Biology SL + HL

Cell theory states that: Living organisms are composed of cells. Cells are the smallest unit of life. All cells come from pre-existing cells. The evidence for the cell theory is that it helped us find out about other living things therefore it must be true by definition. To get a good image with the microscope: Thin sample Staining Good light source Correct magnification. Unicellular organisms carry out all the functions of life e.g. metabolism, response, homeostasis, growth, reproduction, and nutrition. 1nm = molecules 10nm = thickness of membranes 100nm = viruses 1m = bacteria 10m = organelles 100m = most cells Bacteria are prokaryotic cells. Features of bacteria: No true nucleus There are no organelles that are bound by membrane Photosynthesis is carried out by folds in the membrane within the cell Respiration is carried out by folds of the cell membrane called mesosomes Ribosomes are small and are free in the cytoplasm They have cell walls. Cell infrastructure = the detail that can be seen with an electron microscope. In bacteria, there are no organelles that are bound by membranes. Bacteria can be good and bad. Strain of bacteria = the same species but with some difference (like a race)
Feature of cell life Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction Form proteins How prokaryotic organisms achieve this Usually by binary fission. DNA replication followed by cytokinesis Conjugation (swapping DNA) plasmids. Uses pili to attach to others They fix nitrogen gas from the air to form ammonia, which is used to synthesise proteins, using ribosomes. They use amino acids from the environment. They have thick cell walls which prevent osmotic shock and prevent oxygen gas from interference. This is also helped by the cell membrane. Flagellum. Many are passive. Spores can be moved by air. Capsules. Mesosomes (folds in the membrane) primitive mitochondria. They include cyanobacteria which photosynthesise in the same way as plants and algae. Chlorophyll and enzymes only found in photosynthetic bacteria (Photoautotrophs).

Separate themselves from external environment Locomotion Protect themselves Cell respiration Photosynthesis

Organelles/substances that make up animal cells: Cell membrane partially permeable barrier controlling exchange. Centriole Nucleus chromosomes contain DNA. Nuclear division. Manufactures ribosomes. Microtubule Nuclear envelope Vaccuole storage, important for osmosis, sometimes acts as a lysosome. Nuclear pore Lysosome breakdown of structures or molecules. Nucleolus

Microbody Prokaryotic organisms Cytoplasm Nuclear sap Chromatin Microfilament Ribosome protein synthesis. May form polysomes. Endoplasmic reticulum Mitochondrion aerobic respiration. Hyaloplasm Golgi Apparatus internal processing and transport system. Manufactures lysosomes. Aerobic respiration = respiration using oxygen. Matrix = something that embeds itself in something else. Partially permeable = something that lets some things through but not others (selective). Polysaccharide = large sugar based molecule. Vesicle = membrane bound vacuole for export. Envelope = two membranes. Eukaryotic organisms: Unicellular (protoctistans), Multicellular (Plants, fungi, animals). Anthropocentric = centred only people Phylogenetic = evolutionary relationships Morphologically = physical characteristics Taxon = a group Monograph = an article written on the topic Entymology = the study of insects. Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species Water is an inorganic compound H2O. (Organic means it contains C + H + usually O). It is a transparent substance, there is some reflection, no smell, and no taste, and there is surface tension. Water is attracted to water. It is a polar molecule that is attracted to other polar molecules but repelled by non-polar molecules.

Polar = anything with a charge. Hydrophilic = water loving Hydrophobic = water hating Specific (useful/latent) heat of vaporisation has a high value because it takes a lot of energy to break hydrogen bonds. This allows us to have seas/ponds because the water does not evaporate. Basic plant structure and classification: Bryophytes haploid nucleus (one of each pair of chromosomes, n) Two generations: sporophyte (2n) and gametophyte (n). Sporophyte produces spores (n), there must be meiosis it occurs to produce haploid spores these disperse, land and germinate into gametophytes Filicinophytes (ferns and club mosses) have vascular bundles Coniferophytes are not killed by cold and do not need water for reproduction. They live in drought most of the year Insect pollinated flower (male stamen, made up of filament which is the stem and anther which makes pollen complete meiosis, female stigma for pollen germination, style for connection, ovary contains egg cells) Monocotyledon wheat, rice, and maze (have stomata on both sides of the leaf, and leaves have parallel veins). The monocotyledon seed is made up of pericarp, endosperm (triploid) and embryo (diploid). Porifera sponges, mostly marine, lack organs, asexual, lack nervous system Cnideria jellyfish, mostly aquatic Platyhelminthes flat worms, can be parasitic Annelida segmented worms, includes leeches and earthworms Mollusca terrestrial and aquatic Arthropoda animals with jointed limbs and exoskeletons e.g. spider, crab

Interphase: Prophase:

Metaphase:

Anaphase: Telophase:

nucleus is using DNA, chromosomes are not visible. DNA is being coiled not yet clear chromosomes. Nuclear envelope disintegrates and spindle forms. chromosomes are visible and are arranged on the equator of the spindle. chromatids are pulled to opposite poles of the spindle. new nuclear envelopes form and the cell walls begin to form.

are affected by the pH of the environment. Weak bonds are affected by temperature. Quaternary structure the action of two or more polypeptides to make a functional protein.

Diffusion is a passive process it occurs with no energy. This is useful for transporting abundant materials. Facilitated diffusion is across a membrane (only small molecules can do this) no energy is needed. If a molecule diffuses across a cell membrane it must be hydrophobic or have a hydrophilic channel protein. Channel proteins define if a membrane is permeable to a molecule (selectively permeable). Chemiosmosis movement of protons across ATP synthetase to harvest energy and make water. Hypotonic solution = more dilute than the cell. Hypertonic solution = more concentrated than the cell. Isotonic = equilibrium. Turgid cell = water enters by osmosis; vacuole swells and pushes against the cell wall. Flaccid (plasmalised) cell = water lost from cell, vacuole shrinks and cell loses shape. Active transport involves the use of energy (against a concentration gradient). Sodium/potassium pump: Responsible for charging neurons. Without the pump, nerve impulses would not work. Adding phosphate = phosphorylation Removing phosphate = dephosphorylation. Protein pump = integral protein in the membrane. If it becomes phosphorylated, it pumps an ion or molecule across. If it becomes dephosphorylated it returns to the original form.

Trisomy = instead of chromosome pair, we have a triplet. Chromosome 18 is trisomatic, if this happens the person has Downs syndrome. When we heat molecules up, heat energy is transferred to kinetic energy. Therefore increasing temperature results in an increase in molecular movement which allows dynamic equilibrium to be reached faster. Proteins are fundamental to life. There are 20 different naturally occurring R groups in Amino Acid structure. DNA coding limits it to 20. R (Radical) groups give the variety in amino acids: Charged R groups (can make ionic bonds) Non-polar R groups (attracted to non-polar structures like phospholipid bilayer) Partially charged R groups (make H bonds) Sulphur containing R groups (make very strong covalent bonds) Structure of proteins can be: Primary structure sequence of amino acids held together by peptide bonds (polypeptide alpha helix) Secondary structure parallel lines of polypeptides held together by hydrogen bonding (beta pleated sheet) Tertiary structure R groups interact therefore covalent bonds between sulphur in R groups are very strong. Ionic bonds between R groups are quite strong. They

Cystic fibrosis affects protein pumps; they are unable to fully function. It is a mutation in a membrane protein. Role of the components of a membrane: Phospholipids create a barrier between two water based environments Cholesterol ensures that the membrane remains fluid Glycolipids help membranes attach to each other and keep the cells that make up a tissue together Glycoproteins serve as cell markers (antigens) that are used to ensure that the body can discriminate between its own cells and foreign cells Membrane proteins have many functions. Enzymes: They are all proteins. They all have an active site. They all have a specific substrate. They are globular proteins. They catalyse reactions. They can be denatured at high temperatures. At the active site, the substrate is changed into the product. They work at a particular pH (specific for each enzyme). They have an optimum temperature and pH. The active site changes shape when the substrate binds to it (induced fit theory), because the substrate will affect beta group interactions and alter them slightly. Collision theory they bump into each other. Molecules move randomly in solution/suspension. Therefore the collisions are random. Increasing temperature will increase the kinetic energy and therefore the collisions will be more frequent. Inactivation at a low temperature the enzymes become inactive.

Activation energy is the minimum required energy to activate a reaction. Enzymes lower this activation energy so reactions can occur at a lower energy input. All enzyme controlled reactions are reversible. Enzymes allow equilibrium to be reached quickly. Equilibrium is all to do with proportion, by disrupting the equilibrium the enzyme controlled reaction will be driven in one direction. 1/time = rate of reaction.

The effect of temperature on the rate of enzyme controlled reactions is a combination of the effect of temperature on enzyme structure and the rate of enzyme-substrate collisions. An increase in temperature increases the rate of collisions which increase the rate of reaction, until the reaction reaches its optimum. Beyond the optimum the enzymes become denatured. Enzyme inhibitors: Poisons. Controllers of enzyme pathways. Competitive inhibition = inhibitors are competing with the substrate for the active site therefore the inhibitor is a similar shape to the substrate. E.g. sulphonamides it is an antibiotic which inhibits an enzyme controlled pathway that makes folic acid. It does not affect animal

enzymes, only bacterial enzymes. It is a competitive inhibitor. Non competitive inhibition = inhibitors bind to the enzyme at a different site which disrupts Rgroup interactions and changes the tertiary structure, which in turn, distorts the active site, making it unsuitable for the substrate to bind. Control of metabolic pathways is called endproduct inhibition (a type of non-competitive inhibition). Actions in digestion: Methods to increase surface area to volume ratio to help enzyme action o Mechanical action: chewing o Mixing: contractions of intestinal walls o Emulsification: splits up large lipid droplets into smaller droplets Enzyme action o Enzymes produced by intestinal walls (pepsin) o Enzymes produced by glands o Enzymes on the epithelium of the vili (microvili) The mouth o Carbohydrate digestion starts here o Amylase is produced by salivary glands o Starch -> maltose Stomach o Hydrochloric acid released to: Break down tissue and kill bacteria Denature protein Acidic conditions inhibit many enzymes o Enzymes secreted by the gastric glands in the lining of the stomach o Very thick mucus layer on stomach wall to prevent acid damage o Pepsin digests proteins (proteins -> short polypeptides Small intestine o Digestion is completed

Carbohydrates -> simple sugars Proteins -> amino acids Fats -> fatty acids and glycerol o Digested products are absorbed through the gut wall and into the blood stream Large intestine o Water is reabsorbed into the blood o Remaining nutrients, salts and minerals are absorbed o Contains bacteria that ferment fibre o Muscular to push out waste

Blood: Human blood cells only last for 120 days; they have to be continuously replaced by cells in the bone marrow. There are several different types of white blood cells (leukocytes). Neutrophils and monocytes can move freely around the body, even into the bone. These cells are commonly known as phagocytes. As they eat other cells. Platelets are fragments of cells that play a major part in blood clotting. Plasma is mainly water, but slightly thicker as it contains many dissolved substances. It is the main transport system in the body; it also transports heat. In blood clotting, platelets release thromboplastins (clotting factors). They convert prothrombin to thrombin. This acts as an enzyme catalysing the conversion of soluble fibrinogen into insoluble fibrin which forms a network of fibres that trap blood cells and debris to form a clot. Tissue fluid and lymph: Tissue fluid is derived from blood. Not all tissue fluid circulates back into the venous ends of the capillaries. Some of it drains into the second circulatory system: the lymphatic system. This is an extensive network that looks similar to veins. The colourless liquid in this

system is called lymph. The largest organ of this system is called the spleen. The primary function of this system is to carry excess tissue fluid back to the blood. The system is also the primary route by which cholesterol makes its way into the blood. Like the blood circulatory system, the lymphatic system is a closed system. Backflow is prevented by one-way valves. Blockage causes the body to swell with excess fluid, this is called oedema.

o o

Vasodilation in arteries and arterioles leading to skeletal muscles Pupil dilates and hearing improves, better blood flow to sense organs Vasoconstriction in arteries and arterioles leading to digestive system.

Immunity Production of specific antibodies humoral response (response involving antibodies being released into plasma. Mainly uses B lymphocytes). Antigens (non-self) pathogens such as bacteria need to be killed: Antibodies will do this Phagocytes are also used. Self (antigen presenting cells) pathogens such as viruses parasitize body cells: Destroy body cells that are producing the virus. Antibodies are proteins made by ribosomes on endoplasmic reticulum. Antigens are not the same shape as antibodies, they are complementary (similar to a negative). Toxins are cured/killed/destroyed/prevented from working by anti-toxins. Precipitins bind to chemicals and take them out of the solution macrophages clean it after it is removed from the system. We need to work out which are the parasitized cells. The cells flag up if they are infected. MHC protein informs the immune system that there is a problem. HIV attacks T helper cells which are the cells that help the immune system attack the pathogen (virus). We can assume an evolution

Malaria (plasmodium falciparum) from mosquitoes kills over 1million people each year. It is a protoctistan and eats haemoglobin. It is uncontrollable. Barriers: Skin Scabs Cilia in epithelium Mucous Ear wax Acids. Buffers maintain pH by donating or absorbing protons. Control of the cardiac cycle: The heart is myogenic i.e. muscular Can be speeded up by the sympathetic nervous system and adrenaline Can be slowed down by the parasympathetic nervous system and lower levels of adrenaline These are coordinated by the cardiac centre in the medulla oblongata of the brain and the adrenal glands Involuntary autonomic nervous system: Parasympathetic nervous system o Returns body back to normal state o Does opposite to sympathetic Sympathetic nervous system o Prepares body for emergency

will occur for HIV people will no longer be affected. B lymphocytes become plasma cells and produce the first type of antibodies in a vaccination. The secondary response is the memory response completed by the memory cells. Monoclonal antibodies are produced by cells called hybridomas. They are very reliable for diagnosing pregnancy, HIV, heart attacks, a treatment for rabies and prevention of haemolytic disease of the newborn.

Thymus gland Pancreas Testis Adrenal gland Ovaries Pineal body.

To move a muscle: Frontal cortex of brain -> Relay neurone activity -> Cerebellum -> Relay neurone -> Spinal cord -> Motor neurone -> Action potential -> Na+ gated channels open, K+ channels open -> Synapse activity -> Sarcolemma is depolarised -> Wave of excitation -> Sarcoplasmic reticulum releases Ca2+ ions -> Ca2+ binds to troponin therefore activates actin> Myosin heads bind -> Filaments slide -> Muscle contracts -> 2 bones move across joint -> Leverage occurs. Synovial fluid is lubrication. Ligament and joint capsule attach the bones together. Articular cartilage is a protein and an example of an extracellular matrix. Myosin is thick filaments, actin is thin filaments. Microfibrin broke the cell theory because it is not made up of cells. Testosterone is a steroid hormone, it can cause muscle growth. Interstitial cells make testosterone. Negative feedback can be caused by taking steroids. Taking testosterone kills interstitial cells so you can no longer produce testosterone. It can cause problems with fertility. Testosterone is stimulated by FSH, transported in blood stream and activates

Multiple sclerosis is scarring of the Schwann cells. Homeostasis endocrine system which influences a target. Maintenance of internal environment within small variations. Hormonal system and the nervous system working to maintain homeostasis. Glands: Pituitary gland Hypothalamus Thyroid gland Parathyroid gland

receptors in testes. LH influences seminiferous tubule. Men produce 10x more testosterone than women. Trophic hormones produced by pituitary gland that influence another gland e.g. gonadotrophins. Role of testosterone: Important in sperm production Important in development of male second sexual characteristics Development of testis and prostate gland Role in libido Estrogen is pre-pregnant. Progesterone is pro-pregnant. Estrogen produced by follicle. Progesterone produced by corpus luteum. LH is inhibited by progesterone. Estrogen inhibited by FSH, therefore only one follicle develops. Estrogen stimulates -> LH, which stimulates -> progesterone from yellow body which inhibits-> LH LH + FSH are gonadotrophins.