1 - Training Establishment Relcom was incorporated in August 2000 under a young energetic Engineer and entr epreneur Dr.

Ran Singh Birhman. Relcom started with a team of few technicians an d two engineers (two engineers and few technicians) to take up the project of CD MA I&C for MOTOROLA (MTNL) Delhi and Fujitsu for MTNL Mumbai. It was Relcoms adap tability to technical knowledge and experience in Telecom sector which enabled R elcom to successfully undertake preventive maintenance of AIRTEL sites in Delhi. The efficient and technical capability of Relcoms staff further resulted in gett ing RF survey, LOS survey, New BTS and M/W radio I &C. 1.1 Relcom Mission .To be premier among leading Telecom Engineering Services providers by assuring quality and timely delivery 1.2 Relcom Vision Customer delight through organizational dynamism to meet their requirement attem pting FTR (First Time Right) and attending their complaints 24X7. Grow with Custo mer Growth. 1.3 About Relcom The continuous upgrading of knowledge and business acumen ship of its ma nagement brought Relcom out of its infancy in a short span in the form Relcom Gro up . Relcom Project Management Consultancy, RF survey, Site Acquisition, Drive Test ( 2G and 3G), Bench Marking and optimization Relcom Engineering Pvt. Ltd. (REPL) BTS, M/W (SDH/PDH) I&C, Switch up gradation (Software/Hardware), Man power outsourcing, End to End Projects and TISP. Sai Enterprises Civil infra development, Electrical, Earthing and Lightning arre stors. Relcom Technology Training on GSM/CDMA, Computers (software/hardware). It was sheer farsightedness which made a group to grow exponentially from a mer e 200 BTS and M/W installation, commissioning and testing in 2000-2001 to the tu ne of 3000 BTS and M/W I&C, More than 5000 sites as PMC, and more than 1000 site s as TSP in 2009-2010. 1.4 Relcom Services Project Management of NEW as well as INFIL sites Site acquisition, authority approval, RF Survey, for new as well in fills sites for infra development Installation, Commissioning, Testing and Integration of BTS/BSC/MSC Installation, Commissioning, testing and integration of Microwave HOPs (Inter & Intra City) and SDH and PDH backbone sites Updation of existing sites for increased tenacity including tower strengthening, DG and PIU up gradation, etc. Swapping of existing equipment with new (BTS, BSC) Up gradation of MSC (in Software up gradation) and hardware addition Installation, Testing & commissioning of FM Radio Station RF survey for Line of Sight and connectivity Supply, installation and commission ing of electrical system, earthing Warehouse Management and Kitting for GSM, CDM A, FM Station & Any other communication project in Delhi, Haryana, U.P., Rajasth an Punjab, and Himachal (we have sufficient infrastructure including covered she ds appx 25000 sq fts.) in Delhi and North India system, aviation light and light ening Arrestor System Complete Technical Consultancy Services Supply, Design, Fabrication including Galvanizing and installation of GSM, Micro wave mounts, Diversity fixtures and outdoor cable trays, towers etc. Project optimization of new and old GSM Network

 O&M activity of GSM network sites Training of B. E / Graduate Engineers/Diploma Holders on GSM/CDMA network servic es 2 - Mobile Telecommunication 2.1 Mobile Communication Mobile communications is one of the fastest growing and most demanding of all te lecommunications technologies. Currently, it represents an increasingly high per centage of all new telephone subscriptions worldwide. In many cases, cellular so lutions successfully compete with traditional wire line networks and cordless te lephones. In the future, cellular systems employing digital technology will beco me the universal method of telecommunication. 2.2 History of Mobile Telecommunication The origins of mobile communications followed quickly behind the invention of ra dio in the late1800s. The first applications of mobile radio were related to the navigation and safety of ships at sea. As radio concepts developed, so did its use as a communications tool. The major milestones in the development of wireles s communications are summarized in the following table: 2.3 Mobile Standards

2.4 Global System For Mobile (GSM) 2.4.1 GSM Network Architecture The GSM network is mainly divided into two parts. As, Switching System (SS) Base Station System (BSS) In addition to that all the nodes are monitored and maintained by computerized s ystem

A) MOBILE SWITCHING CENTRE (MSC) The MSC is the main component of the NSS. It provides switching functions for ca lls between mobile subscribers, and between mobile and fixed network subscribers . It is interconnected to and provides interfaces with the PSTN, ISDN and public packet or circuit switched data networks. The MSC functionally incorporates, SSP (service switching point) RCF (radio control function) The SSP handles: Conventional switching functions: o Main control o Switching network o Time base o PCM link connection o Section selection for auxiliaries such as the IWF (Inter-Working Functio n) o Tones and announcements o Local or national signaling point (SP)

 Mobile radio application specific functions : o Setting up and releasing link sections from/to the PSTN/ISDN: the exchan ge provides call handling related functions under RCP control. o Call transfer on change of radio channel: the exchange can transfer a ca ll setup on one network section to another under RCP control, transaction betwee n RCP and SSP, under RCP control for an originating call from a mobile station, signaling points in local and national networks. o Selection of circuits to the BSS: specialized circuit groups are created . The SSP selects an incoming or outgoing circuit whose identity is transmitted to the RCP. o Echo canceling: voice frequency channels established with a mobile stati on are equipped with an echo canceller to eliminate echo on a call between a PST N subscriber and a PLMN subscriber. Echo cancellers are connected on an individu al call basis. They are integrated into the exchange on the PSTN side. Operation and maintenance functions: o o o Interface with the OMC-S over asynchronous links Generation of data required for observation Generation of call data records (CDR)

The RCP handles: Call security The RCP provides the mobile radio service with protection mechanisms against una uthorized call attempts or intrusion into a conversation by third parties. These mechanisms are used to authenticate the mobile calling and/or called party and to cipher all information (speech, data and signaling) from the radio interface using a ciphering key (Kc) which is changed for each call. The RCF adapts the se curity information interchanged between BSS and VLR. The VLR manages various sec urity procedures relating to key sand triplets, authentication, ciphering, subsc riber identity confidentiality (TMSI). Location update The location update function tells the network where the mobile subscriber is at all times. It provides the subscriber with continuity of service throughout the authorized coverage area, enabling the subscriber, regardless of location to be called using a permanent directory number, to access the network from anywhere. The VLR updates mobile subscriber location data and transmits this data to the HLR if the subscriber is from another VLR. Call handling The RCF manages all operations relating to originating or terminating call set-u p, dialog with the SSP to manage the physical resources involved in a call (terr estrial circuit for dialog with the SSP, radio channel for dialog with the BSC), operations required for handover, including generating the handover number (HO number) when the mobile subscriber changes cells. Charging For each originating, terminating, or rerouted call relating to a mobile subscri ber, the MSC transmits call data records (CDR) to the OMC-S. Calls rerouted afte r call forwarding also result in CDR transmission.

B) NUMBERING AND ROUTING By dialing an E.164 number, depending on the type of subscription, a mobile subs criber can reach a national PSTN subscriber, a subscriber of one or more nationa l PLMNs, a subscriber of any foreign PSTN, a subscriber of any foreign PLMN. The RCP analyzes the number based on the type of number received, the RCP transmits the number to the SSP for translation and routing (example: the received number is national or international), asks the HLR for an MSRN (mobile station roaming number) and transmits it to the SSP (example: the number received is an HPLMN n umber), transmits the number of the SSP with the origin geographic area (example : the number received is an emergency services number. C) GATEWAY MSC (GMSC) Gateway functionality enables an MSC to interrogate a HLR in order to route a mo bile terminating call. It is not used in calls from MS s to any terminal other t han another MS. For example, if a person connected to the PSTN wants to make a c all to a GSM mobile subscriber, then the PSTN exchange will access the GSM netwo rk by first connecting the call to a GMSC. The GMSC requests call routing inform ation from the HLR that provides information about which MSC/VLR to route the ca ll to. The same is true of a call from an MS to another MS. D) HOME LOCATION REGISTER (HLR) The HLR is a database storing information relating to mobile network subscribers . The Scan incorporate more than one database according to capability, availabil ity, and operating criteria selected. A static record in the HLR describes each subscription, giving details of options and supplementary services accessible to the subscriber. This static information is combined with dynamic information co ncerning the subscriber s latest known location or the operational status of the MS. The HLR stores data characterizing the subscriber (MSISDN, access rights, e tc.). E) VISITOR LOCATION REGISTER (VLR) The role of a VLR in a GSM network is to act as a temporary storage location for subscription information for MSs which are within a particular MSC service area . Thus, there is one VLR for each MSC service area. This means that the MSC does not have to contact the HLR (which may be located in another country) every tim e the subscriber uses a service or changes its status. Following occurs when MS s move into a new service area: 1. The VLR checks its database to determine whether or not it has a record for the MS (based on the subscriber s IMSI) 2. When the VLR finds no record for the MS, it sends a request to the subsc riber s HLR for a copy of the MS s subscription. 3. The HLR passes the information to the VLR and updates its location infor mation for the subscriber. The HLR instructs the old VLR to delete the informati on it has on the MS 4. The VLR stores its subscription information for the MS, including the la test location and status (idle) F) AUTHENTICATION CENTER (AuC) The AuC is a database storing confidential information, such as the Ki (the subs cribers individual authentication key) used by the network to certify the subscri ber s identity. The Kiis stored in coded form which can be deciphered only by th e AuC. The AuC generates the triplets used for the authentication and ciphering procedures. It generates a signed response (SRES), based on random number (RAND) , individual authentication key (Ki) and algorithm A3, a ciphering key Kc, based

on RAND, Ki and algorithm A8. The triplet is made up of RAND, SRES and Kc. The AuC supplies the VLR with data required for subscriber authentication and cipher ing interchanges between the MS and BSS. G) EQUIPMENT IDENTITY REGISTER (EIR) The EIR is an optional database accessible to the MSC. It contains lists of perm itted MSs and barred MSs (stolen or disturbance-generating). Each MS is assigned IMEI (international mobile equipment identity) providing information not relati ng to the subscriber identity, such as the factory serial number or software ver sion. The exchange interrogates the EIR to check the mobile station s IMEI statu s. The EIR responds with the following information: o o o White-listed: equipment permitted to use the network, Grey-listed: equipment being tracked, Black-listed: equipment barred from using the network.

H) BASE STATION CONTROLLER (BSC) The BSC controls a major part of the radio network. Its most important task is t o ensure the highest possible utilization of the radio resources. The main funct ional areas of the BSC are: Radio Network Management RBS Management TRC Handling Transmission Network Management Internal BSC Operation and Maintenance Handling of MS connections I) RADIO BASE STATION (RBS) RBS functionality can be divided into the following areas: Radio resources Signal processing Signaling link management Synchronization Local maintenance handling Functional supervision and testing RADIO RESOURCES An RBS s main function is to provide connection with the MSs over the air interf ace. This includes the following tasks: > Configuration and system start: site configuration involves loading of s oftware from the BSC and setting parameters prior to system startup. > Radio transmission: to transmit several frequencies using the same anten na, a combiner or a set of combiners are needed. Transmission power is controlle d from the BSC. > Radio reception: in addition to reception of traffic on the physical cha nnels, a primary RBS function the detection of channel requests from MSs (e.g. w hen a call is being made). SIGNAL PROCESSING An RBS is responsible for the processing of signals before transmission and afte r reception. This includes:

> > > > >

Ciphering using the ciphering key Channel coding and interleaving Adaptive equalization Realization of diversity Demodulation

SIGNALING LINK MANAGEMENT An RBS manages the signaling link between the BSC and MS, applying the appropria te protocols to the information being sent. SYNCHRONIZATION Timing information is extracted from the PCM-links from the BSC and is sent to a timing module within the RBS. Those enable the RBS to synchronize with the corr ect frequency reference and TDMA frame number. LOCAL MAINTENANCE HANDLING An RBS enables operation and maintenance functions to be carried out locally at the RBS site, without BSC connection. In this way, field technicians can maintai n RBS equipment and software on site. FUNCTIONAL SUPERVISION AND TESTING Supervision and testing of RBS functions is supported, using either built-in tes ts during normal operation or tests executed by command. 2.4.2 GSM Transmission Process Analog To Digital (A/D) Conversion One of the primary functions of an MS is to convert the analog speech informatio n into digital form for transmission using a digital signal. The analog to digit al (A/D) conversion process outputs a collection of bits: binary ones and zeros which represent the speech input. The A/D conversion is performed by using a process called Pulse Code Modulation (PCM). PCM involves three main steps: > Sampling > Quantization > Coding SAMPLING Sampling involves measuring the analog signal at specific time intervals. The ac curacy of describing the analog signal in digital terms depends on how often the analog signal is sampled. This is expressed as the sampling frequency. The samp ling theory states that: To reproduce an analog signal without distortion, the signal must be sampled wit h at least twice the frequency of the highest frequency component in the analog signal. Normal speech mainly contains frequency components lower than 3400 Hz. Higher co mponents have low energy and may be omitted without affecting the speech quality much. Applying the sampling theory to analog speech signals, the sampling frequ ency, should be at least 2 x 3.4 kHz = 6.8 kHz. Telecommunication systems use a sampling frequency of 8 kHz, which is acceptable based on the sampling theory. QUANTIZATION

The next step is to give each sample a value. For this reason, the amplitude of the signal at the time of sampling is measured and approximated to one of a fini te set of values. The figure below shows the principle of quantization applied t o an analog signal. It can be seen that a slight error is introduced in this pro cess when the signal is quantized or approximated. The degree of accuracy depen ds on the number of quantization levels used. Within common telephony, 256 level s are used while in GSM 8,192 levels are used. CODING Coding involves converting the quantized values into binary. Every value is repr esented by a binary code of 13 bits (213 = 8192). For example, a quantized value of 2,157 would have a bit pattern of 0100001101101 Bit 3 12 2 11 1 1 0 2048 0 10 0 0 1 0 1 9 Total 0 0 2157 8 0 0 7 0 0 6 1 64 5 1 32 4 0 0

Set to 0 1 1 Value 8 0 4

Channel Coding The result from the process of A/D conversion is 8,000 samples per second of 13 bits each. This is a bit rate of 104 Kbits/s. When it is considered that 8 subsc ribers use one radio channel, the overall bit rate would be 8 x 104 Kbits/s = 83 2 Kbits/s. Recalling the general rule of 1 bit per Hertz, this bit rate would no t fit into the 200 kHz available for all 8subscribers. The bit rate must be redu ced somehow - this is achieved using segmentation and speech coding. SPEECH CODING The GSM group studied several voice coding algorithms on the basis of subjective speech quality and complexity (which is related to cost, processing delay, and power consumption once implemented) before arriving at the choice of a Regular P ulse Excited -Linear Predictive Coder (RPELPC) with a Long Term Predictor loop. Basically, information from previous samples, which does not change very quickly , is used to predict the current sample. The coefficients of the linear combinat ion of the previous samples, plus an encoded form of the residual, the differenc e between the predicted and actual sample, represent the signal. Speech is divid ed into 20 millisecond samples, each of which is encoded as 260 bits, giving a t otal bit rate of 13 kbps. CHANNEL CODING Due to natural or manmade electromagnetic interference, the encoded speech or da ta transmitted over the radio interface must be protected as much as is practica l. The GSM system uses > > Encoding Block interleaving

To achieve this protection the method used for speech blocks will be described b elow. Recall that the speech codec produces a 260-bit block for every 20 ms spee ch sample. From subjective testing, it was found that some bits of this block were more imp ortant for perceived speech quality than others. The bits are thus divided into three classes:

Class Ia: 50 bits - most sensitive to bit errors Class Ib 132 bits - moderately sensitive to bit errors Class II 78bits - least sensitive to bit errors INTERLEAVING To further protect against the burst errors common to the radio interface, each sample is diagonally interleaved. The 456 bits output by the convolution encoder are divided into 8blocks of 57 bits, and these blocks are transmitted in eight consecutive timeslot bursts. Since each timeslot burst can carry two 57-bit bloc ks, each burst carries traffic from two different speech samples. MODULATION Recall that each timeslot burst is transmitted at a gross bit rate of 270.833 kb ps. This digital signal is modulated onto the analog carrier frequency, which ha s a bandwidth of 200 kHz, using Gaussian filtered Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK). G MSK was selected over other modulation schemes as a compromise between spectral efficiency, complexity of the transmitter, and limited spurious emissions. The c omplexity of the transmitter is related to power consumption, which should be mi nimized for the mobile station. The spurious radio emissions, outside of the all otted bandwidth, must be strictly controlled so as to limit adjacent channel int erference, and allow for the coexistence of GSM and the older analog systems (at least for the time being). 2.4.3 GSM RADIO INTERFACE The GSM radio interface is the bandwidth given to communicate through the air in terface. In GSM 900 system this is 890-915 MHz for uplink and 935-960 MHz for do wn link. In GSM1800 system this is 1710-1785 MHz for uplink and 1805-1880 MHz fo r down link to provide full duplex communication between Mobile Station and GSM network, for each communication a separate carrier from uplink and down link is assigned. These carriers are time intervals from a particular frequency those di vided using Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) and Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA). TIME DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS (TDMA) Most digital cellular systems use the technique of Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) to transmit and receive speech signals. With TDMA, one carrier is used t o carry a number of calls, each call using that carrier at designated periods in time. These periods of time are referred to as time slots. Each MS on a call is assigned one time slot on the uplink frequency and one on the downlink frequenc y. Information sent during one time slot is called a burst. In GSM, a TDMA frame consists of 8 time slots. This means that a GSM radio carrier can carry 8 calls . TDMA FRAME > Each carrier mentioned above is time divided. Each time division is call ed a time slots [TS] or burst window. > Each TDMA frame contains 8 TS having duration of 4.615ms. > Each TS have duration of 577 microseconds. > TS can carry a speech, data, or signaling packet of a given channel. > A physical channel is composed by TS n [n=0 to 7] of consecutive TDMA fr ames.

3 - Transmission 3.1 Transmission Mediums used in Telecom industry 3.1.1 Copper Cables A) Twisted Pair cables Twisted pair cabling is a type of wiring in which two conductors (the forward an d return conductors of a single circuit)are twisted together for the purposes of canceling out electromagnetic interference(EMI) from external sources; for inst ance, electromagnetic radiation from Unshielded Twisted Pair(UTP) cables, and cr osstalk between neighboring pairs. 25 pair color code chart In balanced operation, the two wires carry equal and opposite signals and the de stination detects the difference between the two. This is known as mode transmis sion. Noise sources introduce signals into the wires by coupling of electric or magnetic fields and tend to couple to both wires equally. The noise thus produce s a common-mode signal which is cancelled at the receiver when the difference si gnal is taken. This method starts to fail when the noise source is close to the signal wires; the closer wire will couple with the noise more strongly and the c ommon of the receiver will fail to eliminate it. This problem is especially appa rent in telecommunication cables where pairs in the same cable lie next to each other for many miles. One pair can induce crosstalk in another and it is additiv e along the length of the cable. Twisting the pairs counters this effect as on e ach half twist the wire nearest to the noise-source is exchanged. Providing the interfering source remains uniform, or nearly so, over the distance of a single twist, the induced noise will remain common-mode. Differential signaling also re duces electromagnetic from the cable, along with the associated attenuation allo wing for greater distance between exchanges. The twist rate (also called pitch o f the twist, usually defined in twists per meter) makes up part of the specifica tion for a given type of cable. Where nearby pairs have equal twist rates, the s ame conductors of the different pairs may repeatedly lie next to each other, par tially undoing the benefits of differential mode. For this reason it is commonly specified that, at least for cables containing small numbers of pairs, the twis t rates must differ. In contrast to FTP (foiled twisted pair) and STP (shielded

twisted pair) cabling, UTP (unshielded twisted pair) cable is not surrounded by any shielding. It is the primary wire type for telephone usage and is very commo n for networking, especially as patch or temporary network connections due to th e high flexibility of the cables. Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) Twisted pair cables were first used in telephone systems by Alexander in 1881. B y1900, the entire American telephone network was either twisted pair or open wir e with similar arrangements to guard against interference. Today, most of the mi llions of kilometers of twisted pairs in the world are landlines, owned by telep hone companies, used for voice service, and only handled or even seen by telepho ne workers.UTP cables are found in many Ethernet networks and telephone systems. For indoor telephone applications, UTP is often grouped into sets of 25 pairs a ccording to a standard25-pair color code originally developed by AT&T.A typical subset of these colors (white/blue, blue/white, white/orange, orange/white) show s up in most UTP cables. For urban outdoor telephone cables containing hundreds or thousands of pairs, the cable is divided into smaller but identical bundles. Each bundle consists of twisted pairs that have different twist rates. The bundl es are in turn twisted together to make up the cable. Pairs having the same twis t rate within the cable can still experience some degree of crosstalk. Wire pair s are selected carefully to minimize crosstalk within a large cable.

Cable shielding Twisted pair cables are often shielded in attempt to prevent electromagnetic bec ause the shielding is made of metal, it may also serve as a ground. However, usu ally a shielded or a screened twisted pair cable has a special grounding wire ad ded called a drain wire. This shielding can be applied to individual pairs, or t o the collection of pairs. When shielding is applied to the collection of pairs, this is referred to as screening. The shielding must be grounded for the shield ing to work. Screened unshielded twisted pair (S/UTP) Also known as fully shielded (or Foiled) Twisted Pair (FTP), is a screened UTP c able (ScTP). Shielded twisted pair (STP or STP-A) STP cabling includes metal shielding over each individual pair of copper wires. This type of shielding protects cable from external EMI (electromagnetic interfe rences). e.g. the150 ohm shielded twisted pair cables defined by the IBM Cabling System specifications and used with token ring networks. Screened shielded twisted pair (S/STP or S/FTP) S/STP cabling, also known as Screened Fully shielded Twisted Pair (S/FTP), is b oth individually shielded (like STP cabling) and also has an outer metal shieldi ng covering the entire group of shielded copper pairs (like S/UTP). This type of cabling offers the best protection from interference from external sources, and also eliminates alien crosstalk

Note that different vendors and authors use different terminology (i.e. STP has been used to denote both STP-A, S/STP, and S/UTP).

Advantages It is a thin, flexible cable that is easy to string between walls. More lines can be run through the same wiring ducts. UTP costs less per meter/foot than any other type of LAN cable.

Disadvantages Twisted pairs susceptibility to interference greatly depends on the pair twisting schemes (usually patented by the manufacturers) staying intact during the insta llation. As a result, twisted pair cables usually have stringent requirements fo r maximum pulling tension as well as minimum bend radius. This relative fragilit y of twisted pair cables makes the installation practices an important part of e nsuring the cables performance. In video applications that send information across multiple parallel signal wire s, twisted pair cabling can introduce signaling delays known as skew which resul ts in subtle color defects and ghosting due to the image components not aligning correctly when recombined in the display device. The skew occurs because twiste d pairs within the same cable often use a different number of twists per meter s o as to prevent common-mode crosstalk between pairs with identical numbers of tw ists. The skew can be compensated by varying the length of pairs in the terminat ion box, so as to introduce delay that take up the slack between shorter and lon ger pairs, though the precise lengths required are difficult to calculate and va ry depending on the overall cable length. B) Coaxial cables Coaxial cable, or coax, is an electrical with an inner conductor surrounded by a flexible, tubular insulating layer, surrounded by a tubular conducting shield. The term coaxial comes from the inner conductor and the outer shield sharing the same geometric axis. Coaxial cable was invented by English engineer and mathema tician Oliver who first patented the design in 1880. Coaxial cable is used as a transmission line for radio frequency signals, in app lications such as connecting radio transmitters and receivers with their antenna s, computer network (Internet) connections, and distributing cable television si gnals. One advantage of coax over other types of transmission line is that in an ideal coaxial cable the electromagnetic carrying the signal exists only in the space between the inner and outer conductors. This allows coaxial cable runs to be installed next to metal objects such as gutters without the power losses that occur in other transmission lines, and provides protection of the signal from e xternal electromagnetic interference Coaxial cable differs from other shielded used for carrying lower frequency sign als such as signals, in that the dimensions of the cable are controlled to produ ce a repeatable and predictable conductor spacing needed to function efficiently as a radio frequency transmission line.

How it works Like any electrical power cord, coaxial cable conducts AC electric current betwe en locations. Like these other cables, it has two conductors, the central wire a nd the tubular shield. At any moment the current is traveling outward from the s ource in one of the conductors, and returning in the other. However, since it is alternating the current reverses direction many times a second. Coaxial cable d iffers from other cable because it is designed to carry frequency current. This has a frequency much higher than the 50 or 60 Hz used in mains cables, reversing direction millions to billions of times per second. Like other types of radio t ransmission this requires special construction to prevent power losses: If an ordinary wire is used to carry high frequency currents, the wire acts as a n antenna, and the high frequency currents radiate off the wire as radio waves, causing power losses. To prevent this, in coaxial cable one of the conductors is formed into a tube and encloses the other conductor. This confines the radio wa ves from the central conductor to the space inside the tube. To prevent the oute r conductor, or shield, from radiating, it is connected to electrical keeping it at a constant potential. The dimensions and spacing of the conductors must be uniform. Any abrupt change in the spacing of the two conductors along the cable tends to reflect radio freq uency power back toward the source, causing a condition called standing This act s as a bottleneck, reducing the amount of power reaching the destination end of the cable. To hold the shield at a uniform distance from the central conductor, the space between the two is filled with a semi rigid plastic dielectric. Manufa cturers specify a minimum bend radius to prevent kinks that would cause reflecti ons. The connectors used with coax are designed to hold the correct spacing thro ugh the body of the connector. Each type of coaxial cable has a impedance depending on its dimensions and mater ials used, which is the ratio of the voltage to the current in the cable. In ord er to prevent reflections at the destination end of the cable from causing stand ing waves, any equipment the cable is attached to must present an impedance equa l to the characteristic impedance (called matching ). Thus the equipment "appears " electrically similar to a continuation of the cable, preventing reflections. C ommon values of characteristic impedance for coaxial cable are 50 and75 ohms.

Description Coaxial cable design choices affect physical size, frequency performance, and at tenuation, power handling capabilities, flexibility, strength and cost. The inne r conductor might be solid or stranded; stranded is more flexible. To get better high-frequency performance, the inner conductor may be silver plated. Sometimes copper-plated iron wire is used as an inner conductor. The insulator surrounding the inner conductor may be solid plastic, a foam plast ic, or may be air with spacers supporting the inner wire. The properties of diel ectric control some electrical properties of the cable. A common choice is a sol id polyethylene (PE) insulator, used in lower-loss cables. Solid Teflon (PTFE) i s also used as an insulator. Some coaxial lines use air (or some other gas) and have spacers to keep the inner conductor from touching the shield. Many conventional coaxial cables use braided copper wire forming the shield. Thi s allows the cable to be flexible, but it also means there are gaps in the shiel d layer, and the inner dimension of the shield varies slightly because the braid cannot be flat. Sometimes the braid is silver plated. For better shield perform ance, some cables have a double-layer shield. The shield might be just two braid s, but it is more common now to have a thin foil shield covered by a wire braid. Some cables may invest in more than two shield layers, such as "quad-shield" wh ich uses four alternating layers of foil and braid. Other shield designs sacrifi ce flexibility for better performance; some shields are a solid metal tube. Thos e cables cannot take sharp bends, as the shield will kink, causing losses in the

cable For high power radio-frequency transmission up to about 1 GHz coaxial cable with a solid copper outer conductor is available in sizes of 0.25 inch upwards. The outer conductor is rippled like a bellows to permit flexibility and the inner co nductor is held in position by a plastic spiral to approximate an air dielectric . Coaxial cables require an internal structure of an insulating (dielectric) mater ial to maintain the spacing between the center conductor and shield. The dielect ric losses increase in this order: Ideal dielectric (no loss), vacuum, air, Poly tetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), polyethylene foam, and solid polyethylene. A low rel ative permittivity allows for higher frequency usage. An inhomogeneous dielectri c needs to be compensated by a non-circular conductor to avoid current hot-spots . Most cables have a solid dielectric; others have a foam dielectric which contain s as much air as possible to reduce the losses. Foam coax will have about 15% le ss attenuation but can absorb moisture especially at its many surfaces in humid environments, increasing the loss. Stars or spokes are even better but more expe nsive. Still more expensive were the air spaced coaxial used for some inter-city communications in the middle 20th Century. The center conductor was suspended b y polyethylene discs every few centimeters. In a miniature coaxial cable such as an RG-62 type, the inner conductor is supported by a spiral strand of polyethyl ene, so that airspace exists between most of the conductor and the inside of the jacket. The lower dielectric constant of air allows for a greater inner diamete r at the same impedance and a greater outer diameter at the same cutoff frequenc y, lowering losses. Inner conductors are sometimes silver plated to smooth the s urface and reduce losses due to effect. A rough surface prolongs the path for th e current and concentrates the current at peaks and thus increases ohmic losses. The insulating jacket can be made from many materials. A common choice is PVC, b ut some applications may require fire-resistant materials. Outdoor applications may require the jacket to resist ultraviolet light and oxidation for internal ch assis connections the insulating jacket may be omitted. The ends of coaxial cables are usually made with RF connectors.

Signal propagation Open wire transmission has the property that the wave propagating down the line extends into the space surrounding the parallel wires. These lines have low loss , but also have undesirable characteristics. They cannot be bent, twisted or oth erwise shaped without changing their impedance, causing reflection of the signal back toward the source. They also cannot be run along or attached to anything c onductive, as the extended fields will induce currents in the nearby conductors causing unwanted radiation and detuning of the line. Coaxial lines solve this problem by confining the electromagnetic wave to the ar ea inside the cable, between the center conductor and the shield. The transmissi on of energy in the line occurs totally through the dielectric inside the cable between the conductors. Coaxial lines can therefore be bent and moderately twist ed without negative effects, and they can be strapped to conductive supports wit hout inducing unwanted currents in them. In radio-frequency applications up to a few gigahertz, the wave propagates primarily in the transverse which means that the electric and magnetic fields are both perpendicular to the direction of pro pagation. However, above a certain frequency, transverse electric (TE) and/or tr ansverse magnetic (TM) modes can also propagate, as they do in a waveguide. It i s usually undesirable to transmit signals above the cutoff frequency, since it m ay cause multiple modes with different phase velocities to propagate, interferin g with each other. The outer diameter is roughly inversely proportional to the c utoff frequency. A propagating surface-wave mode that does not involve or requir e the outer shield but only a single central conductor also exists in coax but t

his mode is effectively suppressed in coax of conventional geometry and common i mpedance. Electric field lines for this TM mode have a longitudinal component an d require line lengths of a half-wavelength or longer. Connectors Coaxial connectors are designed to maintain a coaxial form across the connection and have the same well-defined impedance as the attached cable. Connectors are often plated with high-conductivity metals such as silver or gold. Due to the sk in effect, the RF signal is only carried by the plating and does not penetrate t o the connector body. Although silver oxidizes quickly, the silver oxide that is produced is still conductive. While this may pose a cosmetic issue, it does not degrade performance.

3.1.2 Electromagnetic waves Electromagnetic waves were first postulated by Maxwell and subsequently confirme d by Heinrich Hertz. Maxwell derived a wave form of the electric and magnetic eq uations, revealing the wave-like nature of electric and magnetic fields, and the ir symmetry. Because the speed of EM waves predicted by the wave equation coinci ded with the measured speed Maxwell concluded that light itself is an EM wave. According to equations, a spatially-varying electric generates a time-varying ma gnetic and vice versa. Therefore, as an oscillating electric field generates an oscillating magnetic field, the magnetic field in turn generates an oscillating electric field, and so on. These oscillating fields together form an electromagn etic wave. A quantum theory of the interaction between electromagnetic radiation and matter such as electrons is described by the theory of quantum electrodynamics. The physics of electromagnetic radiation is electrodynamics. Electromagnetism is the physical phenomenon associated with the theory of electrodynamics. Electric and magnetic fields obey the properties of superposition so that a field due to any particular particle or time-varying electric or magnetic field will contrib ute to the fields present in the same space due to other causes: as they are vec tor fields, all magnetic and electric field vectors add together according to ve ctor addition. For instance, a traveling EM wave incident on an atomic structure induces oscillation in the atoms of that structure, thereby causing them to emi t their own EM waves, emissions which alter the impinging wave through interfere nce. These properties cause various phenomena including refraction and diffracti on. Since light is an oscillation it is not affected by traveling through static ele ctric or magnetic fields in a linear medium such as a vacuum. However in nonline ar media, such as some crystals interactions can occur between light and static electric and magnetic fields, these interactions include the Faraday effect and the Kerr effect. In refraction, a wave crossing from one medium to another of different density a lters its speed and direction upon entering the new medium. The ratio of the ref ractive indices of the media determines the degree of refraction, and is summari zed by Snells Light disperses into a visible spectrum as light is shone through a prism because of the wavelength dependent refractive index of the prism materia l (Dispersion). EM radiation exhibits both wave properties and particle properties at the same t ime (seewave-particle duality). Both wave and particle characteristics have been confirmed in a large number of experiments. Wave characteristics are more appar ent when EM radiation is measured over relatively large timescales and over larg e distances while particle characteristics are more evident when measuring small timescales and distances. For example, when electromagnetic radiation is absorb ed by matter, particle-like properties will be more obvious when the average num

ber of photons in the cube of the relevant wavelength is much smaller than 1. Up on absorption of light, it is not too difficult to experimentally observe non-un iform deposition of energy. Strictly speaking, however, this alone is not eviden ce of "particulate" behavior of light; rather it reflects the quantum nature of matter There are experiments in which the wave and particle natures of electromagnetic waves appear in the same experiment, such as the self-interference of a single p hoton True single photon experiments (in a quantum optical sense) can be done today in undergraduate-level labs. When a single photon is sent through an interferomete r, it passes through both paths, interfering with it, as waves do, yet is detect ed by a photomultiplier or other sensitive detector only once.

Electromagnetic waves can be imagined as a self-propagating transverse oscillati ng wave of electric and magnetic fields. This diagram shows a plane linearly pol arized wave propagating from right to left. The electric field is in a vertical plane, the magnetic field in a horizontal plane

Electromagnetic spectrum Generally, EM radiation (the designation radiation excludes static electric an d magnetic and near fields) is classified by wavelength intoradio, microwave, in frared, the visible region we perceive as light, ultraviolet, X-rays and gamma r ays. Arbitrary electromagnetic waves can always be expressed by Fourier in terms of sinusoidal monochromatic waves which can be classified into these regions of the spectrum. The behavior of EM radiation depends on its wavelength. Higher frequencies have shorter wavelengths, and lower frequencies have longer wavelengths. When EM radi ation interacts with single atoms and molecules, its behavior depends on the amo unt of energy per quantum it carries. Spectroscopy can detect a much wider regio n of the EM spectrum than the visible range of 400 nm to 700 nm. A common labora tory spectroscope can detect wavelengths from 2 nm to 2500 nm. Detailed informat ion about the physical properties of objects, gases, or even stars can be obtain ed from this type of device. It is widely used in astrophysics. For example, hyd rogen atoms emit waves of wavelength 21.12 cm.

3.1.3 Optical fibers An optical fiber is made up of the core (carrying the light pulses), the claddin g (reflecting the light pulses back into the core) and the buffer coating (prote cting the core and cladding from moisture, damage, etc). Together, all of this c reates a fiber optic which can carry up to 10 million messages at any time using light pulses. Fiber optics is the overlap of applied science and engineering co ncerned with the design and application of optical fibers. Optical fibers are wi dely used in fiber-optic communications, which permits transmission over longer distances and at higher band (data rates) than other forms of communications. Fi bers are used instead of metal wires because signals travel along them with less

loss and are also immune to interference. Fibers are also used for illumination , and are wrapped in bundles so they can be used to carry images, thus allowing viewing in tight spaces. Specially designed fibers are used for a variety of oth er applications, including sensors and fiber lasers. Light is kept in the core of the optical fiber by total this causes the fiber to act as a waveguide. Fibers which support many propagation paths or transverse a re called multi-mode fibers (MMF), while those which can only support a single m ode are called single-mode fibers (SMF). Multi-mode fibers generally have a larg er core diameter, and are used for short-distance communication links and for ap plications where high power must be transmitted. Single-mode fibers are used for most communication links longer than 550 meters (1,800 ft). Joining lengths of optical fiber is more complex than joining electrical wire or cable. The ends of the fibers must be carefully cleaved, and then spliced toget her either mechanically or by fusing them together with an arc. Special connecto rs are used to make removable connections. Applications Optical fiber communication Optical fiber can be used as a medium for telecommunication and networking becau se it is flexible and can be bundled as cables. It is especially advantageous fo r long-distance communications, because light propagates through the fiber with little attenuation compared to electrical cables. This allows long distances to be spanned with few repeaters. Additionally, the per-channel light signals propa gating in the fiber have been modulated at rates as high as 111gigabits per seco nd by NTT, although 10 or 40 Gb/s is typical in deployed systems. Each fiber can carry many independent channels, each using a different wavelength of light (wa velength-division multiplexing (WDM)). The net data rate (data rate without over head bytes) per fiber is the per-channel data rate reduced by the FEC overhead, multiplied by the number of channels (usually up to eighty in commercial dense W DM systems as of 2008). The current laboratory fiber optic data rate record, hel d by Bell Labs in Villarceaux, France, is multiplexing 155channels, each carryin g 100 Gb/s over a 7000 km fiber. Nippon Telegraph and Telephone Corporation have also managed 69.1 Tb/s over a single 240km fiber (multiplexing 432 channels, eq uating to 171 Gb/s per channel). Bell Labs also broke a 100 Petabit per second k ilometer barrier. For short distance applications, such as creating a network within an office bui lding, fiber-optic cabling can be used to save space in cable ducts. This is bec ause a single fiber can often carry much more data than many electrical cables, such as 4 pair Cat-5 Ethernet cabling. Fiber is also immune to electrical interf erence; there is no cross-talk between signals in different cables and no pickup of environmental noise. Non-armored fiber cables do not conduct electricity, wh ich makes fiber a good solution for protecting communications equipment located in high voltage environments such as generation facilities, or metal communicati on structures prone to lightning strikes. They can also be used in environments where explosive fumes are present, without danger of ignition. Wiretapping is mo re difficult compared to electrical connections, and there are concentric dual c ore fibers that are said to be tap-proof. Fiber optic sensors Fibers have many uses in remote sensing. In some applications, the sensor is its elf an optical fiber. In other cases, fiber is used to connect a non-fiber optic sensor to a measurement system. Depending on the application, fiber may be used because of its small size, or the fact that no power is needed at the remote lo cation, or because many sensors can be multiplexed along the length of a fiber b y using different wavelengths of light for each sensor, or by sensing the time d elay as light passes along the fiber through each sensor. Time delay can be dete

rmined using a device such as an optical time-domain reflectometer. Optical fibe rs can be used as sensors to measure train, temperature pressure and other quant ities by modifying a fiber so that the quantity to be measured modulates the int ensity phase, polarization, and wavelength or transit time of light in the fiber . Sensors that vary the intensity of light are the simplest, since only a simple source and detector are required. A particularly useful feature of such fiber o ptic sensors is that they can, if required, provide distributed sensing over dis tances of up to one meter. Extrinsic fiber optic sensors use an optical fiber ca ble, normally a multi-mode one, to transmit modulated light from either a non-fi ber optical sensor, or an electronic sensor connected to an optical transmitter. A major benefit of extrinsic sensors is their ability to reach places which are otherwise inaccessible. An example is the measurement of temperature inside air craft jet by using a fiber to transmit radiation into a radiation pyrometer loca ted outside the engine. Extrinsic sensors can also be used in the same way to me asure the internal temperature of electrical transformers, where the extreme ele ctromagnetic present makes other measurement techniques impossible. Extrinsic se nsors are used to measure vibration, rotation, displacement, velocity, accelerat ion, torque, and twisting. Principle of operation An optical fiber is a cylindrical dielectric waveguide (nonconducting waveguide) that transmits light along its axis, by the process of total internal reflectio n. The fiber consists of a core surrounded by a cladding layer, both of which ar e made of dielectric materials. To confine the optical signal in the core, the r efractive index of the core must be greater than that of the cladding. The bound ary between the core and cladding may either be abrupt, in step-index fiber, or gradual, in graded-index fiber Total internal reflection When light traveling in a dense medium hits a boundary at a steep angle (larger than the "critical angle" for the boundary), the light will be completely reflec ted. This effect is used in optical fibers to confine light in the core. Light t ravels along the fiber bouncing back and forth off of the boundary. Because the light must strike the boundary with an angle greater than the critical angle, on ly light that enters the fiber within a certain range of angles can travel down the fiber without leaking out. This range of angles is called the acceptance con e of the fiber. The size of this acceptance cone is a function of the refractive index difference between the fiber s core and cladding. In simpler terms, there is a maximum angle from the fiber axis at which light ma y enter the fiber so that it will propagate, or travel, in the core of the fiber . The sine of this maximum angle is the numerical aperture (NA) of the fiber. Fi ber with a larger NA requires less precision to splice and work with than fiber with a smaller NA. Single-mode fiber has a small NA.

Multi-mode optical fiber Fiber with large core diameter (greater than 10 micrometers) may be analyzed by geometrical optics such fiber is called multi-mode fiber, from the electromagnet ic analysis (see below). In a step-index multi-mode fiber, rays of light are gui ded along the fiber core by total internal reflection. Rays that meet the core-c ladding boundary at a high angle (measured relative to a line normal to the boun dary), greater than the angle for this boundary, are completely reflected. The c ritical angle (minimum angle for total internal reflection) is determined by the difference in index of refraction between the core and cladding materials. Rays that meet the boundary at a low angle are refracted from the core into the clad ding, and do not convey light and hence information along the fiber. The critica

l angle determines the acceptance angle of the fiber, often reported as a numeri cal aperture. A high numerical aperture allows light to propagate down the fiber in rays both close to the axis and at various angles, allowing efficient coupli ng of light into the fiber. However, this high numerical aperture increases the amount of dispersion as rays at different angles have different path lengths and therefore take different times to traverse the fiber. In graded-index fiber, the index of refraction in the core decreases continuousl y between the axis and the cladding. This causes light rays to bend smoothly as they approach the cladding, rather than reflecting abruptly from the core-claddi ng boundary. The resulting curved paths reduce multi-path dispersion because hig h angle rays pass more through the lower-index periphery of the core, rather tha n the high-index center. The index profile is chosen to minimize the difference in axial propagation speeds of the various rays in the fiber. This ideal index p rofile is very close to a parabolic relationship between the index and the dista nce from the axis. Fiber with a core diameter less than about ten times the wavelength of the propa gating light cannot be modeled using geometric optics. Instead, it must be analy zed as an electromagnetic structure, by solution of Maxwell s equations as reduc ed to the electromagnetic wave equation. The electromagnetic analysis may also b e required to understand behaviors such as speckle that occur when coherent ligh t propagates in multi-mode fiber. As an optical waveguide, the fiber supports on e or more confined modes by which light can propagate along the fiber. Fiber sup porting only one mode is called Single-mode or mono-mode fiber. The behavior of larger-core multi-mode fiber can also be modeled using the wave equation, which shows that such fiber supports m ore than one mode of propagation (hence the name). The results of such modeling of multi-mode fiber approximately agree with the predictions of geometric optics , if the fiber core is large enough to support more than a few modes. The waveguide analysis shows that the light energy in the fiber is not completel y confined in the core. Instead, especially in single-mode fibers, a significant fraction of the energy in the bound mode travels in the cladding as an evanesce nt wave. The most common type of single-mode fiber has a core diameter of 8 10 micrometers and is designed for use in the near infrared. The mode structure depends on the wavelength of the light used, so that this fiber actually supports a small numb er of additional modes at visible wavelengths. Multi-mode fiber, by comparison, is manufactured with core diameters as small as50 micrometers and as large as hu ndreds of micrometers. The normalized frequency V for this fiber should be less than the first zero of the Bessel function J 0 (approximately 2.405) Practical issues In practical fibers, the cladding is usually coated with a tough resin buffer la yer, which may be further surrounded by a jacket layer, usually plastic. These l ayers add strength to the fiber but do not contribute to its optical wave guide properties. Rigid fiber assemblies sometimes put light-absorbing ("dark") glass between the fibers, to prevent light that leaks out of one fiber from entering a nother. This reduces cross-talk between the fibers, or reduces flare in fiber bu ndle imaging applications. Modern cables come in a wide variety of sheathings and armor, designed for appli cations such as direct burial in trenches, high voltage isolation, and dual use as power lines installation in conduit, lashing to aerial telephone poles, subma rine installation, and insertion in paved streets. The cost of small fiber-count pole-mounted cables has greatly decreased due to the high Japanese and South Ko rean demand for fiber to the home (FTTH) installations. Fiber cable can be very flexible, but traditional fiber s loss increases greatly if the fiber is bent with a radius smaller than around 30 mm. This creates a pr oblem when the cable is bent around corners or wound around a spool, making FTTX

installations more complicated. "Bendable fibers", targeted towards easier inst allation in home environments, have been standardized as ITU-T G.657. This type of fiber can be bent with a radius as low as 7.5 mm without adverse impact. Even more bendable fibers have been developed. Bendable fiber may also be resistant to fiber hacking, in which the signal in a fiber is surreptitiously monitored by bending the fiber and detecting the leakage. Another important feature of cable is cable withstanding against the horizontally applied force. Its technically ca lled max tensile strength defining how much force can apply to the cable during the installation of a period. Telecom Anatolia fiber optic cable versions are reinforced with aramid yarns or glass yarns as intermediary strength member. In commercial terms, usages of the glass yarns are more cost-effective while no loss in mechanical durability of th e cable. Glass yarns also protect the cable core against rodents and termites. Termination and splicing Optical fibers are connected to terminal equipment by optical fiber connectors. These connectors are usually of a standard type such as FC, SC, ST, LC or MTRJ. Optical fibers may be connected to each other by connectors or by splicing, that is, joining two fibers together to form a continuous optical waveguide. The gen erally accepted splicing method is arc fusion splicing, which melts the fiber en ds together with an electric arc. For quicker fastening jobs, a "mechanical spli ce" is used. Fusion splicing is done with a specialized instrument that typically operates as follows: The two cable ends are fastened inside a splice enclosure that will pr otect the splices, and the fiber ends are stripped of their protective polymer c oating (as well as the more sturdy outer jacket, if present). The ends are cleav ed (cut) with a precision cleaver to make them perpendicular, and are placed int o special holders in the splicer. The splice is usually inspected via a magnifie d viewing screen to check the cleaves before and after the splice. The splicer u ses small motors to align the end faces together, and emits a small spark betwee n electrodes at the gap to burn off dust and moisture. Then the splicer generate s a larger spark that raises the temperature above the melting point of the glas s, fusing the ends together permanently. The location and energy of the spark is carefully controlled so that the molten core and cladding do not mix, and this minimizes optical loss. A splice loss estimate is measured by the splicer, by di recting light through the cladding on one side and measuring the light leaking f rom the cladding on the other side. A splice loss under0.1 dB is typical. The co mplexity of this process makes fiber splicing much more difficult than splicing copper wire. Mechanical fiber splices are designed to be quicker and easier to install, but t here is still the need for stripping, careful cleaning and precision cleaving. T he fiber ends are aligned and held together by a precision-made sleeve, often us ing a clear index-matching gel that enhances the transmission of light across th e joint. Such joints typically have higher optical loss and are less robust than fusion splices, especially if the gel is used. All splicing techniques involve the use of an enclosure into which the splice is placed for protection afterward . Fibers are terminated in connectors so that the fiber end is held at the end fac e precisely and securely. A fiber-optic connector is basically a rigid cylindric al barrel surrounded by a sleeve that holds the barrel in its mating socket. The mating mechanism can be "push and click", "turn and latch" ("bayonet"), or scre w-in (threaded). A typical connector is installed by preparing the fiber end and inserting it into the rear of the connector body. Quick-set adhesive is usually used so the fiber is held securely, and a strain is secured to the rear. Once t he adhesive has set, the fiber s end is polished to a mirror finish. Various pol ish profiles are used, depending on the type of fiber and the application. For s ingle-mode fiber, the fiber ends are typically polished with a slight curvature, such that when the connectors are mated the fibers touch only at their cores. T his is known as a "physical contact" (PC) polish. The curved surface may be poli

shed at an angle, to make an "angled physical contact" (APC) connection. Such co nnections have higher loss than PC connections, but greatly reduced back reflect ion, because light that reflects from the angled surface leaks out of the fiber core; the resulting loss in signal strength is known as gap loss APC fiber ends have low back reflection even when disconnected. In the mid 1990 s fiber optic cable termination was very labor intensive with ma ny different parts per connector, fiber polishing and the need for an oven to ba ke the epoxy in each connector made terminating fiber optic very hard and labor intensive. Today many different connectors are on the market and offer an easier less labor intensive way of terminating fiber optic cable. Some of the most popular connectors have already been polished from the factory and include a gel inside the connector and those two steps help save money on la bor especially on large projects. A cleave is made at a required length in order to get as close to the polished piece already inside the connector, with the ge l surrounding the point where the two piece meet inside the connector very littl e light loss is exposed. Heres an example of a newer style connector being termin ated 3.2 Mobile Site Planning As RND section responsible for the radio network between mobile stations to radi o base station. From RBS to switch path is maintained by transmission section. T hen it is obvious that they must be connected to the switch to work the network. Transmission people do this job. Their work can be classified as follows. > Planning new links > Implementing new links > Maintaining existing links 3.2.1 PLANNING NEW LINKS For this the suitable path should be found and the parameters of the link should be checked for required levels. This is done using different analyzing methods and instruments. When planning a microwave link, between two sites, there are se veral aspects to be considered. Out of these factors the most important factor i s the obstruction free path between the relevant points. It is termed as "Line O f Sight" (Figure 01). Therefore the first factor of a microwave link is the LOS. An optical line of sight exists if an imaginary straight line can be drawn conn ecting the antennas on either side of the link.

3.2.2 IMPLEMENTING NEW LINKS After planning they try to implement the new link. Normally two teams go to the implementing process. One team does the job at one side and the other team does their job at the other side. 3.3 INDOOR UNITS 3.3.1 ACCESS MODULE MAGAZINE (AMM) The AMM houses the plug-in units and is designed for fitting in a 19" rack or ca binet. There are two types of AMM. > > AMM 1U-1 is used for 1+0 terminals and can house one MMU and one TRU. AMM 2U-4 is mainly used for 1+1 or two 1+0 terminals and can house up to four units; two MMUs and two TRUs

The plug-in units are inserted into the AMM from the front. The connection betwe

en the plug-in units is made through the backplane of the AMM. All indicators an d external connector interfaces are located on the fronts of the plug-in units. Cables are routed to the left and right hand side of the front. The AMM has a fr ont panel to protect the cables and connections. Indicators are visible through the front panel. Tools, used for removal of the plug-in units, are attached to t he inside of the front panel. 3.3.2 PLUG-IN UNITS FOR THE AMM > > Modem unit (MMU) Traffic Unit (TRU)

MODEM UNIT (MMU) The MMU is the indoor interface with the radio unit and contains a modulator/dem odulator. The MMU provides traffics and capacity of 155Mbit/s and infrequency in dependent. One MMU per radio unit is required. TRAFFIC UNIT (TRU) The main functions of the TRU is the generating and terminating an SDH STM-1 or SONETOC-3 signal and transmit it to or receive it from the MMU. It also contains a protection switching function used for protected terminal configuration. One TRU per terminal is required. Besides the main traffic (155Mbit/s), there are th ree auxiliary channels; one channel for wayside traffic and two service channels . The TRU comes in two versions; the TRU EL. With electrical traffic interface, an d the TRUEL/OPT with both electrical and optical traffic interfaces. FAN UNIT To guarantee sufficient cooling for the plug-in units, a fan unit is always fitt ed on top of the AMM. One fan unit per AMM is required. The cooling air enters at front of the AMM, flows between the units and out thro ugh openings at the back of the AMM. DC DISTRIBUTION UNIT (DDU) The optional DC distribution unit is used for distribution of primary Dc power t o a maximum of five MMUs or fan units. Each output is protected by an automatic type fuse (6A) combined with an on/off switch. 3.4 OUTDOOR UNITS > > Radio Unit Antenna

3.4.1 RADIO UNIT The radio unit is a microwave radio with RF transceivers, which transmit and rec eive RF signals. Traffic signals from the indoor units are processed and convert ed to transmitter frequency and sent over the hop. The radio unit is fitted directly to the antenna as standard. It can also be ins talled separately and connected by a flexible waveguide to any antenna with stan dard waveguide interface (154 IEC-UBR). It can be disconnected and replaced with out affecting the antenna alignment. There are connections for antenna alignment , radio cable and grounding. Two LEDs indicate alarm and power on/off.

3.4.2 ANTENNA Five different antenna types, fitting directly to the radio units, are available . 0.2m, 0.3m, 0.6m, 1.2m, and 1.8m are the available compact antennas. All an tennas can also be installed separately and connected to the radio unit by a fle xible waveguide. It is possible to choose between vertical and horizontal polari zation. The antenna is fitted on an antenna support and does not have to be remo ved during maintenance after alignment. 3.4.3 MAINTAINING EXISTING LINKS When the network grows up traffic demand get also increase. Also the new technol ogies come to the market and company uses those new technologies then existing l inks must update. The fault recovery of existing links has done by transmission section. 3.4.4 TEMS LINK PLANNER This is the software used in link planning. This is an Ericsson product. Accordi ng to our requirements we can plan the link in this software and we can find out the availability and performance of that according to the predefined performanc e criteria s fed in to the software. TEMS Link Planner uses a digital map database of Sri Lanka which is in Geobox fo rmat (Geobox format is an Ericsson internally developed format). This map has ve ry high-resolution is rich with all the geographical information of Sri Lanka. I t contains information such as, Over view/ key map Elevation Land usage Main roads and other roads Rivers and Lakes On TEMS link planner we can define different map version to help us and to prote ct our work, there are map versions such as training version which use for train ing purposes, stage 1 ,2 and3 versions which represents links Mobitel s differen t projects. It is very easy to design a TX link using TEMS Link Planner. In orde r to design a link first we have to select a proper map version and we must impo rt necessary data to that map such as height data, Land usage, and existing site s. Then we can implement the link by selecting the two end position of the link. In order to measure the actual performance of the path we created we have to de fine several parameters and configure the path.

4 - GSM Identities 4.1 Mobile Station ISDN Number (MSISDN)

This is the directory number of the subscriber. This is the number that should b e dialed in order to initiate a conversation. This is allocated to an IMSI numbe r in the HLR. It consists of three parts, 4.2 International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI) IMSI is a unique identity allocated to each subscriber. It is written in the SIM card and never known by the subscriber. It is used for the correct identificati on over the radio path and through the GSM network. The IMSI is also stored in t he AuC and used for authentication. According to the GSM specifications, IMSI ha s a maximum length of 15 digits. This number consists of three parts

4.3 International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI) This number is used for equipment identification and uniquely identifies Mobile Station hardware as a separate assembly of equipment. This number is used for em ergency calls with no SIM card. IMEI can be used to identify a stolen or not app roved type of MS by utilizing an EIR though this feature is not implemented in t he Dialog Network. The IMEI has the following format,

IMEI = TAC + FAC + SNR + SVNTAC : Type Approval Code Code given to the manufacturer for approved mobile equipment. FAC: Final Assembly Code - identifies the factory code. SNR: Serial Number - an individual serial number of six digits which uniquely id entifies all equipment within each TAC and FAC. SVN: Software Version Number - identify different software versions. 4.4 Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI) This identity is used to protect the subscribers privacy on the air interface. Th e TMSI is significant only within the MSC/VLR area and hence its structure can b e determined by each operator. 4.5 Mobile Station Roaming Number (MSRN) When a call is made to a mobile subscriber, the HLR requests the current MSC/VLR to provide an MSRN as a temporary routing number for the subscriber that gets t he call. Upon reception of the MSRN, the HLR sends it to the GMSC that is now ab le to use this number to route the call to the MSC/VLR exchange where the subscr iber that got the call is registered. The MSRN is also used to protect the subsc ribers privacy on the air interface. 4.6 Location Area Identity (LAI) An LAI makes possible to identify each location area in the world where a subscr iber can be. A single Location Area can be composed of several cells managed by one or several BSCs but depending only on a single MSC/VLR. LA is used during pa ging and location update procedures. The LAI comprises the following

LAI = MCC + MNC + LAC MCC : Mobile Country Code identify the home country MNC : Mobile Network Code identify the operator

LAC e PLMN CGI ll CI

: Location Area Code : Cell Global Identification : Cell Identifier

identify the location area in th unique identity given to each ce

5 - Operations Section Operation section is the department which is responsible of installment, mainten ance and repairing of radio base stations. Radio base station (RBS) is the inter face between mobile subscriber and the network. It provides radio coverage to th e subscriber through the radio antenna. Operations department look after radio b ase station equipments as well as cooling (AC) units and power supplies used in the base stations. Mobitel uses types of RBS equipments they are namely, RBS 2206 RBS 2207

Both of them are products of Ericson. There is no significant difference between these two equipments except for the fact that RBS 2206 and all its related unit s operates in GSM 1800 frequency and RBS 2207 and all its related equipments ope rates in GSM 900 frequency band. There are some TDMA (Time division multiple acc ess) radio base stations also used in Mobitel but there are only few sites opera tes in TDMA. TDMA is the technology which is used before GSM. Mobitel still has some customers who are using TDMA, but they are encouraged to migrate to GSM. 5.1 ANTENNAS USED IN BASE STATIONS IN its base stations Mobitel uses sector antennas to provide radio coverage to t he subscribers. These sector antennas normally transmit with a transmission powe r around -35 to- 40 db. This power level is adjusted by RBS. Sector antennas tha t we use in Mobitel support polarization diversity in order to increase its rece iver sensitivity. In polarization diversity the receiver antenna has two antenna arrays one with -45 and other with +45 angles. Some times we use dual frequency a ntennas. Dual frequency antennas are capable of operating in two separate freque ncy bands. These are used in sites where there is both GSM900 and GSM 1800 radio base stations are present, so without having two separate antennas we can have single dual frequency antenna.

5.2 RBS (RADIO BASE STATION) RBS is a high capacity indoor base station. This is capable of handling up to 6 carriers.RBS is a fully assembled cabinet. All plug-in units in the cabinet are accessible from the front of the cabinet. MAIN FEATURES Capability of using 1, 2 or 3 sectors in one cabinet Support co-siting (Antenna sharing) Discontinuous transmission and reception Duplex filters Encryption and ciphering Support for EDGE technology Frequency hopping External alarms Receiver diversity support Support different transmission interfaces (T1 1544 kbit/s with 100 , E1 2 048 kbit/s with 75 and E1 2048 kbit/s with 120 ) Wide range power input (120 - 250 V AC, 50/60 Hz) STANDARD HARDWARE UNITS CDU (Combine and distribution unit) CXU (Configuration switch unit) ACCU (AC connection unit) DCCU (DC connection unit) DTRU (Double transceiver unit) DXU (Distribution switch unit) FAU (Fan unit) IDM (Internal distribution module) PSU (Power supply unit) DC filter

OPTIONAL HARDWARE UNITS ASU (Antenna sharing unit) BBS (Battery back-up system) ddTMA (Dual duplex tower mounted amplifier- normally TMA is an mandatory equipment for GSM 1800) TMA-CM (Tower mounted amplifier control module) Bias injector DXX (Digital cross connector)

5.2.1 CDU- COMBINE AND DISTRIBUTION UNIT The CDU is the interface between the transceivers and the antenna system. All si gnals are filtered before transmission and after reception using Band pass filte r. CDU allows several antennas to share antennas. There a maximum of three CDUs in one RBS 2206 or2207. The CDU combines transmitted signals from several transceivers to one Tx signal, and distributes the received signal to several transceivers. It provides simult aneous transmission and reception on one antenna. CDU support base band hopping.

This amplifies two Rx signals from two Rx antennas for further distribution in the CXU. There two CDUs available, CDU-F, This is intended for high capacity solutions CDU-G, Can be configured either foe high capacity or high coverage

5.2.2 CXU- CONFIGURATION SWITCH UNIT The CXU cross connects the CDU and the DTRU in the receiver path. CXU supports b oth GMSK and 8- PSK. One CXU can support up to three CDUs. CXU is configured by means of software. Following is a figure of CXU. 5.2.3 DCCU- DC CONNECTION UNIT The DCCU handles distribution and connection/disconnection of the incoming DC po wer supply voltages to the PSUs. This unit also contains a filter unit in order to filter the supply voltages. 5.2.4 DTRU- DOUBLE TRANSCEIVER UNIT The DTRU is a replaceable unit for two transceiver units. A transceiver is a tra nsmitter/receiver and signal-processing unit, which transmit and receives one ca rrier. The DTRU has two Tx antenna terminals and four Rx antenna terminals. The DTRU has a built-in hybrid combiner; this hybrid combiner can be used to combine the two Tx antenna terminals in to one common terminal. Two of the TX antenna t erminals are used for 2-brabch polarization diversity reception, the DTRU is har dware prepared for 4-branch diversity reception through the remaining two antenn as. Following figure shows a DTRU,

5.2.5 DXU- DISTRIBUTION SWITCH UNIT DXU is the central control unit for the RBS. It is simply the CPU of the RBS. It acts as an interface between transmission network and the transceivers. It also extracts timing information from transmission interfaces and generates a timing reference for the RBS. The DXU handles incoming traffic, controls and supervise s information and sends it to its destination within the RBS. It the power and c limate equipment for the RBS and it collects and transmit alarms to the BSC. 5.2.6 TMA- TOWER MOUNTED AMPLIFIER The tower mounted amplifier compensates for signal loses in the receiver antenna cables in amplifies the receiving signal, reduces the system noise and improve the uplink sensitivity. The ddTMA (Dual duplex tower mounted amplifier) consists of a duplex filter. Duplex is the function that allows communication in two dir ections (sending and receiving) on one channel. Two TMAs are required for one se ctor antenna. One for the Rx 1 and other one for the Rx 2 (Polarization diversit y). The DC power supply to the TMA is provided through a bias injector over the Tx/R x feeder cables using the TMA-CM (Tower mounted amplifier control module). This control module is also used to identify TMA faults. One TMA -CM can handle up to 6 bias injectors. And one bias injector is needed for each TMA. Following is a diagram showing interconnection between CDU, CXU and DTRU. Here t wo DTRUs are used for a single sector. So that means this sector transmits and r eceives signals related to four carrier frequencies.

6 - Data Communication using GSM 6.1 GENERAL PACKET RADIO SERVICE (GPRS) GPRS is a packet switched technology used in GSM to data transfer. It provides a basic solution for Internet Protocol (IP) communication between Mobile Stations (MS) and Internet Service Hosts (IH) or a corporate LAN. Here the radio network resources are used only when data is being actually transmitted. Thus billing f or GPRS is based on amount of data transmitted, not on the duration as in packet switched technologies 6.1.1 KEY USER FEATURES OF GPRS > > > SPEED Theoretical maximum speeds of up to 171.2 kbps are achievable with GPRS using al l eight timeslots at the same time. This is about three times as fast as the dat a transmission speeds possible over today s fixed telecommunications networks an d ten times as fast as current Circuit Switched Data services on GSM networks. B y allowing information to be transmitted more quickly, immediately and efficient ly across the mobile network, GPRS may well be a relatively less costly mobile d ata service compared to SMS and Circuit Switched Data. IMMEDIACY GPRS facilitates instant connections whereby information can be sent or received immediately as the need arises, subject to radio coverage. No dial-up modem con nection is necessary. This is why GPRS users are sometimes referred to be as bei ng "always connected". Immediacy is one of the advantages of GPRS when compared to Circuit Switched Data. High immediacy is a very important feature for time cr itical applications such as remote credit card authorization where it would be u nacceptable to keep the customer waiting for even thirty extra seconds. Speed Immediacy New applications and better applications

6.1.2 KEY NETWORK FEATURES OF GPRS > > Packet Switching Spectrum Efficiency

PACKET SWITCHING GPRS involves overlaying a packet based air interface on the existing circuit sw itched GSM network. This gives the user an option to use a packet-based data ser vice. To supplement circuit switched network architecture with packet switching is quite a major upgrade. With GPRS, the information is split into separate but

related "packets" before being transmitted and reassembled at the receiving end. Packet switching is similar to a jigsaw puzzle- the image that the puzzle repre sents is divided into pieces at the manufacturing factory and put into a plastic bag. During transportation of the now boxed jigsaw from the factory to the end user, the pieces get jumbled up. When the recipient empties the bag with all the pieces, they are reassembled to form the original image. All the pieces are all related and fit together, but the way they are transported and assembled varies . The Internet itself is another example of a packet data network, the most famo us of many such network types. SPECTRUM EFFICIENCY Packet switching means that GPRS radio resources are used only when users are ac tually sending or receiving data. Rather than dedicating a radio channel to a mo bile data user for a fixed period of time, the available radio resource can be c oncurrently shared between several users. This efficient use of scarce radio res ources means that large numbers of GPRS users can potentially share the same ban dwidth and be served from a single cell. The actual number of users supported de pends on the application being used and how much data is being transferred. Beca use of the spectrum efficiency of GPRS, there is less need to build in idle capa city that is only used in peak hours. GPRS therefore lets network operators maxi mize the use of their network resources in a dynamic and flexible way, along wit h user access to resources and revenues. GPRS uses cording systems to code actual data to be sent over the network. There are 4 coding systems present,

We can see that the maximum data rate that can be achieved on a channel is 21.4k bps. So GPRS can achieve a data rate of 171.2 kbps (8* 21.4 kbps). But as the nu mber of subscribers supported by the carrier increases, the data rate per user d ecreases 6.2 3G Technology International MobileTelecommunications-2000 (IMT-2000), better known as 3G or 3r dGeneration, is a family of standards for mobile telecommunications fulfilling s pecifications by the International Telecommunication Union, which includes UMTS, and CDMA2000 as well as the non-mobile wireless standards DECT and WiMAX While the GSM EDGE standard also fulfils the IMT-2000 specification, EDGE phones are typically not branded 3G.Services include wide-area wireless voice telephon e, video calls, and wireless data, all in a mobile environment. Compared to 2G a nd 2.5G services, 3G allows simultaneous use of speech and data services and hig her data rates (at least 200 kbit/s peak bit rate to fulfill toIMT-2000 specific ation). Today s 3G systems can in practice offer up to 14.0 Mbit/ s on the downl ink and 5.8 Mbit/s on the uplink. 6.2.1 Features Data rates ITU has not provided a clear definition of the data rate users can expect from 3 G equipment or providers. Thus users sold 3G service may not be able to point to a standard and say that the rates it specifies are not being met. While stating in commentary that "it is expected thatIMT-2000 will provide higher transmissio n rates: a minimum data rate of 2 Mbit/s for stationary or walking users, and 38

4 Kbit/s in a moving vehicle," the ITU does not actually clearly specify minimum or average rates or what modes of the interfaces qualify as 3G, so various rate s are sold as 3G intended to meet customers expectations of broadband data. Security 3G networks offer greater security than their 2G predecessors. By allowing the U E (User Equipment) to authenticate the network it is attaching to, the user can be sure the network is the intended one and not an impersonator. 3G networks use the KASUMI block crypto instead of the older A5/1 stream cipher. However, a num ber of serious weaknesses in the KASUMI cipher have been identified. In addition to the 3G network infrastructure security, end-to-end security is of fered when application frameworks such as IMS are accessed, although this is not strictly a 3G property. 6.2.2 Applications The bandwidth and location information available to 3G devices gives rise to app lications not previously available to mobile phone users. Some of the applicatio ns are: Mobile TV a provider redirects a TV channel directly to the subscriber s phone w here it can be watched. Video on demand a provider sends a movie to the subscriber s phone. Video conferencing Subscribers can see as well as talk to each other. Tele-medicine a medical provider monitors or provides advice to the potentially isolated subscriber. Location-based services a provider sends localized weather or traffic conditions to the phone, or the phone allows the subscriber to find nearby businesses or f riends 6.3 High-Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA) High-Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA) is an enhanced 3G (third generation) m obile telephony communications protocol in the High-Speed Packet Access (HSPA) f amily, also coined 3.5G, 3G+ or turbo 3G, which allows networks based on Univers al Mobile Telecommunications System( UMTS) to have higher data transfer speeds a nd capacity. Current HSDPA deployments support down-link speeds of 1.8, 3.6, 7.2 and 14.0 Mbit/ s. Further speed increases are available with HSPA+, which provi des speeds of up to 42 Mbit/s downlink and 84 Mbit/s with Release 9 of the 3GPP standards. 6.3.1 Technology HS-DSCH channel For HSDPA, a new transport layer channel, High-Speed Downlink Shared Channel (HS -DSCH), has been added to W-CDMA specification. It is implemented by introducing three new physical layer channels: HS-SCCH, HS-DPCCH and HS-PDSCH. The High Spe ed-Shared Control Channel (HS-SCCH) informs the user that data will be sent on t he HS-DSCH2 slots ahead. The Uplink High Speed-Dedicated Physical Control Channe l (HS-DPCCH) carries acknowledgment information and current channel quality indi cator (CQI) of the user this value is then used by the base station to calculate how much data to send to the user devices on the next transmission. The High Sp eed-Physical Downlink Shared Channel (HS-PDSCH) is the channel mapped to the abo ve HS-DSCH transport channel that carries actual user data.

Hybrid automatic repeat-request (HARQ) Data is transmitted together with error correction bits. Minor errors can thus b e corrected without retransmission. If retransmission is needed, the user device saves the packet and later combines it with retransmitted packet to recover the error-free packet as efficiently as possible. Even if there transmitted packets are corrupted, their combination can yield an error-free packet. Retransmitted packet may be either identical (Chase combining) or different from the first tra nsmission (incremental redundancy).The round-trip time for retransmissions is im proved since the retransmissions are done from base station instead of radio net work controller. Fast packet scheduling The HS-DSCH downlink channel is shared between users using channel-dependent sch eduling to make the best use of available radio conditions. Each user device con tinually transmits an indication of the downlink signal quality, as often as 500 times per second. Using this information from all devices, the base station dec ides which users will be sent data on the next 2 ms frame and how much data shou ld be sent for each user. More data can be sent to users which report high downl ink signal quality. The amount of the channelization code tree, and thus network bandwidth, allocated to HSDPA users is determined by the network. The allocatio n is "semi-static" in that it can be modified while the network is operating, bu t not on a frame-by-frame basis. This allocation represents a trade-off between bandwidth allocated for HSDPA users, versus that for voice and non-HSDPA data us ers. The allocation is in units of channelization codes for Spreading Factor 16, of which 16 exist and up to 15 can be allocated to HSDPA. When the base station decides which users will receive data on the next frame, it also decides which channelization codes will be used for each user. This information is sent to the user devices over one or more scheduling channels"; these channels are not part of the HSDPA allocation previously mentioned, but are allocated separately. Thus , for a given 2 ms frame, data may be sent to a number of users simultaneously, using different channelization codes. The maximum number of users to receive dat a on a given 2 ms frame is determined by the number of allocated channelization codes. By contrast, in CDMA2000 1xEV-DO, data is sent to only one user at a time . Adaptive modulation and coding the modulation scheme and coding is changed on a per-user basis depending on signal quality and cell usage. The initial scheme is Quadrature phase-shift keying (QPSK), but in good radio conditions 16 QAM and 6 4 QAM can significantly increase data throughput rates. With 5 Code allocations, QPSK typically offers up to 1.8 Mbit/s peak data rates, while16QAM offers up to 3.6. Additional codes (e.g. 10, 15) can also be used to improve these data rate s or extend the network capacity throughput significantly.