queued, the number of calls that may be queued is also a design question A circuit-switched communication system involves three phases:  Circuit establishment (setting up dedicated links between the source and destination);  Data transfer (transmitting the data between the source and destination);  Circuit disconnect (removing the dedicated links). In circuit switching the connection path is established before data transmission begins. Therefore, the channel capacity must be reserved between the source and destination throughout the network and each node must have available internal switching capacity to handle the requested connection. Clearly, the switching nodes must have the intelligence to make proper allocations and to establish a route through the network. The most common example of a circuit-switched network can be found in public telephone network (PTN)

supporting services such as POTS (plain old telephone systems) and long-distance calls. Other examples of circuit switched services are integrated services digital network (ISDN), and switched 56, 64, and 384 (Kbps) services. The majority of wireless application protocols (WAP) enabled phones also operate on top of circuit-switched networks. Furthermore, many public networks dedicated to data transport also use circuit-switching techniques; an example of a network in Europe is circuit-switched public data network (CSPDN), which transports data on circuit-switched networks using the X.21 protocol. Circuit switching also has wide applications in optical networks

PACKET SWITCHING In Packet switching method of communication the data to be transmitted is grouped (regardless of content, type or structure,)into suitable sized blocks called packets ,it is also known as message switching, and real time communication is not supported. Below is a diagrammatic representation of Packet switching showing how data is broke into three parts and transmitted

There are two major modes of Packet switching:  Datagram Packet Switching (Connectionless)  Virtual Circuit Switching(Connection-oriented)

DATAGRAM PACKET SWITCHING In this mode of packet switching the packets are exchanged without first establishing a connection. Conceptually, this is very close to message switching, except that if the destination node is not active, then the packet is lost. In this case each packet includes complete addressing or routing information; the packets are routed individually sometimes resulting indifferent paths and out-of-order delivery. Datagram service is the conventional packet handling service as we think of it. The switching is done by a router which uses a look-up table or routing table for each incoming packet. A routing table contains a mapping of routes to the final destination(s) and identifies the outgoing port of a path to the destination(s). Routing tables can be very large because they are indexed by all possible destinations in the network. To do this, they make look-ups and routing decisions that are computationally expensive. Here the full forwarding process is comparatively slow when compared to circuit switching. In a datagram packet switching network, each datagram (packet) must carry the address of the destination host(s) and use the destination address(es) to make forwarding decisions. As a consequence, routers do not have to modify the destination addresses of packets when forwarding packets.

Routing tables can be dynamically changed on the fly. This almost assures different routing of two contiguous packets of the same message if the change is made at an instant between the two packets. Secondly we must consider the case where there is a dynamic network routing topology change due to link failure or congestion. As a result, the routing protocol will automatically recompute the routing tables so as to take the new topology into account to avoid the failed or congested link. It is then known that routers make routing decisions locally for each packet, independent of the data flow to which a packet belongs. VIRTUAL CIRCUIT SWITCHING Virtual circuit (VC) packet switching is a packet switching technique which combines datagram packet switching with circuit switching to take advantage of the attributes of both. VC packet switching is a variation of datagram packet switching for which no physical resources (i.e., frequency slots or time slots) are allocated. Each packet carries a circuit identifier which is local to a link and is updated at each switch in the route path of the packet from its source to its destination. Let s define a virtual circuit as a sequence of mappings between a link taken by packets that the circuit identifier packets carry on this link. This sequence is set up at connection establishment time, and these identifiers are returned to an idle pool at circuit termination. One of the trade-offs a system planner should consider is that between connection establishment and forwarding time costs, which exists in circuit switching and datagram packet switching. In VC packet switching, routing is performed at circuit establishment time to keep packet forwarding fast.

MULTIPLEXING Multiplexing is the process of combining many signals, usually from slow devices, onto one very fast communications link. This sharing is achieved by a device called a Multiplexer (MUX) that organises the signals that are sent and by a corresponding device, a Demultiplexer (DEMUX), at the other end separating the signals again.

FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLEXING (FDM) Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) works by transmitting all of the signals along the same high speed link simultaneously with each signal set at a different frequency. For FDM to work properly frequency overlap must be avoided. Therefore, the link must have sufficient bandwidth to be able to carry the wide range of frequencies required. The demultiplexor at the receiving end works by dividing the signals by tuning into the appropriate frequency. FDM operates in a similar way to radio broadcasting where a number of different stations will broadcast simultaneously but on different frequencies. Listeners can then "tune" their radio so that it captures the frequency or station they want. FDM gives a total bandwidth greater than the combined bandwidth of the signals to be transmitted. In order to prevent signal overlap there are strips of frequency that separate the signals. These are called guard bands. A common example of FDM use is Cable television (CATV). This can be achieved with coaxial cable or fibre-optic cable.A multiplexor is used to combine many channels to maximize the use of the available bandwidth and a demultiplexer built into the television or set top box will separate the channel that the viewer wants to watch.

TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING Time Division Multiplexing works by the multiplexor collecting and storing the incoming transmissions from all of the slow lines connected to it and allocating a time slice on the fast link to each in turn. The messages are sent down the high speed link one after the other. Each transmission when received can be separated according to the time slice allocated. Theoretically, the available speed of the fast link should at least be equal to the total of all of the slow speeds coming into the multiplexor so that its maximum capacity is not exceeded. Two ways of implementing TDM are:
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Synchronous TDM Asynchronous TDM

Synchronous TDM works by the multiplexer giving exactly the same amount of time to each device connected to it. This time slice is allocated even if a device has nothing to transmit. This is wasteful in that there will be many times when allocated time slots are not being used. Therefore, the use of Synchronous TDM does not guarantee maximum line usage and efficiency. Synchronous TDM is used in T1 and E1 connections. Asynchronous TDM This method is also known as STATISTICAL MULTIPLEXING ,It dynamically allocates the time slots on demand to separate input channels, thus saving the channel capacity. As with Synchronous TDM, statistical multiplexers also have many I/O lines with a buffer associated to each of them. During the input, the multiplexer scans the input buffers, collecting data until the frame is filled and send the frame. At the receiving end, the demultiplexer receives the frame and distributes the data to the appropriate buffers. The difference between synchronous TDM and asynchronous TDM is illustrated with the help of the Fig. below

It may be noted that many slots remain unutilised in case synchronous TDM, but the slots are fully utilized leading to smaller time for transmission and better utilization of bandwidth of the medium. In case of statistical TDM, the data in each slot must have an address part, which identifies the source of data. Since data arrive from and are distributed to I/O lines unpredictably, address information is required to assure proper delivery

QUESTION 2
A business telephone system is any of a range of a multiline telephone systems typically used in business environments, encompassing systems ranging from small key systems to large scale private branch. A business telephone system differs from simply using a telephone with multiple lines in that the lines used are accessible from multiple telephones, or "stations" in the system, and that such a system often provides additional features related to call handling. Business telephone systems are often broadly classified into "key systems", "hybrid systems", and "private branch exchanges". A key system was originally distinguished from a private branch exchange (PBX) in that it allowed the station user to see and control the calls directly, manually, using lighted line buttons, while a private branch exchange operated in a manner similar to the public telephone system, in the calls were routed to the correct destination by being dialed directly. Technologically, private branch exchanges share lineage with central office telephone systems, and in larger or more complex systems, may rival a central office in capacity and features.

A. PRIVATE BRANCH EXCHANGE (PBX) A private branch exchange (PBX) is a telephone exchange that serves a particular business or office, as opposed to one that a common carrier or telephone company operates for many businesses or for the general public. PBXs are also referred to as:
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PABX - private automatic branch exchange EPABX - electronic private automatic branch exchange

PBXs make connections among the internal telephones of a private organization usually a business and also connect them to the public switched telephone network (PSTN) via trunk lines. Because they incorporate telephones, fax machines, modems, and more, the general term "extension" is used to refer to any end point on the branch. Initially, the primary advantage of PBXs was cost savings on internal phone calls: handling the circuit switching locally reduced charges for local phone service. As PBXs gained popularity, they started offering services that were not available in the operator network, such as hunt groups, call forwarding, and extension dialing. In the 1960s a simulated PBX known as Centrex provided similar features from the central telephone exchange. Two significant developments during the 1990s led to new types of PBX systems. One was the massive growth of data networks and increased public understanding of packet switching. Companies needed packet switched networks for data, so using them for telephone calls was tempting, and the availability of the Internet as a global delivery system made packet switched communications even more attractive. These factors led to the development of the VoIP PBX. (Technically, nothing was being "exchanged" any more, but the abbreviation PBX was so widely understood that it remained in use.) The other trend was the idea of focusing on core competence. PBX services had always been hard to arrange for smaller companies, and many companies realized that handling their own telephony was not their core competence. These considerations gave rise to the concept of hosted PBX. In a hosted setup, the PBX is located at and managed by the telephone service provider, and features and calls are delivered via the Internet. The customer just signs up for a service, rather than buying and maintaining expensive hardware. This essentially removes the branch from the private premises, moving it to a central location.

Architecture of PBX All modern PBXs have central computer processors that are controlled from software driven stored program (see the fig. below). In addition, most PBXs have microprocessors dispersed throughout the switch that provide real-time signaling and supervision control as instructed from the central processor. One or more terminals and their associated port(s) provide computer operating system, database management, and maintenance access to the PBX processor. Access to these functions gives the administrator or maintenance personnel total control of the PBX. Depending on the size of the PBX, these functions may be separate or combined.

PBX Functional Architecture

System components
A PBX often includes:
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The PBX s internal switching network. Microcontroller or microcomputer for arbitrary data processing, control and logic. Logic cards, switching and control cards, power cards and related devices that facilitate PBX operation. Stations or telephone sets, sometimes called lines. Outside telcom trunks that deliver signals to (and carry them from) the PBX. Console or switchboard allows the operator to control incoming calls. Uninterruptible power supply (UPS) consisting of sensors, power switches and batteries. Interconnecting wiring. Cabinets, closets, vaults and other housings

PBX functions
Functionally, the PBX performs four main call processing duties:
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Establishing connections (circuits) between the telephone sets of two users (e.g. mapping a dialed number to a physical phone, ensuring the phone isn't already busy) Maintaining such connections as long as the users require them (i.e. channelling voice signals between the users) Disconnecting those connections as per the user's requirement Providing information for accounting purposes (e.g. metering calls)

Public Switching Telephone Network (PSTN)

Protocol of Operation: The technical operation of the PSTN utilises standards created by the ITU-T. These standards allow different networks in different countries to interconnect seamlessly. There is also a single global address space for telephone numbers based on the E.163 and E.164 standards. The combination of the interconnected networks and the single numbering plan make it possible for any phone in the world to dial any other phone. The original concept was that the telephone exchanges are arranged into hierarchies, so that if a call cannot be handled in a local cluster, it is passed to one higher up for onward routing. This reduced the number of connecting trunks required between operators over long distances and also kept local traffic separate.

However, in modern networks the cost of transmission and equipment is lower and, although hierarchies still exist, they are much flatter, with perhaps only two layers.

QUESTION 3
ROUTER A router has a lot more capabilities than other network devices such as a hub or a switch that are only able to perform basic network functions. For example, a hub is often used to transfer data between computers or network devices, but does not analyze or do anything with the data it is transferring. Routers however can analyze the data being sent over a network, change how it is packaged and send it to another network or over a different network

CLASSIFICATION OF ROUTERS Before the introduction of areas, the only OSPF routers having a specialized function were those advertising external routing information, such as Router RT5 in Figure 2. When the AS is split into OSPF areas, the routers are further divided according to function into the following four overlapping categories: Internal routers A router with all directly connected networks belonging to the same area. Routers with only backbone interfaces also belong to this category. These routers run a single copy of the basic routing algorithm. Area border routers A router that attaches to multiple areas. Area border routers run multiple copies of the basic algorithm, one copy for each attached area and an additional copy for the backbone. Area border routers condense the topological information of their attached areas for distribution to the backbone. The backbone in turn distributes the information to the other areas. Backbone routers A router that has an interface to the backbone. This includes all routers that interface to more than one area (i.e., area border routers). However, backbone routers do not have to be area border routers. Routers with all interfaces connected to the backbone are considered to be internal routers. Autonomous Systems boundary routers

A router that exchanges routing information with routers belonging to other Autonomous Systems. Such a router has AS external routes that are advertised throughout the Autonomous System. The path to each AS boundary router is known by every router in the AS. This classification is completely independent of the previous classifications: AS boundary routers may be internal or area border routers, and may or may not participate in the backbone. Various levels of network, the Internet can be seen everywhere router. Access network to allow families and small businesses can connect to an Internet service provider; enterprise network router to connect a campus or thousands of computers within the enterprise; backbone network of the router end systems usually cannot directly access, and they long-distance backbone network to connect the ISP and enterprise networks.

1. Access Router ISP access router within the home or small business customers. Access router has started not only provides SLIP or PPP connection, also supports PPTP and IPSec such as virtual private network protocols. These agreements to be able to run on each port. Technologies such as ADSL will soon enhance the family's available bandwidth, which will further increase the burden of access routers. Because of these trends, access routers in the future will support a number of heterogeneous and high-speed ports, and each port can run a variety of protocols, but also to avoid the telephone exchange network. 2. Enterprise Router Enterprise or campus-level router to connect many end systems, its main goal is the cheapest way possible to achieve as much as possible endpoint interconnection and further requests to support different quality of service. Many existing corporate networks are connected by the Hub or Ethernet bridge section. While these devices are cheap, easy to install, no configuration, but they do not support the service level. In contrast, the participation of network routers can be machine into multiple collision domains, and thus can control the size of a network. In addition, the router also supports a certain service level, at least to allow into multiple priority levels. But the cost per port router more expensive, and can be used prior to a lot of configuration work. Therefore, the success of enterprise routers is that the availability of a large number of ports and each port is low cost, ease of configuration, whether to support QoS. Also required to effectively support enterprise-class router Broadcasting and multicast. Enterprise network had to deal with a variety of historical LAN technology supports multiple protocols, including IP, IPX and Vine. They also support Firewall, Packet filtering, and a large number of management and security policies and VLAN. 3. Backbone routers enterprise-class network connectivity. Its speed and reliability requirements, while the cost of the seat. Hardware reliability can be used by telephone

switching network technologies, such as hot backup, dual power, dual data paths, etc. to get. These technologies in terms of almost all backbone routers are standard. IP backbone routers, the main performance bottleneck is in the forwarding table to find a route by the consumption of time. When you receive a package, enter the port in forwarding the packet to find the destination address to determine its destination port, when the packet should be shorter, or when the package when sent to a number of destination port is bound to increase the cost of routing lookup. Therefore, some of the frequently visited destination port into the cache can improve the efficiency of routing lookup. Regardless of the input buffer or output buffer router, all routes to find the bottlenecks exist. In addition to performance bottlenecks, the stability of the router is also an often overlooked issue. 4. Terabit router Core of the Internet in the future use of the three main technologies, fiber and DWDM are already very mature and is ready. If there is no existing fiber-optic technologies and DWDM technology to provide the raw bandwidth of the corresponding router, the new network infrastructure will not be fundamentally improved the performance, so development of high-performance backbone switch / routers (terabit router) has become an urgent requirement. Terabit router technology development is still mainly in the experimental stage. Routing protocol A routing protocol is a protocol that specifies how routers communicate with each other, disseminating information that enables them to select routes between any two nodes on a computer network, the choice of the route being done by routing algorithms. Each router has a priori knowledge only of networks attached to it directly. A routing protocol shares this information first among immediate neighbours, and then throughout the network. This way, routers gain knowledge of the topology of the network. For a discussion of the concepts behind routing protocols, see: Routing. The term routing protocol may refer specifically to one operating at layer three of the OSI model, which similarly disseminates topology information between routers. Although there are many types of routing protocols, three major classes are in widespread use on IP networks:
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Interior gateway routing via link-state routing protocols, such as OSPF and IS-IS Interior gateway routing via path vector or distance vector protocols, such as RIP, IGRP and EIGRP Exterior gateway routing. BGP v4 is the routing protocol used by the public Internet.

Many routing protocols are defined in documents called RFCs. The specific characteristics of routing protocols include
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the manner in which they either prevent routing loops from forming or break them up if they do the manner in which they select preferred routes, using information about hop costs the time they take to converge how well they scale up many other factors ROUTER OPERATIONS

When multiple routers are used in interconnected networks, the routers exchange information about destination addresses, using a dynamic routing protocol. Each router builds up a table listing the preferred routes between any two systems on the interconnected networks. A router has interfaces for different physical types of network connections, (such as copper cables, fiber optic, or wireless transmission). It also contains firmware for different networking protocol standards. Each network interface uses this specialized computer software to enable data packets to be forwarded from one protocol transmission system to another. Routers may also be used to connect two or more logical groups of computer devices known as subnets, each with a different sub-network address. The subnets addresses recorded in the router do not necessarily map directly to the physical interface connections. A router has two stages of operation called planes:  Control plane: A router records a routing table listing what route should be used to forward a data packet, and through which physical interface connection. It does this using internal pre-configured addresses, called static routes  Forwarding plane: The router forwards data packets between incoming and outgoing interface connections. It routes it to the correct network type using information that the packet header contains. It uses data recorded in the routing table control plane. Routers may provide connectivity within enterprises, between enterprises and the Internet, and between internet service providers (ISPs) networks. The largest routers (such as the CiscoCRS-1 or Juniper T1600) interconnect the various ISPs, or may be used in large enterprise networks. Smaller routers usually provide connectivity for typical home and office networks. Other networking solutions may be provided by a backbone Wireless

Distribution System (WDS), which avoids the costs of introducing networking cables into buildings.

BRIDGE A bridge device filters data traffic at a network boundary. Bridges reduce the amount of traffic on a LAN by dividing it into two segments. Bridges operate at the data link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model. Bridges inspect incoming traffic and decide whether to forward or discard it. An Ethernet bridge, for example, inspects each incoming Ethernet frame - including the source and destination MAC addresses, and sometimes the frame size - in making individual forwarding decisions. Bridges serve a similar function as switches, which also operate at Layer 2. Traditional bridges, though, support one network boundary, whereas switches usually offer four or more hardware ports. Switches are sometimes called "multi-port bridges" for this reason. BRIDGE PROTOCOL ARCHITECTURE The IEEE 802.1D specification defines the protocol architecture for MAC bridges. In addition, the standard suggests formats for a globally administered set of MAC station addresses across multiple homogeneous LANs. In this subsection, we examine the protocol architecture of these bridges. Within the 802 architecture, the endpoint or station address is designated at the MAC level. Thus, it is at the MAC level that a bridge can function. Figure 14.2 shows the simplest case, which consists of two LANs connected by a single bridge. The LANs employ the same MAC and LLC protocols. The bridge operates as previously described. A MAC frame whose destination is not on the immediate LAN is captured by the bridge, buffered briefly, and then transmitted on the other LAN.As far as the LLC layer is concerned; there is a dialogue between peer LLC entities in the two endpoint stations. The bridge need not contain an LLC layer, as it is merely serving to relay the MAC frames. Figure 14.2b indicates the way in which data is encapsulated using a bridge. Data are provided by some user to LLC.

The LLC entity appends a header and passes the resulting data unit to the MAC entity, which appends a header and a trailer to form a MAC frame. On the basis of the destination MAC address in the frame, it is captured by the bridge. The bridge does not strip off the MAC fields; its function is to relay the MAC frame intact to the destination LAN. Thus the frame is deposited on the destination LAN and captured by the destination station. The concept of a MAC relay bridge is not limited to the use of a single bridge to connect two nearby LANs. If the LANs are some distance apart, then they can be connected by two bridges that are in turn connected by a communications facility. For example, Figure 14.3 shows the case of two bridges connected by a point-to-point link. In this case, when a bridge captures a MAC frame, it appends a link layer (e.g., HDLC) header and trailer to transmit the MAC frame across the link to the other bridge. The target bridge strips off these link fields and transmits the original, unmodified MAC frame to the destination station. The intervening communications facility can be a network, such as a wide area- packetswitching network; In this case, the bridge is somewhat more complicated, although it performs the same function of relaying MAC frames. The connection between bridges is via an X.25 virtual circuit. Again, the two LLC entities in the end systems have a direct logical relationship with no intervening LLC entities. Thus, in this situation, the X.25 packet layer is operating below an 802 LLC layer. As before, a MAC frame is passed intact between the endpoints. When the bridge on the source LAN receives the frame, it appends an X.25 packet-layer header and an X.25 link-layer header and trailer and sends the data to the DCE (packet-switching node) to which it attaches. The DCE strips off the link layer fields and sends the X.25 packet through the network to another DCE. The target DCE appends the link-layer field and sends this to the

target bridge. The target bridge strips off all the X.25 fields and transmits the original unmodified MAC frame to the destination endpoint. BRIDGE CLASSIFICATION Bridges come in three basic types:
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Local bridges: Directly connect local area networks (LANs) Remote bridges: Can be used to create a wide area network (WAN) link between LANs. Remote bridges, where the connecting link is slower than the end networks, largely have been replaced with routers. Wireless bridges: Can be used to join LANs or connect remote stations to LANs.

BRIDGE OPERATION The early designs for bridges were intended for use between local area networks (LANs) that use identical protocols for the physical and medium access layers (e.g., all conforming to IEEE 802.3 or all conforming to FDDI). Because the devices all use the same protocols, the amount of processing required at the bridge is minimal. In recent years, bridges that operate between LANs with different MAC protocols have been developed. However, the bridge remains a much simpler device than the router, which is discussed in Chapter 16. Because the bridge is used in a situation in which all of the LANs have the same characteristics, the reader may ask why one does not simply use one large LAN. Depending on circumstance, there are several reasons for the use of multipleLANs connected by bridges: Functions of a Bridge The figure below illustrates the operation of a bridge between two LANs, A and B. The bridge performs the following functions:

 Reads all frames transmitted on A, and accepts those addressed to stations on B.  Using the medium access control protocol for B, retransmits the frames onto B.  Does the same for B-to-A traffic. Several design aspects of a bridge are worth highlighting: 1. The bridge makes no modification to the content or format of the frames it receives, nor does it encapsulate them with an additional header. Each frame to be transferred is simply copied from one LAN and repeated with exactly the same bit pattern as the other LAN. Because the two LANs use the same LAN protocols, it is permissible to do this. 2. The bridge should contain enough buffer space to meet peak demands. Over a short period of time, frames may arrive faster than they can be retransmitted. 3. The bridge must contain addressing and routing intelligence. At a minimum, the bridge must know which addresses are on each network in order to know which frames to pass. Further, there may be more than two LANs interconnected by a number of bridges. In that case, a frame may have to be routed through several bridges in its journey from source to destination. 4. A bridge may connect more than two LANs. The bridge provides an extension to the LAN that requires no modification to the communications software in the stations attached to the LANs. It appears to all stations on the two (or more) LANs that there is a single LAN on which each station has a unique address. The station uses that unique address and need not explicitly discriminate between stations on the same LAN and stations on other LANs; the bridge takes care of that. The description above has applied to the simplest sort of bridge. More sophisticated bridges can be used in more complex collections of LANs. These constructions would include additional functions, such as,  Each bridge can maintain status information on other bridges, together with the cost and number of bridge-to-bridge hops required to reach each network. This information may be updated by periodic exchanges of information among bridges; this allows the bridges to perform a dynamic routing function.  A control mechanism can manage frame buffers in each bridge to overcome congestion. Under saturation conditions, the bridge can give precedence to en route packets over new packets just entering the internet from an attached LAN, thus preserving the investment in line bandwidth and processing time already made in the en route frame.