Você está na página 1de 21

GRAMMAR

English word order rule: Subject Verb Object (I hate Mary.) GRAMMAR is the theory of how a particular language functions. LINGUISTICS is the study of languages. SINTAX is the theory of how words and phrases are combined into sentences. SEMANTICS deals with the meaning of words, expressions and sentences. MORPHOLOGY is a study of word structure; it tells us how words are formed. PHONETICS is the study of the way sounds (speech) are produced.

THE VERB
1) OPEN SET OF WORDS (Those sets into which new words can enter) - VERB (glagol) - NOUN (samostalnik) - ADJECTIVE (pridevnik) - ADVERB (prislov) CLOSED SET OF WORDS (A set into which no new words can enter) - PREPOSITION (predlog) - CONJUNCTION (veznik) - ARTICLE (len) - INTERJECTION (medmet)
P

2) A verb in a sentence is a PREDICATOR. (Mary | likes | George.) 3) A verb can denote: - an ACTION (walk, sing, dance,) - a STATE (remain, think, be,) - a PROCESS (developed from point A to point B start, separate,) 4) Morphological characteristics of verbs: - ROOT MORPHEME carries the lexical meaning and can stand alone - DERIVATIONAL MORPHEME it changes the lexical meaning (un|able) - INFLECTIONAL MORPHEME it changes the grammatical meaning (table|s): -s - ing - ed - 0 (zero morpheme) A morpheme is the smallest unit with a meaning by itself.

Verbs can consist of one or more words: - SIMPLE VERBS one root morpheme only (walk, come, enter,) - COMPOUND VERBS two or more morphemes (over|come, down|load,) - DERIVED VERBS (disagree, blackened,)

Multi word verbs: - PHRASAL VERBS = V + ADV (back up, put up,) - PREPOSITIONAL VERBS = V + PREP (look after,) - PHRASAL-PREPOSITIONAL VERBS = V + ADV + PREP (put up with,) 5) Verbal phrases:
S NP P VP DO NP 3 sentence elements 3 phrases

I | have seen | a black dog. PreM H

A verbal phrase consists of a head word (H) and a premodifier (PreM) or/and postmodifier (PostM) (optional; up to three). George should have been loved.
1 PreM 2 H 3 PostM H

George was done in.

IRREGULAR VERBS
SUPPLETION is a morphological process where an inflectional morpheme is added to the root morpheme. This combination gives a new word. - PARTIAL SUPPLETION resemblance between the new and the old word (lead>led, build>built,) - TOTAL SUPPLETION no resemblance between the new and the old word (be>was, were,) Classification of irregular verbs: 1. Verbs which have irregular forms only (speak, bring, meet, go,) 2. Verbs which have either regular or irregular form: a) Choice is optional (either regular or irregular) DIG | DUG | DUG (irr) LEARN | LEARNT | LEARNT (BrE) DIG | DIGGED | DIGGED (r) LEARN | LEARNED | LEARNED (AmE) b) Regular form is used in modern English, irregular form is used in old (archaic) English WORK | WORKED regular, modern WORK | WROUGHT irregular, archaic c) Choice depends on the type of English the speaker uses KNEEL | KNELT | KNELT irregular, BrE KNEEL | KNEELED | KNEELED regular, AmE

3. Verbs which have irregular forms only (but they are not the same and have different meanings): a) Depends on the type of English the speaker uses GET | GOT | GOT BrE (ill GOTTEN gains BrE) GET | GOT | GOTTEN AmE b) Different irregular forms with different meanings BEREAVE | BEREAVED | BEREAVED to deprive sbd. of sth., to dispossess sbd., to take sth. away (He was BEREAVED of his wife.) BEREAVE | BEREFT | BEREFT to lose a particular quality (He was BEREFT of all hope.) HANG | HANGED | HANGED death by hanging (He HANGED himself in a fit of remorse.) HANG | HUNG | HUNG other meanings (The walls were HUNG with paintings.) 4. Verbs with one irregular past form and two irregular past participles: SINK | SANK | SUNK/SUNKEN - The ship has SUNK. - Her eyes were SUNKEN (adj., hollow) and lack-ringed. - The remains of a SUNKEN (adjective) battleship = a battleship that has sunk (no passive value) - The remains of a SUNK (adjective) battleship = a battleship that has been sunk by sth. (passive value) DRINK | DRANK | DRUNK/DRUNKEN - I knew Peter was slightly DRUNK. (not followed by a noun; used predicatively) - Several members of the company collapsed in a DRUNKEN stupor. (used attributively only) STRIKE | STRUCK | STRUCK/STRICKEN - The house was STRUCK by lightning. (original, literal meaning) - Madeline was STRICKEN by fear. (metaphorical meaning) - Peter was love STRUCK. - poverty, grief, horror, love,STRICKEN SWELL | SWELLED | SWELLED/SWOLLEN - a SWOLLEN head a head that is literally swollen (BK) - a SWELLED head conceit (BK)

SPELLING CHANGES
Spelling changes are changes that affect the verb when a particular inflectional morpheme (-s, -ing, -ed, -0) is added to it. 1. WHEN S IS ADDED: work + s = works a verb ending in y: vowel + y play + s = plays consonant + y try +s = tries a verb ending in sh, -ch, -ss, -o, -x, -zz, -es is added: finish+es, preach+es, pass+es, go+es, fix+es, buzz+es when a one syllable verb ends in s, the s is doubled and es is added: to bus bus+s+es busses

2. WHEN ING IS ADDED: a verb ending in e (MUTE E RULE) dance + ing = dancing (Verbs ending with a mute e lose it when ing is added.) exceptions to the mute e rule: be + ing = being see + ing = seeing free + ing = freeing agree + ing = agreeing knee + ing = kneeing referee + ing = refereeing tiptoe + ing = tiptoeing singe + ing = singeing (to singe = to burn) dye + ing = dyeing (e.g. to dye your hair) age + ing = ageing a verb ending in ie -ie = y + ing die dy + ing = dying tie ty + ing = tying lie ly + ing = lying a verb ending in c -k is added before ing is added panic panic + k + ing = panicking

3. WHEN ED IS ADDED: a verb ending in e (MUTE E RULE) dance danc + ed = danced (the mute e is omitted) dance dance + d = danced (no letters are omitted, d is added) a verb ending in y: vowel + y play + ed = played consonant + y try + ed = tried a verb ending in c -k is added before ed is added panic panic + k + ed = panicked

Doubling of the final consonant The doubling of the final consonant occurs only when ing or ed are added. 1. Monosyllabic verbs, ending in a single vowel letter, followed by a consonant. - ban banned (doubling of the final consonant) - beam beamed (no change) The rule does not apply for verbs ending in w, -x, -y. row rowing, play playing, fix fixing 2. Disyllabic verbs, with the stress on the second syllable, ending in a single vowel letter, followed by a consonant. - admit admitting, admitted When a disyllabic verb ends in l, -m, -n, it is doubled (applies to BrE). - travel travelling, travelled, program programming, programmed When a disyllabic verb ends in p, it is doubled, but with exceptions. - worship worshipping, worshipped - develop developing, developed - gossip gossiping, gossiped

SYNTAX
SYNTAX tells us how grammatical elements are combined. {beautiful, a, girl} [a beautiful girl] It tells us how to put phrases into sentences. 1. [a beautiful girl] NP 2. [has been seen] VP 3. [in the bar] PP It also tells us which syntactic role/function a particular phrase has in a sentence (sentence elements). A beautiful girl | has been seen | in the bar.
S P Ap

SEMANTICS
SEMANTICS is a theory which deals with the meaning of words, expressions and sentences. Semantic roles: 1) PATIENT is a person or a thing that undergoes or is affected by the action expressed by the verb. - George killed Mary.
ACTOR PATIENT

2) AGENT/ACTOR is a person or an entity that intentionally initiates the action expressed by the verb. - George killed Mary.
ACTOR PATIENT

3) EXPERIENCER is the entity that experiences some psychological/physical state expressed by the verb. The experiencer is aware of the action but cannot control it. - Peter saw Mary. - George broke his leg.
EXPERIENCER EXPERIENCER

4) THEME is a person, an entity or a thing that undergoes the action but is not affected by it. - Peter saw Mary. - Mary sang a song. - I am meeting Peter.
THEME THEME ACTOR THEME

5) BENEFICIARY is the entity that benefits (negatively or positively) from the action expressed by the verb (two persons must be involved). - Mary made George a sandwich.
BENEFICIARY

6) LOCATION is the place in which the action takes place (Ap). - Mary drove to the party.
LOCATION

7) INSTRUMENT is the means by which the action is performed.

- The jack lifted the car.


INSTRUMENT

Matching between the syntactic and semantic (thematic) roles: 1) 2) 3) 4) AGENT/ACTOR, EXPERIENCER S PATIENT, THEME DO BENEFICIARY (RECEIVER) IO or Adjunct or S LOCATION, INSTRUMENT Adjunct

GROUPS OF VERBS
1) AUXILIARY VERBS are helping verbs because they lack some meaning. They help form complex verbal phrases. The verb to BE She is singing. They are singing. I am singing. A) PRIMARY AUXILIARY VERBS (purely grammatical function) BE used to form progressive tenses and the passive voice. HAVE used to form perfect tenses. DO used to form questions and negative answers in all present and past indefinite tenses, and for the purposes of emphasis. B) MODAL AUXILIARY VERBS (give different modal shades of meaning to lexical verbs) MUST (She must sing. obligation) SHULD MAY CAN 2) LINKING VERBS (COPULA) link the S and the SC in a sentence which are always of the same identity. They can denote the state of a subject. - Mary is happy. - The rose smells nice. - This sounds strange.
S P SC

They can denote a transition; the S undergoes a transition which is expressed by the SC. - He turned nice.

George got tired of Mary.

3) FULL LEXICAL VERBS have a full semantic meaning. a) TRANSITIVITY is a grammatical category that describes the verb and something that follows the verb. It tells us how many objects and/or complements a particular verb can take. The number of adjuncts is not important. INTRANSITIVE VERBS only S, O, DO and IO are important - George sleeps. intransitive, no objects - George sleeps in the garden every day at noon.
Ap Af At

- *George sleeps Mary. (cannot take an object cause it is intransitive) MONOTRANSITIVE VERBS [P + DO] - see - Verbs which take direct objects (without which the meaning is wrong). - I saw Mary.
P DO

DITRANSITIVE VERBS [P + IO + DO] - give - Verbs which select the IO and the DO. - I gave Mary some flowers.
P IO DO

COMPLEX TRANSITIVE VERBS [P + DO + OC] - name - Verbs which select a DO and a OC. - I painted the wall white.
P DO OC

b) REFLEXIVE VERBS TRUE REFLEXIVES or PROPER REFLEXIVES - George, behave yourself!


ONE UNIT

- to make oneself at home - to absent oneself (to excuse oneself) - to betake oneself (to go somewhere) - to pride oneself (to be proud of sth.) - to avail oneself (to take an opportunity) NOT PROPER REFLEXIVES - George washed himself. himself is a reflexive pronoun; it is S P DO therefore optional. c) CATENATIVE VERBS are verbs which can be followed by a nonfinite verbal form which functions as a DO. [P + non-finite verbal form DO] - George wants Mary. [monotransitive]
P DO

- George wants to kiss Mary. [What does he want? Akk. nonP DO finite verbal form] - want, like, regret, try, prefer, hate, forget

d) ERGATIVE VERBS are verbs which can take either the actor or the patient as the grammatical subject of the sentence in the active voice. - ACTIVE: Mary is roasting a duck.
ACTOR PATIENT = S PATIENT

- ACTIVE: A duck is roasting. - PASSIVE: The cake was baked.


PATIENT = S

- USUALLY: PATIENT as a SUBJECT PASSIVE VOICE

MULTI WORD VERBS


Multi word verbs are a combination of a verb and one or two other particles. 1) PHRASAL VERBS are a combination of a VERB + ADVERBIAL PARTICLE - POSITION OF THE DIRECT OBJECT: With most transitive phrasal verbs, the particle may either precede or follow a short noun object. - POSITION OF ADJUNCTS: Only a noun object may separate the verb component from the particle; adjunct must be placed either before the phrasal verb or after it. - Generally speaking, we can say that most phrasal verbs ay be used both transitively and intransitively. - He looked up a new word in the dictionary.
VERB+ADVERB

2) PREPOSITIONAL VERBS are a combination of a VERB + PREPOSITION - A prepositional verb must always be followed by an object, i.e. it is always transitive. - She looked after her neighbour's son.
VERB+PREPOSITION

3) PHRASAL-PREPOSITIONAL VERBS are a combination of a VERB + ADVERBIAL PARTICLE + PREPOSITION - Phrasal-prepositional verbs can be analysed as transitive verbs with the following nominal phrase as DO; the position of the object is always after the prepositional component. - I cannot put up with this behaviour any longer.
VERB+ADVERB+PREPOSITION

Broad and narrow definition of PHRASAL VERBS a) NARROW DEFINITION (SEMANTICS): - A phrasal verb has to form a new semantic unit, must have a new meaning. - He turned up in the middle of nowhere. (+) - He called back from his office. (-) b) BROAD DEFINITION (SYNTAX):

- The verb and the adverb must form the same syntactic unit (predicator). - He turned off the lights. (+) phrasal verb in a narrow sense - He turned off the road. (-) Characteristics of PHRASAL VERBS a) Usually used in everyday (informal, colloquial) language - come in = enter b) Most of them have a single verb equivalent (usually foreign origin) - put out = extinguish - go out = date, court, woo c) Many are synonymous with other phrasal verbs - hold on = hang on d) They can have different adverbial particles for the same meanings - fill|in,out,up (the form) - drop|by,in,round e) Some tend to be used more formal - break down (formal meaning) = conk out (informal meaning, substandard) f) They can be found in idiomatic expressions - make up your mind = decide g) In some cases the particle can have two forms - insist on (more informal) = insist upon (posh, formal) PHRASAL VERBS vs. PREPOSITIONAL VERBS a) The position of the direct object (DO) - Phrasal verbs are separable, i.e. the DO can be placed between the verb and the adverbial particle. - He turned [the lights] off [the lights]. both options possible - He turned IT off. IT is a PRONOUN and must come in between! - Prepositional verbs are inseparable, i.e. the DO always follows the preposition. - He turned [*the road] off [the road]. only second option possible - EXCEPTIONS: put up and idioms (they cannot change) b) The position of the adjunct - Phrasal verbs (before or after): An adjunct can be placed either before or after the combination of the verb and the adverbial particle; it cannot split them. - He [quickly] turned [*quickly] off the lights [quickly]. only options 1 and 3 are possible - Prepositional verbs (before, between, after): It must be emphasized that with prepositional verbs the prepositional component may be separated from the verb by an adjunct (Peter laughed heartily at the joke.). So, the adjunct can follow, precede, or be put between the verb and the adverbial particle. c) Relative clauses - Phrasal verbs: - the lights/road (which, that) he turned off possible
VERB+PARTICLE

- *the lights/road off which he turned not possible


PARTICLE PARTICLE VERB VERB

- Prepositional verbs: - the road off which he turned possible, formal d) Question formations - Phrasal verbs: - Which light did he turn off?
VERB+PARTICLE

- Prepositional verbs: - Which part of the road did he turn off?

VERB+PARTICLE

- Off which part of the road did he turn?


PARTICLE VERB

Transparency (Degrees of semantic unity) Transparency tells us about the semantic status of multi-word verbs. PREDICTABLE or TRANSPARENT come in, refer to, drink up NOT PREDICTABLE do in (kill), back up (support) There are 4 groups of semantic unity: a) The meaning of the verb CANNOT BE UNDERSTOOD by knowing the meaning of the individual verb and the particle. - The meeting was put off. Phrasal - He took after his grandmother. Prepositional - She could no longer put up with him. Phrasal-prepositional b) GRAMATICAL COLLOCATIONS (make coffee and not cook coffee) Combinations, where a particular verb is always used with a particular preposition or an adverb, and usually cannot be found without one of both. Therefore, these combinations are HIGHLY PREDICTABLE. - This kind of art is often referred to as 'minimal art'. - Hong Kong's prosperity relies on/upon foreign business. c) Combinations where the particle does not change the meaning of the verb, but is used to suggest that the action described by the verb is performed THOROUGHLY ( out), COMPLETELY (up), or CONTINUOUSLY (away). Such particles are called ASPECTUAL PARTICLES. - Sunlight can be spread out by an instrument called a spectroscope. thoroughly - We drove on from Florence and linked up with them in Rome. completely - Having got a job, he likes to really slog away at it. continuously d) HIGHLY TRANSPARENT COMBINATIONS which have a highly predictable meaning. - She phoned back to tell me she is leaving. - After an hour or so he came out of the kitchen.

GRAMMATICAL CATEGORIES OF THE VERB


1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) MOOD TRANSITIVITY ASPECT TENSE NUMBER & PERSON (AGREEMENT) VOICE FINITENESS

1) MOOD

- IMPERATIVE usually denotes an order, command, prohibition, warning, request, demand - INDICATIVE denotes reality or better it is presented as the speaker's reality, although it may not be really true - SUBJUNCTIVE denotes sth. contrary to reality, sth. wished, desired, hoped, a particular condition and even command If I were you (wish past subjunctive) It is imperative that he come on time. (strong wish, command, order present subjunctive) The mood shows us in what relation to reality the speaker places the action or state expressed by the verb. 2) TRANSITIVITY Transitivity tells us how many objects or/and SCs a particular verb can take. 3) ASPECT The aspect expresses the manner in which the action or a state is presented by the speaker. The action may be presented as completed or incompleted. Mary made a cake.
DENOTES COMPLETION (THE ACTION IS COMPLETED) - PAST

Mary was making a cake.


DENOTES INCOMPLETION (THE ACTION AT THAT TIME WAS NOT COMPLETED) - PAST

Aspect only explains whether the action is completed in the given time. time | PAST made was making | NOW

You analyse tense from NOW. The aspect is about the given time so you analyse it in the given time. 4) TENSE FUTURE PRESENT PAST 5) NUMBER & PERSON (AGREEMENT) SINGULAR PLURAL DUAL (both, either, neither [none of the two], a pair/a couple)

1ST PERSON: the speaker/writer 2ND PERSON: the person being spoken to 3RD PERSON: the person being spoken about 6) VOICE Voice is the grammatical category that considers whether the grammatical subject acts (ACTIVE) or is acted upon (PASSIVE). 7) FINITENESS Finiteness is the grammatical category which tells us whether the verb agrees with the subject or not. FINITE NON-FINITE (gerund, infinitive, participle) He want{s} to go home.
FINITE VERBAL FORM NON-FINITE VERBAL FORM (Does not agree with the subject.)

ASPECT
Aspect is a grammatical category which refers to the internal properties of the event or action. Internal properties: - DURATION - COMPLETION - INCOMPLETION - REPETITION (the verb itself, adverbs, [indefinite] tenses, prefixes,) - He drank milk. incomplete - He drank the milk. complete - He drank up the milk. complete THE SPEAKER HAS DIFFERENT MEANS OF PRESENTING ASPECT: 1) The semantic meaning of the verb live, sing DURATION die, knock COMPLETION 2) By adding special verbal or aspectual particles 3) By using particular verb phrases or verb structures keep on continue stop finish She kept on singing. 4) Grammatical means different forms of verbs

INDEFINITE TENSES PROGRESSIVE TENSES (duration, incompletion) PERFECT TENSES (completion) 5) Syntactic means Use of the article the verb does not change the DO changes. He drank the milk.
P AR DO TI CLE

Semantic meaning: a) DURATIVE VERBS denote a certain action which has no limit, no final aim (DURATION). love, hate, live, STATIVE VERBS denote a state, there is no action. verbs denoting mental activities verbs denoting feelings (love, hate,) verbs of sense perception (hear, smell, see, taste,) verbs denoting possession (have, own, possess) b) TERMINATIVE VERBS express an action which has a final aim or a certain limit (COMPLETION, END). knock, die, sneeze, PUNCTUAL VERBS denote a action which lasts a short period of time. knock, sneeze Aspectual particles: Aspectual particles are special adverbial particles which are added to the verb to change or to stress their aspectual character. They denote DURATION, CONTINUOUSNESS, and COMPLETION. sit sit down (completion) drink drink up (completion) finish finish off (completion) Frequent adverbial particles: AWAY denotes continuousness talk talk away, talk on (duration) drag drag on (duration)

DOWN denotes completion OFF denotes completion ON denotes continuousness, duration OUT denotes continuousness (flatten out), completion (burn out) UP denotes completion

Verb structures/phrases: a) INCOHATIVE MEANING denotes a change of state - George is mad. [durative, stative] - George went/got/turned/became mad. [incohative meaning] b) DURATIVE MEANING implies one action for a long period of time - George is mad. [durative meaning] - George kept (on)/went (on) being mad. [durative meaning] c) FRQUENTATIVE MEANING implies repetition in a period of time - George complains/will complain/would complain/used to complain all the time [frequentative meaning] Grammatical means: a) INDEFINITE FORM is unmarked, has no special morphological change of the verb DURATIVE VERB INDEFINITE FORM [no change] (DURATION) TERMINATIVE VERB INDEFINITE FORM (COMPLETION) b) PROGRESSIVE FORM can change the aspect value of the verb DURATIVE VERB STARE - George was staring at Mary.
PROG. FORM [STRESSES DURATION]

- George stared at Mary.


IND. FORM

TERMINATIVE NON-PUNCTUAL VERB DROWN - George drowned.


IND. FORM [COMPLETION, TERMINATIVE MEANING IS PERSERVED]

- George was drowning.


PROG. FORM [INCOMPLETION, DURATION, THE ACTION IS INCOMPLETE]

TERMINATIVE PUNCTUAL VERB SNEEZE - George was sneezing.


PROG. FORM [REPETITION OF ONE ACTION]

EMOTIONAL PERCEPTION (usually annoyance) DRINK, HOPE - He drinks beer.


IND. FORM

- He is always drinking beer.


PROG. FORM [PROGRESSIVE FORM CAN ALSO EXPRESS THE SPEAKERS EMOTIONAL PERCEPTION OF AN ACTION - ANNOYANCE.]

- I hoped you could come.


IND. FORM [MORE MENTAL]

- I was hoping you could come.


PROG. FORM [EMOTIONALLY STRONGER]

The progressive form usually denotes REPETITION or DURATION (in progress in given time. SIMULTANITY - When she was reading a book she was taking a bath. INCOMPLETION TERMINATIVE VERB - He was drowning. [duration, incompletion] FREQUANTATIVE MEANING PUNCTUAL VERB - He was knocking. [repetition of a single action] EMOTIONAL COLOURING/DETACHEMENT - George drinks beer. [neutral, habit] - George is always drinking beer. [expresses annoyance] The difference between the INDEFINITE and the PROGRESSIVE FORM: - The DURATIONAL character of the action. - The FREQUANTATIVE character of the action. - The PERMANENT (INDEFINITE FORM) or EMPORARY (PROGRESSIVE FORM) character of the action.

Syntactic means: If you combine a PUNCTUAL VERB followed by a DURATIONAL ADVERB, you get REPETITION. ALWAYS, SELDOM, OFTEN, HARDLY EVER, George drinks beer. George often drinks beer.

Use of the ARTICLE the interpretation can depend on the DO. - Mary ate. [durative] - Mary ate apples. [durative] - Mary ate the apples. [completion]

DYNAMIC vs. STATIVE VERBS


A) DYNAMIC VERBS can be used in the progressive form. The majority of English verbs are dynamic. Dynamic verbs are those which refer to: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. ACTIVITIES (ask, beg, call, drink, read, throw, work, write,) PROCESSES (change, grow, slow down, widen,) BODILY SENSATIONS (ache, hurt, itch,) TRANSITIONS from one state into another (arrive, die, fall, land, leave, lose,) MOMENTARY ACTIONS (hit, jump, kick, knock, nod, tap,)

B) STATIVE VERBS express actions or states of unlimited duration. Stative verbs normally cannot be used in the progressive form. KNOW George knows French, *George is knowing French. Stative verbs cannot be used to form the imperative. KNOW *Know French! Stative verbs are those which refer to: 1. SENSE PERCEPTION (feel, hear, notice, recognize, see, smell, taste) All the above-mentioned verbs denote more or less involuntary actions. Thus, when the verbs of perception refer to something involuntary only the indefinite forms are used. But these verbs, however, may be used in the progressive tenses when they have special meanings expressing voluntary activities: HEAR The judge is hearing a witness. [interrogating, questioning] The leader of the band is hearing a pianist. [auditioning, listening to] SEE John is seeing Mary tomorrow. [meeting, visiting] The manager is seeing a new applicant. [interviewing] 2. MENTAL ACTIVITIES (astonish, believe, consider, differ, doubt, find, forgive, foresee, forget, guess, hope, imagine, impress, intend, know, mean, mind, presuppose, realize, remember, suppose, think, trust, wonder) Some of these verbs can be used in the progressive tenses when they have special meanings or in connection with always and its synonyms, when the speaker gives the action emotional colouring (praise, blame, indignation, anger, etc.) FORGET She is forgetting her German. [a gradual loss of knowledge] George is forgetting his manners. [a kind of reminder] DOUBT My wife is always doubting my words. MIND Mary is minding the baby. [taking care of] 3. EMOTIONS wishes, liking, disliking, preference, hatred (abhor, adore, desire, detest, dislike, hate, like, love, prefer, want, wish, worship) 4. STATES or CONDITIONS (appear, apply, be, belong, concern, consist, contain, cost, depend, matter, owe, own, possess, remain [a bachelor], require, resemble, satisfy, seem, sound, suffice, suit) HAVE is not used in the progressive tenses when it means POSSES or OWN, and when it denotes OBLIGATION. This verb is used in the progressive tenses when it means ARRANGE, EAT, DRINK, ENJOY, and EXPERIENCE. I am having a beer. HOLD in the meaning CONTAIN the verb hold has only indefinite forms. In the sense KEEP WITH THE HANDS or HAVE IN THE HANDS the verb has progressive tenses. I am holding a piece of paper.

MOOD
Mood is the grammatical category of the verb which shows in what relation to reality the speaker places the action or state expressed by the predicator. Thus, the speaker may present

an action or state as reality, as a command or request, as desirable, possible, uncertain, doubtful, unreal, etc. English verbs, therefore, have three moods: 1. INDICATIVE MOOD The indicative mood shows that the speaker presents the action or state denoted by the predicator as an actual fact, truth, or reality, and affirms or negates its existence; the interrogative form inquires into facts. The predication need not be true but the speaker presents it as being such. The indicative mood is by far the most common mood of the verb in Modern English. - George reads books. [declaration] - The Moon is not a planet. [negation] - Is she pregnant again? [interrogation] 2. IMPERATIVE MOOD The imperative mood has only one simple form for the 2nd person singular und plural, and coincides with the base of the verb. In this mood the speaker urges the person addressed to fulfill an action. This may be expressed in the form of a command, request, warning, suggestion, prohibition, wish, etc. - Listen carefully! - Please come early. In the 1st and 3rd person the combination let + base, an equivalent of the imperative, is used. - Let me go and see him. - Let's go and have some tea. The negative imperative is formed by means of the auxiliary do, even with the verb be. - Don't be angry. - Don't talk so loud. Will you is often added to an imperative; it changes the order of command into a polite request. - Shut the door, will you? Affirmative Form Singular Plural 1. Let me go. Let us [let's] go. 2. Go. Go. 3. Let him/her/it go. Let them go. Negative Form Singular Plural 1. Don't let me go. Don't let us go. [Let me not go] [Let's not go.] 2. Don't go. Don't go. 3. Don't let him/her/it go. Don't let them go. [Let him/her/it go.] [Let them not go.] 3. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

The subjunctive mood is not much used in Modern English. It is used to represent an idea not as a real fact, but as a wish, doubt or (hypothetical) condition, or as problematic or as contrary to fact. A) THE PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE In the present subjunctive the verb be has the verb be for all persons singular and plural. [verb to be form be all persons and numbers] In all other verbs the forms of the present subjunctive differ from the corresponding forms of the present indicative mood only in the 3rd person singular, which in the present subjunctive has no s inflection. [other verbs base form all persons and numbers] The present subjunctive represents an action as uncertain, problematic, desired, modestly suggested, but not as contrary to reality. It is used with reference to any time. THE MANDATIVE PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE - The mandative present subjunctive is used in formal language, in language of administration, in THAT sentences. It is always used in the SUBORDINATE CLAUSE, introduced by THAT, when the MAIN CLAUSE contains an expression of RECOMENDATION, RESOLUTION, DEMAND, or a WISH. The imperative cannot be used.
MAIN CLAUSE

- It is important - It is imperative THAT he come on time. [BASE FORM]

SUBBORDINATE CLAUSE THAT she be informed. [AUXILIARY VERB]

THE FORMULAIC PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE - The formulaic present subjunctive is restricted to SET EXPRESSIONS/PHRASES, IDIOMS, and SLOGANS mostly expressing a WISH or a PRAYER. - Come what may. - God save the Queen. - Suffice it to say. - Be that as it may. CONDITIONAL CLAUSES (for the future) - If that is the official view,[50/50]
INDICATIE MOOD (OPEN CHOICE)

If that be the official view,[but I doubt it seriously]


SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD (MORE TENTITIVE)

B) THE PAST SUBJUNCTIVE In the past subjunctive the verb be has the form were for the 1st and 3rd person singular. [verb to be form were in 1st & 3rd person sg.] In the plural of the verb be and in all persons singular and plural of lexical verbs there is no past subjunctive, the so-called modal past tense, which is identical in form with the indicative mood, being used instead. [other verbs modal past tense]

Were is the only really firmly established subjunctive form surviving in colloquial language. It is used in all functions of the verb be (as a full lexical verb, a linking verb, an auxiliary verb or a modal verb). The term past subjunctive is merely traditional. In Modern English it does not express a past action, but unreality in present and future time. In CONDITIONAL CLAUSES of REJECTED CONDITON referring to the PRESENT and FUTURE time - If father were here, he would help us. - If Mary were going away, I would feel sorry. - If I were to tell him the truth, he would feel desperate. In clauses after AS IF / AS THOUGH - George behaves as if he were a king. - She looked at George as though she were shocked. In clauses after the verb TO WISH - I wish I were out. - I wish she were here. - I wish I spoke [modal past tense] Spanish. After the expressions IT'S TIME and IT'S HIGH TIME - It's time we went [modal past tense] home. - It's high time I went [modal past tense]. - *It is time I were in bed. [werepast subjunctivenot possible] - It is time I was in bed. [wasmodal past tensecorrect form]

PAST TENSES
4 different past tenses: - PAST INDEFINITE - PAST PROGRESSIVE - PAST PERFECT INDEFINITE - PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE They are used in two functions: - TEMPORAL FUNCTION denotes an action that happened before the moment of speaking (not NOW, but THEN) - MODAL FUNCTION these forms have no meaning on their own. They are used to express different MODAL CONOTATION (wish, desire, request,). They are used after expressions: a) IF ONLY b) after the verb TO WISH [I wish you were here.] c) AS IF/ AS THOUGH d) CONDITIONAL CLAUSES for the PRESENT and PAST [If I had the money, PRESENT C. C.], [If I had known the owner, PAST C.C.]

e) IT'S TIME / IT'S HIGH TIME only for the MODAL PAST TENSE (the PAST SUBJUNCTIVE can never be used in these expressions) [It's high time I went.], [It's time I went.] ANTERIORITY (happening before) SIMULTANITY (happening at the same time) The interpretation depends on the main verb: - I wish you were here.
PRESENT SIMULATNITY PAST MODAL PAST TENSE

Yesterday I wished that you were there. I wish I had known the answer.
PRESENT PAST ANTERIORITY (BEFORE THE MAIN VERB) (THREE MONTHS AGO, BEFORE WISHING) MODAL PAST TENSE MODAL PAST PERFECT

I wished I had known the answer. I wished I knew the answer. same form MODAL FUNCTION

TEMPORAL FUNCTION

spoke, had spoken worked, had worked CONDITIONAL CLAUSES - If I spoke Russian, but I don't. PRESENT
MODAL PAST TENSE (EXPRESSES SIMULTANITY) TENSE SHIFT DOES NOT APPLY (REPORTED SPEECH)

- If I had spoken Russian,

PAST

MODAL PAST PERFECT (EXPRESSES ANTERIORITY) BEFORE THE MOMENT OF SPEAKING

Você também pode gostar