MODULE 1

Introduction Measurement is the process by which one can convert physical parameters to meaningful numbers. The measurement of a given quantity is the result of comparison between an unknown quantity and a predefined standard. The results are expressed in numerical values. UNITS AND DIMENSIONS Unit The standard measure of a physical quantity is called a unit. Measurement implies comparison with a standard value. Dimensions Every quantity has a quality, which distinguishes it from all other quantities. This unique quantity is called dimension. A derived unit is always recognized by its dimensions, which can be defined as the complete algebraic formula for the derived unit. Dimensions are independent of type of measurement and magnitude of the quantity. Constants are dimensionless. DIMENSIONS OF EECTRICAL QUANTITIES Electrostatic System 1. Charge [Q]=[ 1/2M 1/2L3/2T-1] 2.Current [I]=[ 1/2M 1/2L 3/2T-2] 3.Potential difference or Emf [E]=[ 4.Capacitance [C]=[ L] 5.Resistance [R]=[ -1L 1T] 6.Inductance [L]=[ -1L 1T 2] Electromagnetic System 1.Pole Strength [m]=[ 1/2 M 1/2L3/2 T-1] 2.Magnetizing force [H]=[ -1/2M 1/2L -1/2 T-1] 3.Current [I]=[ -1/2M 1/2 L 1/2T-1] 4.Charge [Q]=[ -1/2M 1/2L1/2]

-1/2

M 1/2L 1/2T-1]

5.Potential Difference [E]=[ 1/2 M 1/2 L3/2 T -2] 6.Capacitance [C]=[ -1L 1T2] 7.Resistance [R]=[ LT-1] 8.Inductance [L]=[ L] DIMENSIONAL EQUATIONS The expression indicating the nature of the derived quantities in terms of fundamental dimensions are known as dimensional equations. The dimensional equations help 1.In conversion from one system of units to another 2.In derivation of equations for physical quantities. 3.In checking the accuracy of an instruction . Limitations 1.Numerical constant have no dimension. 2.If an equation contain +- sign we cannot derive that equation, but may check it. 3.This method is not applicable to equations involving trigonometric functions, logarithmic functions, hyperbolic functions etc. 4.If the given physical quantity depends on more than three unknown quantity, this method fails.

MAGNETIC
BALLISTIC GALVANOMETER

MEASUREMENTS

It is used for the measurement of quantity of electricity passed through it. It is due to the result of an instantaneous emf induced in search coil connected across the ballistic galvanometer terminals. The quantity of electricity passing through the galvanometer is proportional to the emf induced and hence to the change in the flux linking with the search coil.

When we pass a current through a galvanometer it does not reach its steady state deflection immediately but there is a time interval or period of transition during which the galvanometer deflects from zero position to final steady position. Dynamic behavior of galvanometer during this period is examined by the equation of motion. The constants of galvanometer are known as intrinsic constants. The different torque acting on the moving system are 1. Deflecting Torque (Td): It is for deflecting the pointer from initial zero position. Td=BANi B= Flux density in air gap A=Area of coil N= Number of turns i = Current through the galvanometer. 2. Inertia Torque (Tj) : A retarding torque is produced due to inertia of moving system. This torque depends upon the moment of inertia of the moving system and angular acceleration. Tj = J d2/dt2 J = Moment of inertia of moving system, =deflection at any time. 3. Damping Torque (TD) : Damping is provided by the friction due the motion of the coil in air and also by induced electrical effects, if a closed circuit is provided.

TD= D d/dt D= damping constant. 4. Controlling Torque (Tc): It is provided due to the elasticity of the system which tries to restore the moving system back to its original position. Tc = k , k= Control constant FLUX METER It is a special type of ballistic galvanometer in which the controlling torque is very small and the electromagnetic damping is heavy. The construction is similar to that of a moving coil mille ammeter. A coil of small cross section is suspended from a spring supported by means of a single silk thread. The coil moves in the narrow gap of a permanent magnet. There are no control springs. The current is lead in to the coil with the help of a very loose helices of thin, annealed silver strips. The controlling torque is thus reduced to minimum. The coil is former less and air friction damping is negligible. The terminals of the flux meter are connected to a search coil. The flux linking with the search coil is changed either by removing the coil from the magnetic field or by reversing the field. Due to the change in the value of the flux linking with the search coil an emf is induced in it. This emf send a current through the flux meter which deflects through an angle depending upon the change in the value of the flux linkages. If the flux meter permanent magnet field is uniform for all positions of the moving coil, G is a constant. Change in the value of the flux is directly proportional to the change in the deflection. So the instrument have a uniform scale.

LLOYD FISHER SQUARE This is the most commonly used magnetic square and therefore it is described in greater details. The strips used are usually 0.25 m long and 50 to 60 mm wide. These strips are built up into four stacks. Each stack is made up of two types of strips one cut in

the direction of rolling and other cut perpendicular to the direction of rolling. The stacks or strips are placed inside four similar magnetizing coils of large cross sectional area. These four coils are connected in series to form the primary winding. Each magnetizing coil has two similar single layer coils underneath it. They are called secondary coils. These secondary coils are connected in series in groups of four, one from each core to form two separate secondary windings.

The ends of the strips project beyond the magnetizing coils. The strips are so arranged that plane of each strip is perpendicular to the plane of the square. The magnetic circuit is completed by bringing the four stacks together in the form of a square and joining them at the corners. Measured loss has to be corrected for the loss in the corner pieces.