Johnny English was his name.

War From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This article is about war in general. For other uses, see war (disambiguation) a nd The War. This article may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. Please improve this article if you can. The talk page may contain suggestions. ( February 2010) Warfare Ramses II at Kadesh.jpgGustavus Adolphus at the Battle at Breitenfeld.jpgM1A1 ab rams front.jpg Military history Eras[show] Battlespace[show] Weapons[show] Tactics[show] Strategy[show] Organization[show] Logistics[show] Lists[show] Portal v d e War is a state of armed and often prolonged conflict carried on between states, nations, or other parties[1][2] typified by extreme aggression, societal disrupt ion, and high mortality.[1] As a behavior pattern, warlike tendencies are found in many primate species,[3] including humans, and also found in many ant species .[4][5][6] The set of techniques used by a group to carry out war is known as wa rfare. An absence of war is usually called peace. War generally involves two or more organized groups or parties. Such a conflict is always an attempt at altering either the psychological or material hierarchy of domination or equality between such groups. In all cases, at least one partic ipant (group) in the conflict perceives the need to either psychologically or ma terially dominate the other participant. In all wars, the group(s) experiencing the need to dominate other group(s) are u nable and unwilling to accept or permit the possibility of a relationship of fun damental equality to exist between the groups who have opted for group violence (war). The aspect of domination that is a precipitating factor in all wars, i.e. one group wishing to dominate another, is also often a precipitating factor in individual one-on-one violence outside of the context of war, i.e. one individua l wishing to dominate another.[7] In 2003, Nobel Laureate Richard E. Smalley identified war as the sixth (of ten) biggest problems facing the society of mankind for the next fifty years.[8] In t he 1832 treatise "On War", Prussian military general and theoretician Carl Von C lausewitz, defined war as follows: "War is thus an act of force to compel our en emy to do our will."[9] War is a seemingly inescapable and integral aspect of human culture. Its practic e is not linked to any single type of political organization or society. Rather, as discussed by John Keegan in his History Of Warfare, war is a universal pheno menon whose form and scope is defined by the society that wages it.[10] The cond uct of war extends along a continuum, from the almost universal primitive endemi c warfare that began well before recorded human history, to advanced nuclear war fare between global alliances, with the recently developed ultimate potential fo r human extinction. Contents

[hide] 1 Etymology 2 History of warfare 3 Motivations 3.1 Economic theories 3.2 Marxist theories 3.3 Evolutionary psychology 3.4 Behavioral theories 3.5 Demographic theories 3.5.1 Malthusian theories 3.5.2 Youth bulge theory 3.6 Rationalist theories 3.7 Political science theories 4 Morality of wars 5 Conduct of wars 5.1 Behaviour and conduct in war 5.2 Types of warfare 5.3 Military posture 5.4 Warfare environment 6 Effects of war 6.1 On soldiers 6.2 On civilians 6.3 On the economy 6.3.1 World War II 7 Factors ending a war 8 List of wars by death toll 9 See also 10 References 10.1 Bibliography 11 External links [edit] Etymology From late Old English (c.1050), wyrre, werre, from Old North French werre "war" (Fr. guerre), from Frankish *werra, from Proto-Germanic *werso (Compare with Old Saxon werran, Old high German werran, German verwirren "to confuse, perplex.") Cognates suggest the original sense was "to bring into confusion."[11]. It is al so possible that the term is also related with Old-Greec word Barbaros, Old-Pers ian Varhara and Sanscrit Varvar/Barbara. There was no common modern huththige puthala Germanic word for "war" at the dawn of historical times. Spanish, Portuguese, Italian guerra are from the same sour ce; Romanic peoples turned to Germanic for a word to avoid Latin "bellum" becaus e its form tended to merge with bello- "beautiful."[12] In an organized military sense, a group of combatants and their support is calle d an army on land, a navy at sea, and an air force in the air. Wars may be condu cted simultaneously in one or more different theaters. Within each theater, ther e may be one or more consecutive military campaigns. A military campaign include s not only fighting but also intelligence, troop movements, supplies, propaganda , and other components. A period of continuous intense conflict is traditionally called a battle, although this terminology is not always applied to conflicts i nvolving aircraft, missiles or bombs alone, in the absence of ground troops or n aval forces. Also many other actions may be undertaken by military forces during a war, this could include weapons research, prison internment, assassination, o ccupation, and in some cases genocide may occur. A civil war is a war between factions of citizens of one country (such as in the English Civil War), or else a dispute between two nations that were created out

of one formerly-united country. A proxy war is a war rs use third parties as substitutes for fighting each [edit] History of warfare Main article: History of war Comparison of the percentage of male deaths caused by cieties and Europe and the US in the 20th century, by eeley

that results when two powe other directly. warfare in eight tribal so archeologist Lawrence H. K

Before the dawn of civilization, war likely consisted of small-scale raiding. On e half of the people found in a Nubian cemetery dating to as early as 12,000 yea rs ago had died of violence.[13] Since the rise of the state some 5,000 years ag o,[14] military activity has occurred over much of the globe. The advent of gunp owder and the acceleration of technological advances led to modern warfare. Acco rding to Conway W. Henderson, "One source claims 14,500 wars have taken place be tween 3500 BC and the late 20th century, costing 3.5 billion lives, leaving only 300 years of peace (Beer 1981: 20)."[15] In War Before Civilization, Lawrence H. Keeley, a professor at the University of Illinois, says that approximately 90 95% of known societies throughout history en gaged in at least occasional warfare,[16] and many fought constantly.[17] For in stance, between 1801 and 1840, Maoris engaged in 633 recorded intertribal battle s.[18] According to William D. Rubinstein, "Pre-literate societies, even those organise d in a relatively advanced way, were renowned for their studied cruelty....in 18 26 Shaka and an army of 50,000 literally destroyed the Ndwandwe, a rival tribe. This report stated that the Ndwandwe numbered at least 40,000: 'they were all pu t to death'".[19] Historically, more than a third of the Yanomam males, on averag e, died from warfare.[20] American anthropologist Chagnon claimed that men who p articipated in killings had more wives and children than those who did not.[21] In Western Europe, since the late 18th century, more than 150 conflicts and abou t 600 battles have taken place.[22] The Human Security Report 2005 documented a significant decline in the number an d severity of armed conflicts since the end of the Cold War in the early 1990s. However, the evidence examined in the 2008 edition of the Center for Internation al Development and Conflict Management's "Peace and Conflict" study indicated th at the overall decline in conflicts had stalled.[23] Recent rapid increases in the technologies of war, and therefore in its destruct iveness (see Mutual assured destruction), have caused widespread public concern, and have in all probability forestalled, and may hopefully altogether prevent t he outbreak of a nuclear World War III. At the end of each of the last two World Wars, concerted and popular efforts were made to come to a greater understandin g of the underlying dynamics of war and to thereby hopefully reduce or even elim inate it all together. These efforts materialized in the forms of the League of Nations, and its successor, the United Nations. Shortly after World War II, as a token of support for this concept, most nations joined the United Nations. During this same post-war period, with the aim of fu rther delegitimizing war as an acceptable and logical extension of foreign polic y[citation needed], most national governments also renamed their Ministries or D epartments of War as their Ministries or Departments of Defense, for example, th e former US Department of War was renamed as the US Department of Defense . In 1947, in view of the rapidly increasingly destructive consequences of modern warfare, and with a particular concern for the consequences and costs of the new ly developed atom bomb, the initial developer of the concept of this bomb, Alber t Einstein famously stated, "I know not with what weapons World War III will be

fought, but World War IV will be fought with sticks and stones."[24] Fortunately , the anticipated costs of a possible third world war are currently no longer de emed as acceptable by most, thus little motivation currently seems to exist on a n international level for such a war. Still since the close of World War II, limited non-nuclear conflicts continue, a nd surprisingly enough, some outspoken celebrities and politicians have even adv ocated for the proclamation of another world war.[25] Mao Zedong urged the socia list camp not to fear nuclear war with the United States since, even if 'half of mankind died, the other half would remain while imperialism would be razed to t he ground and the whole world would become socialist'.[26] Greek hoplite and Persian warrior depicted fighting, on an ancient kylix, 5t h century BC The Battle of Tewkesbury (1471) during the Wars of the Roses in England A cattle raid during the Swabian War (Luzerner Schilling) The Battle of Ravenna, in which France defeated the Spaniards on Easter Sund ay in 1512 Swiss and Landsknecht pikemen fight at "push of pike" during the Italian War s Russo-Polish war, Battle of Orsha in 1514 The Spanish naval victory of the Battle of Lepanto, 1571, the last battle to be fought primarily between galleys Battle of White Mountain, 1620, an early battle in the Thirty Years' War The Four Days' Battle, 1 4 June 1666, during the Second Anglo Dutch War

The Battle of Poltava (1709), a decisive battle between Russian and Swedish troops Depicting French Cuirassiers charging onto the British squares during the Ba ttle of Waterloo The 20th Foot at the Battle of Inkerman, Crimean War, 1854 American Civil War, Union captures Fort Fisher, 1865 USA's Army 89th Infantry Division cross the Rhine River in assault boats, 19 45 Marines from 2/8 firing on an enemy position in Garmsir, Afghanistan, July 2 009 [edit] Motivations World War I, sequences from Romania Motivations for war may be different for those ordering the war than for those u ndertaking the war. For a state to prosecute a war it must have the support of i ts leadership, its military forces, and its people. For example, in the Third Pu nic War, Rome's leaders may have wished to make war with Carthage for the purpos e of eliminating a resurgent rival, while the individual soldiers may have been motivated by a wish to make money. Since many people are involved, a war may acq uire a life of its own from the confluence of many different motivations.

The Jewish Talmud describes in the BeReshit Rabbah commentary on the fight betwe en Cain and Abel (Parashot BeReshit XXII:7) that there are three universal reaso ns for wars: A) Economic, B) Ideological/religious, and C) Power/pride/love (per sonal).[27] In Why Nations Go to War, by John G. Stoessinger, the author points out that bot h sides will claim that morality justifies their fight. He also states that the rationale for beginning a war depends on an overly optimistic assessment of the outcome of hostilities (casualties and costs), and on misperceptions of the enem y's intentions. As the strategic and tactical aspects of warfare are always changing, theories a nd doctrines relating to warfare are often reformulated before, during, and afte r every major war. Carl Von Clausewitz said, 'Every age had its own kind of war, its own limiting conditions, and its own peculiar preconceptions.'.[28] The one constant factor is war s employment of organized violence and the resultant destr uction of property and/ or lives that necessarily follows. [edit] Economic theories This section may contain original research. Please improve it by verifyi ng the claims made and adding references. Statements consisting only of original research may be removed. More details may be available on the talk page. (Janua ry 2010) War can be seen as a growth of economic competition in a competitive internation al system. In this view wars begin as a pursuit of markets for natural resources and for wealth. While this theory has been applied to many conflicts, such coun ter arguments become less valid as the increasing mobility of capital and inform ation level the distributions of wealth worldwide, or when considering that it i s relative, not absolute, wealth differences that may fuel wars. There are those on the extreme right of the political spectrum who provide support, fascists in particular, by asserting a natural right of the strong to whatever the weak can not hold by force. [edit] Marxist theories The Marxist theory of war is quasi-economic in that it states that all modern wa rs are caused by competition for resources and markets between great (imperialis t) powers, claiming these wars are a natural result of the free market and class system. Part of the theory is that war will only disappear once a world revolut ion, over-throwing free markets and class systems, has occurred. German Communis t Rosa Luxembourg theorized that imperialism was the result of capitalist countr ies needing new markets. Expansion of the means of production is only possible i f there is a corresponding growth in consumer demand. Since the workers in a cap italist economy would be unable to fill the demand, producers must expand into n on-capitalist markets to find consumers for their goods, hence driving imperiali sm.[29] [edit] Evolutionary psychology A distinct branch of the psychological theories of war are the arguments based o n evolutionary psychology. This school tends to see war as an extension of anima l behavior, such as territoriality and competition. Animals are naturally aggres sive, and in humans this aggression manifests itself as warfare. However, while war has a natural cause, the development of technology has accelerated human des tructiveness to a level that is irrational and damaging to the species. The earl iest advocate of this theory was Konrad Lorenz.[30] Biologists studying primate behavior have also added to the debate. Jane Goodall in 1974 documented what she called a war between groups of chimpanzees in the G ombe National Park of Tanzania.[31]

BBC narrator Sir David Attenborough mentioned a 'raid into the territory of thei r neighbors' by a group of Chimps in the series Planet Earth.[32] These theories have been criticized by scholars such as John G. Kennedy, who arg ue that the organized, sustained war of humans differs more than just technologi cally from the territorial fights between non-human animals. Ashley Montagu stro ngly denies such universalistic instinctual arguments, pointing out that social factors and childhood socialization are important in determining the nature and presence of warfare. Thus while human aggression may be a universal occurrence, warfare is not, and would appear to have been a historical invention, associated with certain types of human societies.[33] [edit] Behavioral theories Some psychologists such as E.F.M. Durban and John Bowlby have argued that human beings are inherently violent.[34] This aggressiveness is fueled by displacement and projection where a person transfers their grievances into bias and hatred a gainst other races, religions, nations or ideologies. By this theory the nation state preserves order in the local society while creating an outlet for aggressi on through warfare. If war is innate to human nature, as is presupposed and pred etermined by many psychological theories, then there is little hope of ever esca ping it[citation needed]. The Italian psychoanalyst Franco Fornari, a follower of Melanie Klein, thought t hat war was the paranoid or projective elaboration of mourning.[35] Fornari though t that war and violence develop out of our love need : our wish to preserve and def end the sacred object to which we are attached, namely our early mother and our fusion with her. For the adult, nations are the sacred objects that generate war fare. Fornari focused upon sacrifice as the essence of war: the astonishing will ingness of human beings to die for their country, to give over their bodies to t heir nation. While these theories may have some general explanatory value about why war exist s, they do not explain when or how they occur. Nor do they explain the existence of certain human cultures completely devoid of war.[36] If the innate psycholog y of the human mind is unchanging, these variations are inconsistent. A solution adapted to this problem by certain thinkers such as the psychologist, Franz Ale xander is that peace does not really exist. Periods that are seen as peaceful ar e actually periods of preparation for a later war or when war is suppressed by a state of great power, such as the Pax Britannica.[37] An additional problem with theories that rest on the will of the general populat ion, is that in history only a tiny fraction of wars have originated from a desi re for war from the general populace.[38] Far more often the general population has been reluctantly drawn into war by its rulers. One psychological theory that looks at the leaders is advanced by Maurice Walsh.[39] He argues that the gener al populace is more neutral towards war and that wars only occur when leaders wi th a psychologically abnormal disregard for human life are placed into power. Wa r is caused by leaders that seek war such as Napoleon and Hitler. Such leaders m ost often come to power in times of crisis when the populace opts for a decisive leader, who then leads the nation to war. [edit] Demographic theories Gari Melchers, Mural of War, 1896. Demographic theories can be grouped into two classes, Malthusian theories and yo uth bulge theories. [edit] Malthusian theories Malthusian theories see expanding population and scarce resources as a source of violent conflict.

Pope Urban II in 1095, on the eve of the First Crusade, spoke: "For this land which you now inhabit, shut in on all sides by the sea an d the mountain peaks, is too narrow for your large population; it scarcely furni shes food enough for its cultivators. Hence it is that you murder and devour one another, that you wage wars, and that many among you perish in civil strife. Le t hatred, therefore, depart from among you; let your quarrels end. Enter upon th e road to the Holy Sepulchre; wrest that land from a wicked race, and subject it to yourselves."[40] This is one of the earliest expressions of what has come to be called the Malthu sian theory of war, in which wars are caused by expanding populations and limite d resources. Thomas Malthus (1766 1834) wrote that populations always increase unt il they are limited by war, disease, or famine.[41] This theory is thought by Malthusians to account for the relative decrease in wa rs during the past fifty years, especially in the developed world, where advance s in agriculture have made it possible to support a much larger population than was formerly the case, and where birth control has dramatically slowed the incre ase in population. [edit] Youth bulge theory Median age by country. A youth bulge is evident for Africa, and to a lesser exte nt for South and Southeast Asia and Central America. Youth bulge theory differs significantly from Malthusian theories. Its adherents see a combination of large male youth cohorts - as graphically represented as a "youth bulge" in a population pyramid - with a lack of regular, peaceful employ ment opportunities as a risk pool for violence. While Malthusian theories focus on a disparity between a growing population and available natural resources, youth bulge theory focuses on a disparity between n on-inheriting, 'excess' young males and available social positions within the ex isting social system of division of labour. Contributors to the development of youth bulge theory include French sociologist Gaston Bouthoul,[42] U.S. sociologist Jack A. Goldstone,[43] U.S. political sci entist Gary Fuller,[44][45][46] and German sociologist Gunnar Heinsohn.[47] Samu el Huntington has modified his Clash of Civilizations theory by using youth bulg e theory as its foundation: I don't think Islam is any more violent than any other religions, and I susp ect if you added it all up, more people have been slaughtered by Christians over the centuries than by Muslims. But the key factor is the demographic factor. Ge nerally speaking, the people who go out and kill other people are males between the ages of 16 and 30. During the 1960s, 70s and 80s there were high birth rates in the Muslim world, and this has given rise to a huge youth bulge. But the bul ge will fade. Muslim birth rates are going down; in fact, they have dropped dram atically in some countries. Islam did spread by the sword originally, but I don' t think there is anything inherently violent in Muslim theology."[48] Youth Bulge theories represent a relatively recent development but seem to have become more influential in guiding U.S. foreign policy and military strategy as both Goldstone and Fuller have acted as consultants to the U.S. Government. CIA Inspector General John L. Helgerson referred to youth bulge theory in his 2002 r eport "The National Security Implications of Global Demographic Change".[49] According to Heinsohn, who has proposed youth bulge theory in its most generaliz ed form, a youth bulge occurs when 30 to 40 percent of the males of a nation bel ong to the "fighting age" cohorts from 15 to 29 years of age. It will follow per iods with total fertility rates as high as 4-8 children per woman with a 15-29 y

ear delay. A total fertility rate of 2.1 children born by a woman during her lifetime repre sents a situation of in which the son will replace the father, and the daughter will replace the mother. Thus, a total fertility rate of 2.1 represents replacem ent level, while anything below represents a sub-replacement fertility rate lead ing to population decline. Total fertility rates above 2.1 will lead to population growth and to a youth bu lge. A total fertility rate of 4-8 children per mother implies 2-4 sons per moth er. Consequently, one father has to leave not 1, but 2 to 4 social positions (jo bs) to give all his sons a perspective for life, which is usually hard to achiev e. Since respectable positions cannot be increased at the same speed as food, te xtbooks and vaccines, many "angry young men" find themselves in a situation that tends to escalate their adolescent anger into violence: they are Demographically superfluous, Might be out of work or stuck in a menial job, and Often have no access to a legal sex life before a career can earn them enoug h to provide for a family. See: Hypergamy, Waithood. The combination of these stress factors according to Heinsohn[50] usually heads for one of six different exits: Emigration ("non violent colonization") Violent Crime Rebellion or putsch Civil war and/or revolution Genocide (to take over the positions of the slaughtered) Conquest (violent colonization, frequently including genocide abroad). Religions and ideologies are seen as secondary factors that are being used to le gitimate violence, but will not lead to violence by themselves if no youth bulge is present. Consequently, youth bulge theorists see both past "Christianist" Eu ropean colonialism and imperialism and today's "Islamist" civil unrest and terro rism as results of high birth rates producing youth bulges.[51] With the Gaza St rip now being seen as another example of youth-bulge-driven violence, especially if compared to Lebanon which is geographically close, yet remarkably more peace ful.[52] Among prominent historical events that have been linked to the existence of yout h bulges is the role played by the historically large youth cohorts in the rebel lion and revolution waves of early modern Europe, including French Revolution of 1789,[53] and the importance of economic depression hitting the largest German youth cohorts ever in explaining the rise of Nazism in Germany in the 1930s.[54] The 1994 Rwandan Genocide has also been analyzed as following a massive youth b ulge.[55] While the implications of population growth have been known since the completion of the National Security Study Memorandum 200 in 1974,[56] neither the U.S. nor the WHO have implemented the recommended measures to control population growth to avert the terrorist threat. Prominent demographer Stephen D. Mumford attribut es this to the influence of the Catholic Church.[57] Youth Bulge theory has been subjected to statistical analysis by the World Bank, [58] Population Action International,[59] and the Berlin Institute for Populatio n and Development.[60] Detailed demographic data for most countries is available at the international database of the United States Census Bureau.[61] Statistic data about historical development of demographic and economic parameters over t he last 200 years for each country can be visualized at Gapminder.[62]

Youth bulge theories have been criticized as leading to racial, gender and age " discrimination".[63] [edit] Rationalist theories Rationalist theories of war assume that both sides to a potential war are ration al, which is to say that each side wants to get the best possible outcome for it self for the least possible loss of life and property to its own side. Given thi s assumption, if both countries knew in advance how the war would turn out, it w ould be better for both of them to just accept the post-war outcome without havi ng to actually pay the costs of fighting the war. This is based on the notion, g enerally agreed to by almost all scholars of war since Carl von Clausewitz, that wars are reciprocal, that all wars require both a decision to attack and also a decision to resist attack. Rationalist theory offers three reasons why some cou ntries cannot find a bargain and instead resort to war: issue indivisibility, in formation asymmetry with incentive to deceive, and the inability to make credibl e commitments.[64] Issue indivisibility occurs when the two parties cannot avoid war by bargaining because the thing over which they are fighting cannot be shared between them, on ly owned entirely by one side or the other. Religious issues, such as control ov er the Temple Mount in Jerusalem, are more likely to be indivisible than economi c issues. A bigger branch of the theory, advanced by scholars of international relations s uch as Geoffrey Blainey, is that both sides decide to go to war and one side may have miscalculated. Some go further and say that there is a problem of information asymmetry with in centives to misrepresent. The two countries may not agree on who would win a war between them, or whether victory would be overwhelming or merely eked out, beca use each side has military secrets about its own capabilities. They will not avo id the bargaining failure by sharing their secrets, since they cannot trust each other not to lie and exaggerate their strength to extract more concessions. For example, Sweden made efforts to deceive Nazi Germany that it would resist an at tack fiercely, partly by playing on the myth of Aryan superiority and by making sure that Hermann Gring only saw elite troops in action, often dressed up as regu lar soldiers, when he came to visit. The American decision to enter the Vietnam War was made with the full knowledge that the communist forces would resist them, but did not believe that the guerri llas had the capability to long oppose American forces. Thirdly, bargaining may fail due to the states' inability to make credible tments.[65] In this scenario, the two countries might be able to come to a in that would avert war if they could stick to it, but the benefits of the in will make one side more powerful and lead it to demand even more in the e, so that the weaker side has an incentive to make a stand now. commi barga barga futur

Rationalist explanations of war can be critiqued on a number of grounds. The ass umptions of cost-benefit calculations become dubious in the most extreme genocid al cases of World War II, where the only bargain offered in some cases was infin itely bad. Rationalist theories typically assume that the state acts as a unitar y individual, doing what is best for the state as a whole; this is problematic w hen, for example, the country's leader is beholden to a very small number of peo ple, as in a personalistic dictatorship. Rationalist theory also assumes that th e actors are rational, able to accurately assess their likelihood of success or failure, but the proponents of the psychological theories above would disagree. Rationalist theories are usually explicated with game theory, for example, the P

eace War Game, not a wargame as such, rather a simulation of economic decisions underlying war. [edit] Political science theories Question book-new.svg This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced materi al may be challenged and removed. (June 2008) The statistical analysis of war was pioneered by Lewis Fry Richardson following World War I. More recent databases of wars and armed conflict have been assemble d by the Correlates of War Project, Peter Brecke and the Uppsala Conflict Data P rogram. There are several different international relations theory schools. Supporters o f realism in international relations argue that the motivation of states is the quest for security. Which sometimes is argued to contradict the realist view, th at there is much empirical evidence to support the claim that states that are de mocracies do not go to war with each other, an idea that has come to be known as the democratic peace theory. Other factors included are difference in moral and religious beliefs, economical and trade disagreements, declaring independence, and others. Another major theory relating to power in international relations and machtpolit ik is the Power Transition theory, which distributes the world into a hierarchy and explains major wars as part of a cycle of hegemons being destabilized by a g reat power which does not support the hegemons' control. Military adventurism can sometimes be used by political leaders as a means of bo osting their domestic popularity, as has been recorded in US war-time presidenti al popularity surveys taken during the presidencies of several recent US leaders .[66] [edit] Morality of wars "The morning after the battle of Waterloo", by John Heaviside Clarke, 1816. This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsour ced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2008) This section may contain original research. Please improve it by verifyi ng the claims made and adding references. Statements consisting only of original research may be removed. More details may be available on the talk page. (Janua ry 2010) Throughout history war has been the source of serious moral questions. Although many ancient nations and some modern ones have viewed war as noble, over the swe ep of history, concerns about the morality of war have gradually increased. Toda y, war is seen by some as undesirable and morally problematic. At the same time, many view war, or at least the preparation and readiness and willingness to eng age in war, as necessary for the defense of their country and therefore a just w ar. Pacifists believe that war is inherently immoral and that no war should ever be fought. Another supporter of war, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, favoured it as part of the necessary process required for history to unfold and allow society to progre ss. At the outbreak of World War I, the writer Thomas Mann wrote, "Is not peace an element of civil corruption and war a purification, a liberation, an enormous hope?" This attitude has been embraced by societies from Sparta and Rome in the ancient world to the fascist states of the 1930s. Support for war continues to this day, especially regarding the notion of a Just War (necessary wars required to halt an aggressor or otherwise dangerous nation or group). International law recognizes only two cases for a legitimate war:

1. Wars of defense: when one nation is attacked by an aggressor, it is consi dered legitimate for a nation along with its allies to defend itself against the aggressor. 2. Wars sanctioned by the UN Security Council: when the United Nations as a whole acts as a body against a certain nation. Examples include various peacekee ping or peace-enforcing operations around the world, as well as the Korean War a nd 1st Gulf War. The subset of international law known as the law of war or international humanit arian law also recognises regulations for the conduct of war, including the Gene va Conventions governing the legitimacy of certain kinds of weapons, and the tre atment of prisoners of war. Cases where these conventions are broken are conside red war crimes, and since the Nuremberg Trials at the end of World War II the in ternational community has established a number of tribunals to try such cases. A nation's economy is often stimulated by government war-spending. When countrie s wage war, more weapons, armor, ammunition, and the like are needed to be creat ed and sold to the armies, thus their economies can enter a boom (or war economy ) reducing unemployment. A very popular example of this was the United States' a bility to overcome the Great Depression with the onset of World War II, emerging afterwards as one of two superpowers (the other being the USSR). Note though th at this doesn't result in net increase of a nation's prosperity see Parable of the broken window; the U.S. went into deep debt as a result of unprecedented war sp ending [22]. [edit] Conduct of wars This section may contain original research. Please improve it by verifyi ng the claims made and adding references. Statements consisting only of original research may be removed. More details may be available on the talk page. (Janua ry 2010) The war, to become known as one, must entail some degree of confrontation using weapons and other military technology and equipment by armed forces employing mi litary tactics and Operational art within the broad military strategy subject to military logistics. War Studies by military theorists throughout military histo ry have sought to identify the Philosophy of war, and to reduce it to a Military science. In general, modern military science considers several factors before a National defence policy is created to allow a war to commence: the environment in the are a(s) of combat operations, the posture national forces will adopt on the commenc ement of a war, and the type of warfare troops will be engaged in. [edit] Behaviour and conduct in war The nature of warfare never changes, only its superficial manifestations . Joshua and David, Hector and Achilles would recognize the combat that our sold iers and Marines have waged in the alleys of Somalia and Iraq. The uniforms evol ve, bronze gives way to titanium, arrows may be replaced by laser-guided bombs, but the heart of the matter is still killing your enemies until any survivors su rrender and do your will. Ralph Peters[67] The behaviour of troops in warfare varies considerably, both individually and as units or armies. In some circumstances, troops may engage in genocide, war rape and ethnic cleansing. Commonly, however, the conduct of troops may be limited t o posturing and sham attacks, leading to highly rule-bound and often largely sym bolic combat in which casualties are much reduced from that which would be expec ted if soldiers were genuinely violent towards the enemy.[68] Situations of deli berate dampening of hostilities occurred in World War I by some accounts, e.g.,

a volley of gunfire being exchanged after a misplaced mortar hit the British lin e, after which a German soldier shouted an apology to British forces, effectivel y stopping a hostile exchange of gunfire.[69] Other examples of non-aggression, also from World War I, are detailed in Goodbye to all that. These include sponta neous ceasefires to rebuild defences and retrieve casualties, alongside behaviou r such as refusing to shoot at enemy during ablutions and the taking of great ri sks (described as 1 in 20) to retrieve enemy wounded from the battlefield. The m ost notable spontaneous ceasefire of World War I was the Christmas truce. It has been postulated that sport serves as an direct alternative to war, and ma y be regarded as having an equivalent social function. Sipes found war and sport ing alternatives to be positively correlated.[70] The psychological separation between combatants, and the destructive power of mo dern weaponry, may act to override this effect and facilitate participation by c ombatants in the mass slaughter of combatants or civilians, such as in the bombi ng of Dresden in World War II.[citation needed] The unusual circumstances of war fare can incite apparently normal individuals to commit atrocities.[71] [edit] Types of warfare This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsour ced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2008) This section may contain original research. Please improve it by verifyi ng the claims made and adding references. Statements consisting only of original research may be removed. More details may be available on the talk page. (Janua ry 2010) Conventional warfare is an attempt to reduce an opponent's military capability t hrough open battle. It is a declared war between existing states in which nuclea r, biological, or chemical weapons are not used or only see limited deployment i n support of conventional military goals and maneuvers. The opposite of conventional warfare, unconventional warfare, is an attempt to a chieve military victory through acquiescence, capitulation, or clandestine suppo rt for one side of an existing conflict. Nuclear warfare is a war in which nuclear weapons are the primary method of coer cing the capitulation of the other side, as opposed to a supporting tactical or strategic role in a conventional conflict. Civil war is a war where the forces in conflict belong to the same nation or pol itical entity and are vying for control of or independence from that nation or p olitical entity. Asymmetric warfare is a conflict between two populations of drastically differen t levels of military capability or size. Asymmetric conflicts often result in gu errilla tactics being used to overcome the sometimes vast gaps in technology and force size. Intentional air pollution in combat is one of a collection of techniques collect ively called chemical warfare. Poison gas as a chemical weapon was principally u sed during World War I, and resulted in an estimated 91,198 deaths and 1,205,655 injuries.[citation needed] Various treaties have sought to ban its further use. Non-lethal chemical weapons, such as tear gas and pepper spray, are widely used , sometimes with deadly effect. [edit] Military posture Historian Victor Davis Hanson has claimed there exists a unique "Western Way of War", in an attempt to explain the military successes of Western Europe.[citatio n needed] It originated in Ancient Greece, where, in an effort to reduce the dam

age that warfare has on society, the city-states developed the concept of a deci sive pitched battle between heavy infantry. This would be preceded by formal dec larations of war and followed by peace negotiations. In this system constant low -level skirmishing and guerrilla warfare were phased out in favor of a single, d ecisive contest, which in the end cost both sides less in casualties and propert y damage. Although it was later perverted by Alexander the Great,[clarification needed] this style of war initially allowed neighbors with limited resources to coexist and prosper. He argues that Western-style armies are characterized by an emphasis on discipli ne and teamwork above individual bravado. Examples of Western victories over non -Western armies include the Battle of Marathon, the Battle of Gaugamela, the Sie ge of Tenochtitlan, the Battle of Plassey and the defense of Rorke's Drift. [edit] Warfare environment The environment in which a war is fought has a significant impact on the type of combat which takes place, and can include within its area different types of te rrain. This in turn means that soldiers have to be trained to fight in a specifi c types of environments and terrains that generally reflects troops' mobility li mitations or enablers. These include: Warfare by doctrine Defensive warfare Offensive warfare Attrition warfare Maneuver warfare Guerilla warfare Fabian warfare Static warfare Warfare by terrain Jungle warfare Desert warfare Mountain warfare Arctic warfare Naval warfare Urban warfare [edit] Effects of war Disability-adjusted life year for war per 100,000 inhabitants in 2004.[72] no data less than 100 100-200 200-600 600-1000 1000-1400 1400-1800 1800-2200 2200-2600 2600-3000 3000-8000 8000-8800 more than 8800 It is estimated that 378 000 people died due to war each year between 1985 and 1 994.[73] The Apotheosis of War (1871) by Vasily Vereshchagin

[edit] On soldiers They would have dedicated their lives to fighting battles, with little possibili ty of regaining the ability to live successfully as a civilian. One-tenth of mob ilised American men were hospitalised for mental disturbances between 1942 and 1 945, and after thirty-five days of uninterrupted combat, 98% of them manifested psychiatric disturbances in varying degrees. 14 18: Understanding the Great War, Stphane Audoin-Rouzeau, Annette Becker[22] Based on 1860 census figures, 8% of all white American males aged 13 to 43 died in the American Civil War, including about 6% in the North and approximately 18% in the South.[74] The war remains the deadliest conflict in American history, r esulting in the deaths of 620,000 soldiers. Of the 60 million European soldiers who were mobilized in World War I, 8 million were killed, 7 million were permane ntly disabled, and 15 million were seriously injured.[75] Why?, from The Disasters of War (Los desastres de la guerra), by Francisco Goya, 1812-15. A collection of depictions of the brutalities of the Napoleonic-Penins ular War. During Napoleon's retreat from Moscow, more French soldiers died of typhus than were killed by the Russians.[76] Felix Markham thinks that 450,000 crossed the N eman on 25 June 1812, of whom less than 40,000 recrossed in anything like a reco gnizable military formation.[77] More soldiers were killed from 1500-1914 by typ hus than from all military action during that time combined.[78] In addition, if it were not for the modern medical advances there would be thousands of more de ad from disease and infection. For instance, during the Seven Years' War, the Ro yal Navy reported that it conscripted 184,899 sailors, of whom 133,708 died of d isease or were 'missing'.[79] Les Grandes Misres de la guerre depict the destruction unleashed on civilians dur ing the Thirty Years' War. [edit] On civilians See also: Civilian casualties Many wars have been accompanied by significant depopulations. During the Thirty Years' War in Europe, for example, the population of the German states was reduc ed by about 30%.[80][81] The Swedish armies alone may have destroyed up to 2,000 castles, 18,000 villages and 1,500 towns in Germany, one-third of all German to wns.[82] Estimates for the total casualties of World War II vary, but most suggest that s ome 60 million people died in the war, comprising around 20 million soldiers and 40 million civilians.[83] The Soviet Union lost around 27 million people during the war, about half of all World War II casualties.[84] Since a high proportion of those killed were young men, the postwar Soviet population was 45 to 50 mill ion fewer than post 1939 projections would have led one to expect.[85] The largest number of civilian deaths in a single city was 1.2 million citizens dead during the 872-day Siege of Leningrad. [edit] On the economy See also: Military keynesianism Once a war has ended, losing nations are sometimes required to pay war reparatio ns to the victorious nations. In certain cases, land is ceded to the victorious nations. For example, the territory of Alsace-Lorraine has been traded between F rance and Germany on three different occasions. Typically speaking, war becomes very intertwined with the economy and many wars are partially or entirely based on economic reasons such as the American Civil W ar. In some cases war has stimulated a country's economy (World War II is often credited with bringing America out of the Great Depression) but in many cases, s uch as the wars of Louis XIV, the Franco-Prussian War, and World War I, warfare

serves only to damage the economy of the countries involved. For example, Russia 's involvement in World War I took such a toll on the Russian economy that it al most collapsed and greatly contributed to the start of the Russian Revolution of 1917. [edit] World War II One of the starkest illustrations of the effect of war upon economies is the Sec ond World War. The Great Depression of the 1930s ended as nations increased thei r production of war materials to serve the war effort.[86] The financial cost of World War II is estimated at about a $1944 billion U.S. dollars worldwide,[87][ 88] making it the most costly war in capital as well as lives. By the end of the war, the European economy had collapsed with 70% of the indust rial infrastructure destroyed.[89] Property damage in the Soviet Union inflicted by the Axis invasion was estimated to a value of 679 billion rubles. The combin ed damage consisted of complete or partial destruction of 1,710 cities and towns , 70,000 villages/hamlets, 2,508 church buildings, 31,850 industrial establishme nts, 40,000 miles of railroad, 4100 railroad stations, 40,000 hospitals, 84,000 schools, and 43,000 public libraries.[90] [edit] Factors ending a war This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsour ced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2008) This section may contain original research. Please improve it by verifyi ng the claims made and adding references. Statements consisting only of original research may be removed. More details may be available on the talk page. (Janua ry 2010) Women and priests retrieve the dead bodies of Swabian soldiers just outside the city gates of Constance after the battle of Schwaderloh. (Luzerner Schilling) The political and economic circumstances in the peace that follows war usually d epends on the "facts on the ground". Where evenly matched adversaries decide tha t the conflict has resulted in a stalemate, they may cease hostilities to avoid further loss of life and property. They may decide to restore the antebellum ter ritorial boundaries, redraw boundaries at the line of military control, or negot iate to keep or exchange captured territory. Negotiations between parties involv ed at the end of a war often result in a treaty, such as the Treaty of Versaille s of 1919, which ended the First World War. A warring party that surrenders or capitulates may have little negotiating power , with the victorious side either imposing a settlement or dictating most of the terms of any treaty. A common result is that conquered territory is brought und er the dominion of the stronger military power. An unconditional surrender is ma de in the face of overwhelming military force as an attempt to prevent further h arm to life and property. For example, the Empire of Japan gave an unconditional surrender to the Allies of World War II after the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki (see Surrender of Japan), the preceding massive strategic bombardme nt of Japan and declaration of war and the immediate invasion of Manchuria by th e Soviet Union. A settlement or surrender may also be obtained through deception or bluffing. Many other wars, however, have ended in complete destruction of the opposing ter ritory, such as the Battle of Carthage of the Third Punic War between the Phoeni cian city of Carthage and Ancient Rome in 149 BC. In 146 BC the Romans burned th e city, enslaved its citizens, and razed the buildings. Some wars or aggressive actions end when the military objective of the victoriou s side has been achieved. Others do not, especially in cases where the state str uctures do not exist, or have collapsed prior to the victory of the conqueror. I n such cases, disorganised guerilla warfare may continue for a considerable peri

od. In cases of complete surrender conquered territories may be brought under th e permanent dominion of the victorious side. A raid for the purposes of looting may be completed with the successful capture of goods. In other cases an aggress or may decide to end hostilities to avoid continued losses and cease hostilities without obtaining the original objective, such as happened in the Iran Iraq War. Some hostilities, such as insurgency or civil war, may persist for long periods of time with only a low level of military activity. In some cases there is no ne gotiation of any official treaty, but fighting may trail off and eventually stop after the political demands of the belligerent groups have been reconciled, a p olitical settlement has been negotiated, or combatants are gradually killed or d ecide the conflict is futile. [edit] List of wars by death toll Merge-arrow.svg It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into List o f wars and disasters by death toll. (Discuss) Proposed since August 2008. These figures include deaths of civilians from diseases, famine, atrocities etc. as well as deaths of soldiers in battle. This is an incomplete list of wars. 60,000,000 72,000,000 - World War II (1939 1945), (see World War II casualties)[ 91][92] 36,000,000 - An Shi Rebellion (China, 755 763)[93] 30,000,000 60,000,000 - Mongol Conquests (13th century) (see Mongol invasions and Tatar invasions)[94][95][96][97] 25,000,000 - Qing dynasty conquest of Ming dynasty (1616 1662)[98] 20,000,000 - World War I (1914 1918) (see World War I casualties)[99] 20,000,000 - Taiping Rebellion (China, 1850 1864) (see Dungan revolt)[100] 20,000,000 - Second Sino-Japanese War (1937 1945)[101] 10,000,000 - Warring States Era (China, 475 BC 221 BC) 8,000,000 12,000,000 - Dungan revolt (China, 1862 1877) 7,000,000 - 20,000,000 Conquests of Tamerlane (1370 1405)[102][103] 5,000,000 9,000,000 - Russian Civil War and Foreign Intervention (1917 1922)[104 ] 5,000,000 - Conquests of Menelik II of Ethiopia (1882 1898)[105][106] 3,800,000 - 5,400,000 - Second Congo War (1998 2003)[107][108][109] 3,500,000 6,000,000 - Napoleonic Wars (1803 1815) (see Napoleonic Wars casualtie s) 3,000,000 11,500,000 - Thirty Years' War (1618 1648)[110] 3,000,000 7,000,000 - Yellow Turban Rebellion (China, 184 205) 2,500,000 3,500,000 - Korean War (1950 1953) (see Cold War)[111] 2,300,000 3,800,000 - Vietnam War (entire war 1945 1975) 300,000 1,300,000 - First Indochina War (1946 1954) 100,000 300,000 - Vietnamese Civil War (1954 1965) 1,750,000 2,100,000 - American phase (1965 1973) 170,000 - Final phase (1973 1975) 175,000 1,150,000 - Secret War (1953 1975) 2,000,000 4,000,000 - Huguenot Wars[112] 2,000,000 - Shaka's conquests (1816 1828)[113] 300,000 3,000,000[114] - Bangladesh Liberation War (1971) 1,500,000 2,000,000 - Afghan Civil War (1979-) 1,000,000 1,500,000 Soviet intervention (1979 1989) 1,300,000 6,100,000 - Chinese Civil War (1927 1949) note that this figure exclud es World War II casualties 300,000 3,100,000 before 1937 1,000,000 3,000,000 after World War II 1,000,000 2,000,000 - Mexican Revolution (1910 1920)[115] 1,000,000 - Iran Iraq War (1980 1988)[116]

1,000,000 - Japanese invasions of Korea (1592 1598)[117] 1,000,000 - Second Sudanese Civil War (1983 2005) 1,000,000 - Panthay Rebellion (China,1856 1873) 1,000,000 - Nien Rebellion (China,1853 1868) 1,000,000 - Nigerian Civil War (1967 1970) 618,000[118] - 970,000 - American Civil War (including 350,000 from disease) (1861 1865) 900,000 1,000,000 - Mozambique Civil War (1975 1994) 868,000[119] - 1,400,000[120] - Seven Years' War (1756 1763) 800,000 - 1,000,000 - Rwandan Civil War (1990 1993) 800,000 - Congo Civil War (1996 1997) 600,000 to 1,300,000 - First Jewish-Roman War (see List of Roman wars) 580,000 - Bar Kokhba s revolt (132 135CE) 570,000 - Eritrean War of Independence (1961 1991) 550,000 - Somali Civil War (1988- ) 500,000 - 1,000,000 - Spanish Civil War (1936 1939) 500,000 - Angolan Civil War (1975 2002) 500,000 - Ugandan Civil War (1979 1986) 400,000 1,000,000 - War of the Triple Alliance in Paraguay (1864 1870) 400,000 - War of the Spanish Succession (1701 1714) 371,000 - Continuation War (1941 1944) 350,000 - Great Northern War (1700 1721)[121] 315,000 - 735,000 - Wars of the Three Kingdoms (1639 1651) English campaign ~4 0,000, Scottish 73,000, Irish 200,000-620,000[122] 300,000 - Russian-Circassian War (1763 1864) (see Caucasian War) 300,000 - First Burundi Civil War (1972) 300,000 - Darfur conflict (2003-) 230.000 - 2,000,000 - Eighty Years' War (1568 1648) 270,000 300,000 - Crimean War (1854 1856) 234,000 Philippine-American War (1899 1912)[123] 230,000 1,400,000 - Ethiopian Civil War (1974 1991) 224,000 - Balkan Wars, includes both wars (1912 1913) 220,000 - Liberian Civil War (1989 1995 ) 217,000 - 1,124,303 - War on Terror (9/11/2001 Present)[citation needed] 200,000 - 1,000,000[124][125] - Albigensian Crusade (1208 1259) 200,000 800,000 - Warlord era in China (1916 1928) 200,000 - 400,000 - Politionele acties (Indonesian war of independence) (194 5 1949) 200,000 - 220,000 - The Conquest of Chile ((1536-1883) 200,000 - Second Punic War (BC218-BC204) (see List of Roman battles) 200,000 - Sierra Leone Civil War (1992 2001) 200,000 - Algerian Civil War (1991 2002 )[126][127] 200,000 - Guatemalan Civil War (1960 1996) 190,000 - Franco-Prussian War (1870 1871) 180,000 - 300,000 - La Violencia (1948 1960) 170,000 - Greek War of Independence (1821 1830) 150,000 - Lebanese Civil War (1975 1990) 150,000 - North Yemen Civil War (1962 1970) 150,000 - Russo-Japanese War (1904 1905) 148,000-1,000,000 - Winter War (1939) 125,000 - Eritrean-Ethiopian War (1998 2000) 120,000 - 384,000 Great Turkish War (1683 1699) (see Ottoman-Habsburg wars) 120,000 - Third Servile War (BC73-BC71) 117,000 - 500,000 - Revolt in the Vende (1793 1796) 103,359+ - 1,136,920+ - Invasion and Occupation of Iraq (2003 Present) 101,000 - 115,000 - Arab-Israeli conflict (1929- ) 100,500 - Chaco War (1932 1935) 100,000 - 1,000,000 - War of the two brothers (1531 1532) 100,000 - 400,000 - Western New Guinea (1984 - ) (see Genocide in West Papua )

100,000 - 200,000 - Indonesian invasion of East Timor (1975 1978) 100,000 - Persian Gulf War (1990 1991) 100,000 1,000,000 - Algerian War of Independence (1954 1962) 100,000 - Thousand Days War (1899 1902) 100,000 - German Peasants' War (1524 1525)[128] 97,207 - Bosnian War (1992 1995)[129] 80,000 - Third Punic War (BC149-BC146) 75,000 - 200,000? - Conquests of Alexander the Great (BC336-BC323) 75,000 - El Salvador Civil War (1980 1992) 75,000 - Second Boer War (1899 1902) 70,000 - Boudica's uprising (AD60-AD61) 69,000 - Internal conflict in Peru (1980- ) 60,000 - Sri Lanka/Tamil conflict (1983 2009) 60,000 - Nicaraguan Rebellion (1972 91) 55,000 - War of the Pacific (1879 1884) 50,000 - 200,000 - First Chechen War (1994 1996) 50,000 - 100,000 - Tajikistan Civil War (1992 1997) 50,000 - Wars of the Roses (1455 1485) (see Wars involving England) 45,000 - Greek Civil War (1945 1949) 41,000 100,000 - Kashmiri insurgency (1989- ) 36,000 - Finnish Civil War (1918) 35,000 - 40,000 - War of the Pacific (1879 1884) 35,000 - 45,000 - Siege of Malta (1565) (see Ottoman wars in Europe) 30,000 - Turkey/PKK conflict (1984- ) 30,000 - Sino-Vietnamese War (1979) 30,000 - Rhodesian Bush War (1964 1979) ~28,000 - 1982 Lebanon War (1982) 25,000 - Second Chechen War (1999 2001)[130] 25,000 - American Revolutionary War (1775 1783) 23,384 - Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 (December 1971) 23,000 - Nagorno-Karabakh War (1988 1994) 20,000 - 49,600 U.S. Invasion of Afghanistan (2001 2002) 19,000+ - Mexican American War (1846 1848) 14,000+ - Six-Day War (1967) 15,000 20,000 - Croatian War of Independence (1991 1995) 11,053 - Malayan Emergency (1948 1960) 11,000 - Spanish-American War (1898) 10,000 20,000 - Libyian civil war (2011 present) 10,000 - Amadu's Jihad (1810 1818) 10,000 - Halabja poison gas attack (1988) 7,264 10,000 - Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 (August September 1965) 7,000 24,000 - American War of 1812 (1812 1815) 2000-7,000 - Kosovo War (1998 1999) 5,000 - Turkish invasion of Cyprus (1974) 4,600 - Sino-Indian War (1962) 4,000 - Waziristan War (2004 2006) 4,000 - Irish Civil War (1922 23) 3,500 - The Troubles (1969 1998) 3,000 - Civil war in Cte d'Ivoire (2002 2007) 2,899 - New Zealand Land Wars (1845 1872) 2,604 7,000 - Indo-Pakistani War of 1947 (October 1947-December 1948) 2,000 - Football War (1969) 2,000 - Irish War of Independence (1919 21) 1,975 4,500+ - violence in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict (2000 2005) 1,724 - War of Lapland (1945) 1,500 - Romanian Revolution (December 1989) ~1,500 - 2006 Lebanon War 1,000 - Zapatista uprising in Chiapas (1994) 907 - Falklands War (1982) 62 - Slovenian Independence War (1991)

[edit] See also Bluetank.png War portal Book: War Wikipedia Books are collections of articles that can be downloaded or ordered in print. Possible causes Peak water Peak uranium Peak oil Religious war Racism General reference Undeclared war Colonial war Religious war Breakaway states Casus belli Fault line war Horses in warfare Sun Tzu, The Art of War War cycles Water conflicts Nuclear war War as metaphor War-related lists List List List List List List List List List List List of of of of of of of of of of of ongoing conflicts wars and disasters by death toll wars battles war crimes orders of battle invasions terrorist incidents military commanders battles by death toll battles and other violent events by death toll

[edit] References ^ a b "American Heritage Dictionary: War". Thefreedictionary.com. Retrieved 2011-01-24. ^ "Merriam Webster's Dictionary: War". Merriam-webster.com. 2010-08-13. Retr ieved 2011-01-24. ^ O'Connell, Sanjida (2004-01-07). "Apes of war... is it in our genes?". The Daily Telegraph (London). Retrieved 2010-02-06. Analysis of chimpanzee war beha vior ^ "Warrior Ants: The Enduring Threat of the Small War and the Land-mine". 19 96. Retrieved 2010-02-03. Scholarly comparisons between human and ant wars ^ "Error: no title= specified when using {{Cite web}}". 2010. http://www.an tcolonies.net/howantscarryonwar.html. Retrieved 2010-02-03. Ant war pacification experiments ^ "The Ant: A Morphological Tour...". 1998. Retrieved 2010-02-03. Brief disc ussion of parallels between humans and ants

^ "The P ath to Extreme Violence:Nazism and Serial Killers". 2009. Retrieved 2010-02-06. Analysis of common roots of violence between Nazis and serial kille rs. ^ Smalley, Richard E. (2008). "Smalley Institute Grand Challenges". Rice Uni versity. Retrieved 24 April 2011. ^ Clausewitz, Carl von (1984) [1832]. Howard, Michael; Paret, Peter. eds. On War [Vom Krieg] (Indexed ed.). New Jersey: Princeton University Press. p. 75. I SBN 978-0-691-01854-6. Italics in original. ^ Keegan, John, (1994) "A History Of Warfare", (Pimlico) ^ "war". Online Etymology Dictionary. 2010. Retrieved 24 April 2011. ^ "Online Etymology Dictionary". Retrieved 2009-06-05. ^ Keeley: War before civilization: The myth of the peaceful savage ^ Diamond, Jared, Guns, Germs and Steel ^ Conway W. Henderson (2010). "Understanding International Law". John Wiley and Sons. 212. ISBN 1405197641 ^ "Review: War Before Civilization". Brneurosci.org. 2006-09-04. Retrieved 2 011-01-24. ^ Spengler (4 July 2006). "The fraud of primitive authenticity". Asia Times Online. Retrieved 2009-06-08. ^ Barry Brailsford (1972). Arrows of Plague. Taylor & Francis. p. 35. ^ Rubinstein, W. D. (2004). Genocide: a history. Pearson Education. p.22. IS BN 0-582-50601-8 ^ Keeley, Lawrence H. War before civilization: The myth of the peaceful sava ge, Oxford University Press, USA, 1996. ^ Yanomamo: The Fierce People (Chagnon 1998; Chagnon 1992; Chagnon 1983) ^ a b World War One --- A New Kind of War Part II, From 14 - 18 Understand ing the Great War, by Stphane Audoin-Rouzeau, Annette Becker ^ Hewitt, Joseph, J. Wilkenfield and T. nevertheless the concept war is more than just a word but a signification to the meaning Death. Gurr Peace and Confl ict 2008, Paradigm Publishers, 2007 ^ "Albert Einstein: Man of Imagination". 1947. Retrieved 2010-02-03. Nuclear Age Peace Foundation paper ^ "Right-wing media divided: Is U.S. now in World War III, IV, or V?". 2006. Retrieved 2010-02-04. Discussion of attempts to proclaim World Wars III, IV and V ^ "Instant Wisdom: Beyond the Little Red Book". TIME. September 20, 1976. ^ "The Conflict between Cain and Abel". 2008. Retrieved 2010-02-07. Analysis of Midrash re: Cain & Abel ^ Clausewitz, Carl Von (1976), On War (Princeton University Press) p.593 ^ O'Callaghan, Einde (25 October 2007). "The Marxist Theory of Imperialism a nd its Critics". Marxist Internet Archive. Retrieved 24 April 2011. ^ Lorenz, Konrad On Aggression 1966 ^ See interview with Jane Goodall, KTEH TV 1997, Dec 9, via youtube and see National Geographic Magazine, December 1995 Crusading for Chimps and Humans . . . Jane Goodall, By Peter Miller] (at maricopa.edu) ^ "BBC WorldWide, 2008 Dec 16, "Planet Earth" (via youtube)". Youtube.com. 2 008-12-16. Retrieved 2011-01-24. ^ Montagu, Ashley (1976), "The Nature of Human Aggression" (Oxford Universit y Press) ^ Durbin, E.F.L. and John Bowlby .Personal Aggressiveness and War 1939. ^ (Fornari 1975) ^ Turnbull, Colin (1987), "The Forest People" (Touchstonbe Books) ^ Alexander, Franz. "The Psychiatric Aspects of War and Peace." 1941 ^ Blanning, T.C.W. "The Origin of Great Wars." The Origins of the French Rev olutionary Wars. pg. 5 ^ Walsh, Maurice N. War and the Human Race. 1971. ^ Safire, William (200]). Lend me your ears: great speeches in history. W. W . Norton & Company. p. 94. ISBN 9780393059311. ^ Waugh, David (2000). Geography: an integrated approach. Nelson Thornes. p. 378. ISBN 9780174447061.

^ Bouthoul, Gaston: "L`infanticide diffr" (deferred infanticide), Paris 1970 ^ Goldstone, Jack A.: "Revolution and Rebellion in the Early Modern World", Berkeley 1991; Goldstone, Jack A.: "Population and Security: How Demographic Cha nge can Lead to Violent Conflict", [1] ^ Fuller, Gary: "The Demographic Backdrop to Ethnic Conflict: A Geographic O verwiew", in: CIA (Ed.): "The Challenge of Ethnic Conflict to National and Inter national Order in the 1990s", Washington 1995, 151-154 ^ "Fuller, Gary (2004): "The Youth Crisis in Middle Eastern Society"" (PDF). Retrieved 2011-01-24. ^ Fuller, Gary (2003): "The Youth Factor: The New Demographics of the Middle East and the Implications for U.S. Policy"[2] ^ Gunnar Heinsohn (2003): "Shne und Weltmacht: Terror im Aufstieg und Fall de r Nationen" ("Sons and Imperial Power: Terror and the Rise and Fall of Nations") , Zurich 2003), available online as free download (in German) [3]; see also the review of this book by Gran Therborn: "Natos Demographer", New Left Review 56, Mar ch/April 2009, 136-144 [4] ^ So, are civilizations at war? , Interview with Samuel P. Huntington by Michae l Steinberger, The Observer, Sunday October 21, 2001.[5] ^ Helgerson, John L. (2002): "The National Security Implications of Global D emographic Trends"[6] ^ "Heinsohn, G.(2006): "Demography and War."". Webcitation.org. Retrieved 20 11-01-24. ^ Heinsohn, G.(2005): "Population, Conquest and Terror in the 21st Century." [7] ^ G. Heinsohn: "Why Gaza is Fertile Ground for Angry Young Men." Financial T imes Online, June 14, 2007 [8], retrieved on December 23, 2007; compare demograp hic data for Gaza Strip ([9],[10])and Lebanon ([11], [12]) provided by the U.S. Census Bureau; see also David Bau: "History is Demographics"[13], retrieved on D ecember 23, 2007 ^ Goldstone, Jack A.: "Revolution and Rebellion in the Early Modern World", Berkeley 1991 [14] ^ Moller, Herbert (1968): Youth as a Force in the Modern World , Comparative St udies in Society and History 10: 238 260; 240 244 ^ Diessenbacher, Hartmut (1994): Kriege der Zukunft. Die Bevlkerungsexplosion gefhrdet den Frieden. Muenchen: Hanser 1998; see also (criticizing youth bulge t heory) Marc Sommers (2006): "Fearing Africas Young Men: The Case of Rwanda." The World Bank: Social Development Papers - Conflict Prevention and Reconstruction, Paper No. 32, January 2006 [15] ^ "''National Security Study Memorandum 200 (NSSM 200) - April 1974''". Popu lation-security.org. Retrieved 2011-01-24. ^ Stephen D. Mumford: The Life and Death of NSSM 200: How the Destruction of Political Will Doomed a U.S. Population Policy ^ Urdal, Henrik (2004): "The Devil in the Demographics: The Effect of Youth Bulges on Domestic Armed Conflict," [16], ^ Population Action International: "The Security Demographic: Population and Civil Conflict after the Cold War"[17] ^ Krhnert, Steffen (2004): "Warum entstehen Kriege? Welchen Einfluss haben de mografische Vernderungen auf die Entstehung von Konflikten?" [18] ^ "United States Census Bureau: International Database". Census.gov. Retriev ed 2011-01-24. ^ Gapminder World: Development of total fertility rates and income per perso n, 1800-2009 [19] ^ Hendrixson, Anne: "Angry Young Men, Veiled Young Women: Constructing a New Population Threat" [20] ^ Fearon, James D. 1995. "Rationalist Explanations for War." International O rganization 49, 3: 379-414. [21] ^ Powell, Robert. 2002. "Bargaining Theory and International Conflict." Annu al Review of Political Science 5: 1-30. ^ "Peace Economics, Peace Science and Public Policy (pg. 19)". 2001. Retriev ed 2010-02-07. Leaders may use war as instant popularity boost

^ Peters, Ralph. "New Glory: Expanding America's Global Supremacy", 2005. p. 30 ^ Lt. Col. Dave Grossman (1996). On Killing The Psychological Cost of Learni ng to Kill in War & Society. Little, Brown & Co.,. ^ Axelrod, Robert. 1984. The Evolution of Cooperation. New York: Basic Books . ^ Sipes, Richard G. ((Feb., 1973)). American Anthropologist (, New Series, V ol. 75, No. 1): 64 86. http://www.jstor.org/stable/672340. ^ Waller, James. Becoming Evil: How Ordinary People Commit Genocide and Mass Killing. ^ "Mortality and Burden of Disease Estimates for WHO Member States in 2004". World Health Organization. ^ Obermeyer Z, Murray CJ, Gakidou E (June 2008). "Fifty years of violent war deaths from Vietnam to Bosnia: analysis of data from the world health survey pr ogramme". BMJ 336 (7659): 1482 6. doi:10.1136/bmj.a137. PMC 2440905. PMID 18566045 . ^ Maris Vinovskis (1990). "Toward a social history of the American Civil War : exploratory essays". Cambridge University Press. p.7. ISBN 0-521-39559-3 ^ Kitchen, Martin (2000),The Treaty of Versailles and its Consequences, New York: Longman ^ The Historical Impact of Epidemic Typhus. Joseph M. Conlon. ^ See a large copy of the chart here: http://www.adept-plm.com/Newsletter/Na poleonsMarch.htm, but discussed at length in Edward Tufte, The Visual Display of Quantitative Information (London: Graphics Press, 1992) ^ War and Pestilence. TIME. ^ A. S. Turberville (2006). "Johnson's England: An Account of the Life & Man ners of His Age". ISBN READ BOOKS. p.53. ISBN 1-4067-2726-1 ^ The Thirty Years War (1618 48), Alan McFarlane, The Savage Wars of Peace: En gland, Japan and the Malthusian Trap (2003) ^ History of Europe Demographics. Encyclopdia Britannica. ^ "Population". History Learningsite. Retrieved 2008-05-24. ^ "World War II Fatalities". Retrieved 2007-04-20. ^ "Leaders mourn Soviet wartime dead". BBC News. May 9, 2005. Retrieved Janu ary 6, 2010. ^ Geoffrey A. Hosking (2006). "Rulers and victims: the Russians in the Sovie t Union". Harvard University Press. p.242. ISBN 0-674-02178-9 ^ Great Depression and World War II. The Library of Congress. ^ Mayer, E. (2000) "World War II" course lecture notes on Emayzine.com (Vict orville, California: Victor Valley College) ^ Coleman, P. (1999) "Cost of the War," World War II Resource Guide (Gardena , California: The American War Library) ^ Marc Pilisuk, Jennifer Achord Rountree (2008). "Who benefits from global v iolence and war: uncovering a destructive system". Greenwood Publishing Group. p .136. ISBN 0-275-99435-X ^ The New York Times, 9 February 1946, Volume 95, Number 32158. ^ Wallinsky, David: David Wallechinsky's Twentieth Century : History With th e Boring Parts Left Out, Little Brown & Co., 1996, ISBN 0-316-92056-8, ISBN 9780-316-92056-8 - cited by White ^ Brzezinski, Zbigniew: Out of Control: Global Turmoil on the Eve of the Twe nty-first Century, Prentice Hall & IBD, 1994, ASIN B000O8PVJI - cited by White ^ "Selected Death Tolls for Wars, Massacres and Atrocities Before the 20th C entury". Users.erols.com. Retrieved 2011-01-24. ^ Ping-ti Ho, "An Estimate of the Total Population of Sung-Chin China", in tu des Song, Series 1, No 1, (1970) pp. 33-53. ^ "Mongol Conquests". Users.erols.com. Retrieved 2011-01-24. ^ "The world's worst massacres Whole Earth Review". Findarticles.com. 1987. Retrieved 2011-01-24. ^ Battuta's Travels: Part Three - Persia and Iraq[dead link] ^ McFarlane, Alan: The Savage Wars of Peace: England, Japan and the Malthusi an Trap, Blackwell 2003, ISBN 0-631-18117-2, ISBN 978-0-631-18117-0 - cited by W

hite ^ Michael Duffy (2009-08-22). "Military Casualties of World War One". Firstw orldwar.com. Retrieved 2011-01-24. ^ "Taiping Rebellion - Britannica Concise". Concise.britannica.com. Retrieve d 2011-01-24. ^ "Nuclear Power: The End of the War Against Japan". Bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 20 11-01-24. ^ "Timur Lenk (1369-1405)". Users.erols.com. Retrieved 2011-01-24. ^ Matthew's White's website (a compilation of scholarly estimates) -Miscella neous Oriental Atrocities ^ "Russian Civil War". Spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk. Retrieved 2011-01-24. ^ "Oromo Identity". Americanchronicle.com. Retrieved 2011-01-24. ^ "Glories and Agonies of the Ethiopian past". Ifeas.uni-mainz.de. Retrieved 2011-01-24. ^ Brennan, Richard (2006-07-16). "Inside Congo, An Unspeakable Toll". Theirc .org. Retrieved 2011-01-24. ^ James Astill in Bukavu and Isabelle Chevallot (2003-04-08). "Conflict in C ongo has killed 4.7m, charity says". London: Guardian. Retrieved 2011-01-24. ^ Come Back, Colonialism, All is Forgiven ^ The Thirty Years War (1618-48) ^ Cease-fire agreement marks the end of the Korean War on July 27, 1953. ^ Huguenot Religious Wars, Catholic vs. Huguenot (1562-1598) ^ Shaka: Zulu Chieftain ^ Matthew White's Death Tolls for the Major Wars and Atrocities of the Twent ieth Century ^ Missing Millions: The human cost of the Mexican Revolution, 1910-1921 ^ Timeline: Iraq ^ Jones, Geo H., Vol. 23 No. 5, pp. 254 ^ The Deadliest War ^ Clodfelter, cited by White ^ Urlanis, cited by White ^ Northern War (1700-21) ^ The curse of Cromwell ^ John M. Gates, War-Related Deaths in the Philippines , Pacific Historical Rev iew , v. 53, No. 3 (August, 1984), 367-378. ^ Albigensian Crusade (1208-49) ^ Massacre of the Pure, Time, April 28, 1961 ^ Attacks raise spectre of civil war ^ Journalists in Algeria are caught in middle ^ Peasants' War, Germany (1524-25) ^ Confirmed deaths beyond dispute ^ Russian Federation: What justice for Chechnya's disappeared? - Amnesty Int ernational [edit] Bibliography Angelo Codevilla and Paul Seabury, War: Ends and Means (Potomac Books, Revis ed second edition by Angelo Codevilla, 2006) ISBN-X Angelo M. Codevilla, No Victory, No Peace (Rowman and Littlefield, 2005) ISB N Barzilai Gad, Wars, Internal Conflicts and Political Order: A Jewish Democra cy in the Middle East (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1996). Clausewitz, Carl Von (1976), On War (Princeton and New Jersey: Princeton Uni versity Press) Fry, Douglas P., 2005, The Human Potential for Peace: An Anthropological Cha llenge to Assumptions about War and Violence, Oxford University Press. Gat, Azar 2006 War in Human Civilization, Oxford University Press. Gunnar Heinsohn, Shne und Weltmacht: Terror im Aufstieg und Fall der Nationen ("Sons and Imperial Power: Terror and the Rise and Fall of Nations"), Orell Fssl i (September 2003), ISBN, available online as free download (in German)

Fabio Maniscalco, (2007). World Heritage and War - monographic series "Medit erraneum", vol. VI. Massa, Naples. ISBN. Keegan, John, (1994) "A History Of Warfare", (Pimlico) Kelly, Raymond C., 2000, Warless Societies and the Origin of War, University of Michigan Press. Small, Melvin & Singer, David J. (1982). Resort to Arms: International and C ivil Wars,. Sage Publications. ISBN. Otterbein, Keith, 2004, How War Began. Turchin, P. 2005. War and Peace and War: Life Cycles of Imperial Nations. Ne w York, NY: Pi Press. ISBN Van Creveld, Martin The Art of War: War and Military Thought London: Cassell , Wellington House Fornari, Franco (1974). The Psychoanalysis of War. Tr. Alenka Pfeifer. Garde n City, New York: Doubleday Anchor Press. ISBN: . Reprinted (1975) Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN Walzer, Michael (1977) Just and Unjust Wars (Basic Books) Keeley, Lawrence. War Before Civilization, Oxford University Press, 1996. Zimmerman, L. The Crow Creek Site Massacre: A Preliminary Report, US Army Co rps of Engineers, Omaha District, 1981. Chagnon, N. The Yanomamo, Holt, Rinehart & Winston,1983. Pauketat, Timothy. North American Archaeology 2005. Blackwell Publishing. Wade, Nicholas. Before the Dawn, Penguin: New York 2006. Rafael Karsten, Blood revenge, war, and victory feasts among the Jibaro Indi ans of eastern Ecuador (1923). S. A. LeBlanc, Prehistoric Warfare in the American Southwest, University of Utah Press (1999). Duane M. Capulla, War Wolf, University of Pili (2008) [edit] External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to: War Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Warfare Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: War Correlates of War Project Correlates of War 2 Antiwar.com Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry Complex Emergency Database (CE-DAT) - A database on the human impact of conf licts and other complex emergencies. The Art of the War World War I primary source collection Categories: War Violence Ethics

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