Versions of the material containing higher concentrations of zirconium oxide, if appropriately processed, develop platelets in the microstructure, which

contributes to an improvement in some material properties (ZPTA ceramics). These and other measures taken to optimise properties permit the achievement of outstanding figures for
y y y

bending strength modulus of elasticity and thermal behaviour

that are superior to those of Y-ZTP (tetragonal zirconium oxide stabilised with yttrium oxide).

Figure 17: ZTA with a high proportion of zirconium oxide, shown as a breakage microstructure in order to reveal the platelets

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Barium Titanate Barium titanates are amongst the materials used as functional ceramics. They possess extremely high permittivitys, therefore finding application as capacitor dielectrics. They are also used as piezoelectric ceramic materials. Barium carbonate, titanium dioxide and other raw materials for doping purposes are sintered at between 1,200C and 1,400C to form polycrystalline barium titanate. This exhibits semiconducting properties together with a positive temperature coefficient of the ohmic resistance, for which reason it is used as a positive temperature coefficient resistor (PTC). This effect is characterised by a very sharp rise of electrical resistance several powers of ten starting at a reference temperature (Tb).

Figure 19: Resistance curves of PTC ceramic

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PTC ceramics are used as temperature sensors in instrumentation and control technology, and as limit sensors for motor and machine protection. The material is also applied for self-regulating heating elements operating from low and mains voltage, as switching delay elements (for electric motor starting and de-magnetisation), and for overload protection.

Figure: Components manufactured from PTC ceramics

Lead zirconate titanate Currently the most important piezoelectric ceramic materials are based on mixed oxide crystal system consisting of lead zirconate and lead titanate known as lead zirconate titanate (PZT). The specific properties of these ceramics, such as the high dielectric constant, are dependent on the molar ratio of lead
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zirconate to lead titanate as well as on substitution and doping with additional elements. A wide range of modifications can be implemented in this way, creating materials with highly varied specifications. The piezoelectric effect The piezoelectric effect links both electrical and mechanical properties. Piezoelectricity refers to a linear electro-mechanical interplay between the mechanical and electrical states of a crystal. The direct piezoelectric effect refers to an electrical charge, detectable as a voltage, being created in proportion to mechanical deformation of the crystal.

Figure Piezoelectric effect resulting from an external force. The polarity of the electric charge depends on the direction of the applied force.

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The reciprocal or inverse piezoelectric effect refers to a deformation that arises in proportion to an external electrical field created by the application of an electrical voltage.

Figure The inverse piezoelectric effect under the influence of external electric fields. The dimensions of the body vary with the change in voltage.

Principles The piezoelectricity of ferroelectric materials is a consequence of the existence of polar areas (domains) whose orientation changes as result of the polarisation, i.e. of the application of an electrical voltage. The polarisation is associated with a change in length, S.

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Figure 23: Electric dipoles in a piezoelectric material before and after polarisation. Lead zirconium titanate Pb(Zrx Ti(1-x)) O3 is processed in polycrystalline form. The two most common shaping methods are pressing and the tape casting process. The green body acquires its ceramic properties through firing. The piezoceramic, however, only acquires its technically interesting piezoelectric properties through a polarisation process.

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Figure Diagram of the domains in lead zirconate titanate before, during and after polarisation S = change in length during polarisation Sr = residual changing length after the polarisation process

Figure 25: Fundamental vibration modes in piezoceramic components

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Figure : Isostatic pressing with regions of different compression (grey levels)

Figure : Extrusion
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Figure: Substrates of aluminium oxide

Figure: Various piezo-ceramic parts.

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