Chapter

RESPIRATION
In the previous chapter, you have learnt that
animals take in high-energy organic molecules in the form of food; they catabolise these food stuffs in presence of oxygen and obtain energy for various activities. As catabolism occurs in presence of oxygen, this process is known as oxidation. During this process, adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is synthesised, and energy is trapped by forming bonds between adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate (Pi). Where required, ATP breaks into ADP and Pi and releases bond energy for utilisation in the animals body. This process is known as aerobic respiration. As it occurs in cells at the tissue level, it is also called internal or cell respiration. But from where does this oxygen come? It comes from the external environment in which the animal lives. However, oxidation may also occur in the absence of oxygen. This is referred to as anaerobic respiration. However, carbon dioxide, a toxic substance, is produced in both types of respiration. Animals must expel this toxic product. Thus, the exchange of internal carbon dioxide with external oxygen is a fundamental requirement of all animals. In this chapter, you will be introduced to the mechanism of gaseous exchange in different animals, including humans. Also, you will come to know about the structures associated with this function, and the mode of transport of carbon dioxide and oxygen in different animals and humans. At the end, we shall discuss some human respiratory disorders.

IN

ANIMALS

dioxide from them, respiration may be defined as the uptake of oxygen and giving out of carbon dioxide. Free-living acellular protists and multicellular animals exchange gases with their surrounding environment. Protozoans, poriferans and cnidarians obtain oxygen dissolved in water by diffusion through their body surfaces. Carbon dioxide follows the opposite path and is released through body surfaces. Most of the higher aquatic invertebrates have developed gills for aquatic mode of respiration. Gills are also the characteristics of fish (Fig. 6.1). Terrestrial animals (e.g. amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals), on the other hand, have developed lungs for aerial mode of respiration (Fig. 6.2).

Gills

(a) Prawn

Gills

(b) Fish

(b)

6.1

GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN ANIMALS

Fig. 6.1 Gills of prawn and fish for aquatic
mode of respiration

As the goals of respiration are to provide oxygen to the tissues and to remove carbon

RESPIRATION IN ANIMALS 69

Air sac

Fig. 6.2

Lungs of birds for aerial mode of respiration

Earthworms do not have a respiratory organ. They exchange O 2 and CO2 between their looped epidermal blood capillaries and moist skin. Their epidermis has a rich network of blood capillaries, and their body surface has a moist film containing secretions of epidermal mucous glands, excretory wastes and coelomic fluids. The epidermal capillaries that, in turn,

release the carbon dioxide, take up the oxygen dissolved in the film of surface moisture. There is no red blood corpuscle to carry the oxygen molecules. The respiratory pigment, haemoglobin, remains dissolved in the blood plasma; the oxygen tension, or partial pressure of oxygen in blood, is low relative to the moist skin. Hence, the dissolved oxygen binds with haemoglobin of the plasma. Contractile pumping activity by the blood vessels facilitates the transport of blood and the dissolved gases round the body and maintain steep diffusion gradients. Cockroaches have an organised respiratory system consisting of tubules forming the tracheal system. The tubules are highly branched and cover almost the entire body cavity or haemocoel. Three pairs of longitudinal tracheal trunks are present all along the length of the body, which are further connected with each other with the help of transverse branches [Fig. 6.3(a)]. From each tracheal trunk, three branches come out. The dorsal branch is supplied to the dorsal

Thoracic spiracles

Trachea

Transverse commissures Lateral longitudinal tracheal trunk

Abdominal spiracles

Tracheole

Tissue Ventral longitudinal tracheal trunk (b)

(a)

Fig. 6.3

(a) Tracheal system of cockroach (b) System of trachea and tracheole

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muscles, whereas the ventral one to nerve cord and ventral muscles, and the middle one to the alimentary canal. These branches divide and redivide into finer branches [Fig. 6.3(b)]. These longitudinal tracheal trunks communicate with the exterior through 10 pairs of openings, called spiracles. Of these, two pairs are present in the thorax and one pair in each of the first eight abdominal segments. Each spiracle is surrounded by an annular sclerite (peritreme), which extends inward and opens into an air-filled cavity, called the atrium or tracheal chamber; the atrium continues as branched tubules or trachea. In each segment, the tracheae branch into numerous small tubules, called tracheoles, which ramify in the tissues and end blindly. The abdominal segments are provided with tergo-sternal muscles. The contraction and the relaxation of these muscles cause a rhythmic contraction and expansion of the abdominal cavity. Expansion of the abdominal cavity allows the space inside the tracheal trunk to expand. As a result, air enters through the spiracles and is distributed in the body cavity through the tracheal system. Gaseous exchange takes place between tissues and the air present in the tracheoles. When the abdominal cavity contracts, the tracheal system also contracts, the pressure of the air inside the tracheal system increases, causing the release of air to the outside. At rest, the tracheoles are filled with watery fluid, and diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place to fulfil the requirement of the insect. However, during exercise, the fluid in the tracheoles is drawn osmotically into the tissues. Consequently, more air rushes into the tracheoles.

Nasal cavity Nasopharynx Oropharynx Laryngopharynx Oesophagus Nostril

Larynx Thyroid gland Trachea

Bronchi

Bronchioles

Lungs

Fig. 6.4

Human respiratory system

6.2

RESPIRATION IN HUMANS

Humans have a well-developed respiratory system. Human respiration involves activities like inspiration (breathing in), expiration (breathing out), exchange of gases in the lungs and its transport to the tissues. Human Respiratory System The human respiratory system consists of external nares or nostrils, nasal cavity,

nasopharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchiole and lungs (Fig. 6.4). The external opening of the respiratory system is a pair of external nares or nostrils. Air enters into the nasal cavity through the nostrils. The nasal cavity opens into the posterior part of pharynx. The uppermost part of the pharyngeal cavity is termed nasopharynx. Pharyngeal areas behind the buccal cavity and larynx are called oropharynx and laryngopharynx, respectively. Larynx is a small box and it forms the connection between pharynx and the windpipe or trachea (Fig. 6.5). A large leaf-like cartilaginous epiglottis guards the opening of the larynx, called glottis. Treachea is a tubular structure of about 12 cm in length and 2.5 cm in diameter; it starts posterior to larynx and extends up to the middle of the thoracic cavity where it divides into right and left primary bronchi that enter into the lungs. The tracheal

RESPIRATION IN ANIMALS 71

Epiglottis

Thyroid Tracheal cartilage Trachea (a) Anterior view (b) Posterior view

Fig. 6.5

Human larynx

tubule is supported by incomplete (C-shaped) ring of cartilage at regular intervals to prevent collapsing of the tubule. In each lung, the

Terminal bronchiole

Respiratory bronchiole Alveolar duct

Alveoli

Fig. 6.6

Terminal bronchiole and alveoli

bronchus divides and redivides to from secondary bronchi, tertiary bronchi, bronchiole and, ultimately the terminal bronchioles, that further subdivide into many alveolar ducts that lead into the alveoli or air sac (Fig. 6.6). There are about 300 million alveoli in the two lungs. Lungs are paired structure present in the thoracic or pleural cavity. A double-layered pleural membrane encloses the lung for its protection. The outer layer of pleura remains attached to the wall of the thoracic cavity. The space between the two pleural membranes contains a fluid secreted by its wall, which reduces friction and makes the movement of lungs easy. Mechanism of Respiration The main purpose of respiration is to provide oxygen to the tissues and to remove carbon dioxide from them. This entire process is accomplished in three steps : breathing or pulmonary ventilation, exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide, and transport of gases in blood. Breathing and pulmonary ventilation : It means the inflow (inspiration) and outflow (expiration) of air between atmosphere and the alveoli of the lung. Breathing is effected by the expansion and contraction of lungs. There are two processes by which the lungs are expanded or contracted : (i) The downward and upward movement of the diaphragm, which lengthens and shortens the chest cavity. (ii) The elevation and depression of the ribs, which increase or decrease the diameter of the chest cavity. During expansion, the volume of lungs increases. As a result, the pressure of air inside the lung decreases. In order to bring the pressure at normal level, atmospheric air is inhaled. When the lungs contract, their volumes decrease, resulting in the increase of air pressure in lungs. Hence, the air is exhaled from the lungs. These two processes are called inspiration and expiration, respectively. During normal or quiet breathing, the downward and upward movement of the diaphragm takes place. When the diaphragm contracts, the lower surface of the lung is pulled downward.

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Consequently, the volume of the lungs increases. This causes inhalation of air or inspiration. During exhalation of air or expiration, the diaphragm relaxes and the lungs are compressed (Fig. 6.7).

Fig. 6.8
Diaphragm
(a) During Inspiration (b) During Expiration

Muscles involved in respiration

Fig. 6.7 Diaphragm

breathing

movement

during

During exercise, the rate of breathing increases due to the increased demand for oxygen. The elastic force, resulting from contraction and relaxation of diaphragm, is not sufficient for this purpose. The demand of extra oxygen is fulfilled by the expansion of rib cage. Either of the two movements, or both, create a partial pressure or reduction of air pressure inside the thoracic cavity, including the lungs. This results into the rushing of air in the lungs to fill up the space and equalise the air pressure. When we breathe out, the capacity of thoracic cavity decreases due to the inward, as well as downward movement of the rib cage along with upward movement of the diaphragm. A high pressure is generated in the lungs and air moves out (expiration). The upward movement of rib cage is caused mainly by the external intercostal muscles present between the ribs, along with the assistance of few other adjacent muscles. Similarly, the downward movement of rib cage is facilitated

by the internal intercostals, external oblique and internal oblique muscles (Fig. 6.8). The volume of air inspired and expired with every normal breath during effortless respiration is called the tidal volume (TV is about 500 ml of air). Sometimes, extra amount of air can be forcefully inspired. The extra volume of air that can be inspired beyond the normal tidal volume is called inspiratory reserve volume (IRV, is about 2500-3000 ml of air). Similarly, an extra amount of air can be expired forcefully even beyond the normal tidal expiration. The measure of this capacity of lung is called expiratory reserve volume (ERV, is about 1000 ml of air). Even after a forceful expiration to maximum capacity, some amount of air remains in the lung. It is called residual volume (RV, is about 1200 ml of air). When any two or more of the abovementioned pulmonary volumes are considered together, such combinations are called pulmonary capacities. The total amount of air a person can take in distending the lungs to the maximum, beginning at normal expiratory level, is called inspiratory capacity (IC, is about 3000-3500 ml of air). It is equal to the sum of tidal volume and inspiratory reserve volume (IC = TV + IRV). When a person breathes normally, then, the amount which remains in the lung after normal expiration, is called functional residual capacity (FRC, is

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about 2500 ml of air). It can be measured as the total of expiratory reserve volume and the residual volume (FRC = ERV + RV). Vital capacity (VC) is an important measure of pulmonary capacity. It is the maximum amount of air a person can expel from the lungs after first filling the lungs to their maximum extent (VC varies from 3400 ml to 4800 ml, depending on age, sex and height of the individual). Vital capacity is the sum total of inspiratory reserve volume, tidal volume and expiratory reserve volume (VC = IRV + TV + ERV). Exchange of gas : The inspired air ultimately reaches the alveoli of the lung, which, in turn, receives the blood supply of the pulmonary circulation. At this place, the oxygen of the inspired air is taken in by the blood, and carbon dioxide is released into the alveoli for expiration. These respiratory gases move freely by the process of diffusion. The kinetic motion of the molecules provides the energy required for this diffusion of gaseous molecule itself. Diffusion of any molecule takes place from high to low concentration. The process of diffusion is directly proportional to the pressure caused by the gas alone. The pressure exerted by an individual gas is called partial pressure. It is represented as PO2, PCO2, PN2 for oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen, respectively. Inside the alveoli, the inspired air remains in a very close contact with blood. It is because the alveolar wall is very thin and contains a rich network of interconnected capillaries. Due to this, the alveolar wall seems to be a sheet of flowing blood, and is called the respiratory membrane. It consists mainly of the alveolar epithelium, epithelial basement membrane, a thin interstitial space, capillary basement membrane and capillary endothelial membrane. All these layers cumulatively form a membrane of 0.2 mm thickness (Fig. 6.9). The respiratory membrane has a limit of gaseous exchange between alveoli and pulmonary blood. It is called diffusing capacity, and is defined as the volume of gas, that diffuses through the membrane per minute for a pressure difference of 1 mm Hg. It is further dependent on the solubility of the diffusing

Fig. 6.9 Respiratory membrane for gaseous

exchange

gases. In other words, at a particular pressure difference, the diffusion of carbon dioxide is 20 times faster than oxygen, and that of oxygen is two times faster than nitrogen. Due to the existing pressure difference of oxygen, and carbon dioxide between the alveoli and the blood capillaries, oxygen diffuses from alveolar air to the capillary blood, whereas carbon dioxide diffuses from capillary blood to the alveolar air. Transport of gases in blood : Blood is the medium for the transport of oxygen from the respiratory organ to the different tissues, and carbon dioxide from tissues to the respiratory organ. The pulmonary vein supplies oxygenated blood to the left atrium, from where it is pumped into left ventricle, and ultimately, to the different tissues of the body. As much as 97 per cent of the oxygen is transported from the lungs to the tissues in combination with

BIOLOGY 74

haemoglobin (Hb + O2 HbO2, oxyhaemoglobin), and only 3 per cent is transported in dissolved condition by the plasma. Under the high partial pressure, oxygen easily binds with haemoglobin in the pulmonary capillaries. When this oxygenated blood reaches the different tissues, the partial pressure of oxygen declines and the bonds holding oxygen to haemoglobin become unstable. As a result, oxygen is released from the capillaries. Under strenuous conditions, or during exercise, the muscle cells consume oxygen at a comparatively faster rate. The partial pressure of oxygen in the tissue falls, as a result of which, the blood at the tissue level has merely 4.4 ml of oxygen/100 ml of blood. Thus, approximately 15 ml of oxygen is transported by haemoglobin during exercise. In a normal and healthy person, the measurement of haemoglobin is approximately 15 g per 100 ml. The capacity of 1 g of haemoglobin to combine with oxygen is 1.34 ml. Thus, on an average, 100 ml of blood carries about 20 ml (19.4 ml exactly) of oxygen. When blood reaches the tissues, its oxygen concentration is reduced gradually to 14.4 ml, which is then collected by the veinules and veins. Thus, under normal conditions, approximately 5 ml of oxygen is transported by 100 ml of blood. This can be verified by deducting the quantity of oxygen of venous blood from that of arterial blood. The amount of oxygen that can bind with haemoglobin, is determined by oxygen tension. This is expressed as a partial pressure (PO2), that is the fraction of atmospheric oxygen. Figure 6.10 shows the saturation level of haemoglobin in relation to the PO2 of blood. Haemoglobin cannot take up oxygen beyond a saturation level of 95 per cent. A 100 per cent saturation of haemoglobin is rare. At lower PO2, oxygen is released from haemoglobin. It is 50 per cent saturated at 30 mm of Hg. Haemoglobin would be completely free from oxygen at zero P O 2. This relationship is expressed by plotting the oxygen saturation of blood against the PO2 of oxygen. An Sshaped curve, called oxygen dissociation curve, is obtained. It is dependent on PO2, PCO2 temperature and pH.

50

Fig. 6.10 Oxygen dissociation curve The blood transports carbon dioxide comparatively easily because of its higher solubility. There are three ways of transport of carbon dioxide. (a) In dissolved state : Approximately 57 per cent of carbon dioxide is transported, being dissolved in the plasma of blood. The partial pressures (P CO 2) of the venous blood and arterial blood is 45 mm of Hg (i.e. 2.7 ml of CO 2/100 ml) and 40 mm of Hg (2.4 ml CO 2/100 ml), respectively. Hence, 0.3 ml of carbon dioxide is transported per 100 ml of blood. (b) In the for m of bicarbonate : Carbon dioxide produced by the tissues, diffuses passively into the blood stream and passes into the red blood corpuscles, where it reacts with water to form carbonic acid (H2CO3). This reaction is catalysed by the enzyme, carbonic anhydrase, found in the erythrocytes, and takes less than one second to complete the process. Immediately after its formation, carbonic acid dissociates into Hydrogen (H+) and bicarbonate (HCO3) ions. The oxyhaemoglobin (HbO 2 ) of the erythrocytes is acidic and remains in association with K + ions as KHbO 2. The hydrogen ions (H+) released from carbonic acid combine with haemoglobin after its dissociation from the potassium ions.

RESPIRATION IN ANIMALS 75

The majority of bicarbonate ions (HCO 3) formed within the erythrocytes diffuse out into the plasma along a concentration gradient. These combine with haemoglobin to form the haemoglobinic acid (H.Hb). Carbonic anhydrase CO2 + H2O

  , H2CO3 , , ,

H2CO3 H+ + HCO3 KHb + O2 H.Hb + KHCO3

KHbO2 H+ + HCO3 + KHb

In response, chloride ions (Cl) diffuse from plasma into the erythrocytes to maintain the ionic balance. Thus, electrochemical neutrality is maintained. This is called chloride shift (Fig. 6.11). The chloride ions (Cl) inside RBC combine with potassium ion (K +) to form potassium chloride (KCl), whereas hydrogen carbonate ions (HCO3) in the plasma combine with Na+ to form sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO3). Nearly 70 per cent of carbon dioxide is transported from tissues to the lungs in this form (Fig. 6.11).

(c) In combination with amine group of protein : Besides the above two methods, carbon dioxide reacts directly with the amine radicals (NH2) of haemoglobin molecule and forms a carbaminohaemoglobin (HbCO 2) molecule. This combination of carbon dioxide with haemoglobin is a reversible reaction. Nearly 23 per cent of carbon dioxide is transported through this mode. Release of carbon dioxide in the alveoli of lung : When the deoxygenated blood reaches the alveoli of the lung, it contains carbon dioxide as dissolved in plasma, as carbaminohaemoglobin, and as bicarbonate ions. In the pulmonary capillaries, the carbon dioxide dissolved in plasma diffuses into alveoli. Carbaminohaemoglobin also splits into carbon dioxide and haemoglobin. For the release of carbon dioxide from the bicarbonate, a small series of reverse reactions takes place. When the haemoglobin in the pulmonary blood takes up oxygen, the H+ is released from it. Then, the Cl and HCO3 ions are released from KCl in blood, and KHCO 3 in the RBC, respectively. Then HCO3 reacts with H+ to form H2CO3. This H2CO3, ultimately, then splits into carbon dioxide and water in the presence of carbonic anhydrase enzyme and carbon dioxide is released into lungs.

6.3
RBC

REGULATION OF RESPIRATION

Tissue cell

Hb.CO2 Hb + CO2+H2O CA H2CO3 CO2 H2O H2O Cl Cl

Plasma

CO2

CO2

H++HCO3 + Hb HHb HCO3

[CA = Carbonic anhydrase]

Fig. 6.11 Carbon dioxide transport and

chloride shift

The respiratory rhythm is controlled by the nervous system. The rate of respiration can be enhanced as per demand of the body during strenuous physical exercises. A number of groups of neurons located bilaterally in the medulla oblongata control the respiration. These are called respiratory centres. Three groups of respiratory centres have been identified, namely : dorsal respiratory group, ventral respiratory group and pneumotaxic centre (Fig. 6.12). The dorsal respiratory group is present in the dorsal portion of medulla oblongata. The signals from these neurons generate the basic respiratory rhythm. The nervous signal released from this group is transmitted to the diaphragm, which is the primary inspiratory muscle. The ventral respiratory group of

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6.4

RESPIRATORY DISORDERS

Fig. 6.12

Respiratory centres in brain

neurons is located anterolateral to the dorsal respiratory group. During normal respiration, this remains inactive and even does not play any role in the basic respiratory rhythm. But, under the enhanced respiratory drive, the respiratory signal of this group contributes to fulfil the demand by regulating both inspiration and expiration. Few of the neurons of this group control inspiration, while few other control expiration, thus regulating both. The pneumotaxic centre is located dorsally in the upper pons. It transmits signals to the inspiratory area. Primarily, it controls the switch off point of inspiration. When this signal is strong, the inspiration lasts only for 0.5 seconds, and lungs are filled partially. During weak pneumotaxic signal, inspiration lasts for 5 seconds, or more, resulting into complete filling of lungs. The strong signal causes increased rate of breathing because inspiration, as well as expiration, is shortened. The concentration of CO2 and H+ cause increased strength of inspiratory, as well as expiratory signal. However, oxygen has no such direct effect.

(a) Bronchitis : It is the inflammation of the bronchi, which is characterised by hypertrophy and hyperplasia of sero-mucous gland and goblet cells lining the bronchi. The symptom is regular coughing, with thick greenish yellow sputum that indicates the underlying infection, resulting in excessive secretion of mucous. It may also be caused by cigarette smoking and exposure to air pollutants like carbon monoxide. Prevention and cure : Avoiding exposure to the cause, i.e. smoke, chemicals and pollutants, can prevent Bronchitis. The underlying infection of the disease is treated with suitable antibiotics. Bronchodilator drugs (for widening the constriction of bronchial passage by relaxing the smooth muscles) provide symptomatic relief. (b) Bronchial Asthma : This is characterised by the spasm of the smooth muscles present in the walls of the bronchiole. It is generally caused due to hypersensitivity of the bronchiole to the foreign substances present in the air passing through it. The symptoms of the disease may be coughing, or difficulty in breathing mainly during expiration. The mucous membranes on the wall of the air passage start secreting excess amount of mucous, which may clog the bronchi, as well as bronchioles. Prevention and cure : It is an allergic disease hence, avoiding exposure to the foreign substance or allergens is the best preventive measure. In case the patient is sensitive to a very few number of allergens, then hyposensitisation (by exposing small doses of the specific allergen) is the other preventive measure. Treatment of the disease includes antibiotic therapy for removing the infection, and use of bronchodilator drugs, as well as inhalers for symptomatic relief. (c) Emphysema : It is an inflation or abnormal distension of the bronchiole or alveolar sac, which results in the loss of elasticity of these parts. As a result, the alveolar sac remains filled with air even after expiration, and ultimately, the lung size increases.

RESPIRATION IN ANIMALS 77

The reason for such a condition can be assigned to cigarette smoking and chronic bronchitis. Prevention and cure : Emphysema is a chronic obstructive disease of lung, causing irreversible distension and loss of elasticity of alveoli. Hence, it cant be cured permanently. However, treatment may retard the progression of the disease. Its treatment is also symptomatic. Bronchodilators, antibiotics and oxygen therapy are used. This disease is preventable if chronic exposure to smoke (cigarette and others) and pollutant is avoided. (d) Pneumonia : It is an acute infection or inflammation of the alveoli of the lung. This disease is caused mainly due to infection of the bacteria (Streptococcus pneumoniae). Sometimes, other bacteria or fungi, protozoan, viruses and mycoplasma may also be responsible. Infants, elderly persons and immuno compromised individuals are susceptible to it. In this disease, most of the air space of the alveolar sac is occupied by the fluid with dead WBC. Uptake of oxygen is adversely affected in the inflamed alveoli, as a result of which, the oxygen level of the blood falls. Prevention and cure : Since infection is the main cause of pneumonia, use of antibiotics to remove the infection cures it. Patient may require symptomatic treatment like bronchodilator drugs. In case of immunocompromised

individuals, the disease can be prevented by proper and timely vaccination. (e) Occupational Lung Disease : It is caused because of the exposure of potentially harmful substances, such as gas, fumes or dusts, present in the environment where a person works. Silicosis and asbestosis are the common examples, which occur due to chronic exposure of silica and asbestos dust in the mining industry. It is characterised by fibrosis (proliferation of fibrous connective tissue) of upper part of lung, causing inflammation. Prevention and cure : Almost all the occupational lung diseases, express symptoms after chronic exposure, i.e. 10-15 years or even more. Not only this, diseases like silicosis and asbestosis are incurable. Hence, the person likely to be exposed to such irritants, should adopt all possible preventive measures, These measures include : (i) Minimising the exposure of harmful dust at the work place. (ii) Workers should be well informed about the harm of the exposure to such dusts. (iii) Use of protective gears and clothing by the workers at the work place. (iv) Regular health check up. (v) Holiday from duty at short intervals for the workers in such areas. The patient may be provided with symptomatic treatment, like bronchodilators and antibiotics, to remove underlying secondary infection.

SUMMARY

Animals need to inhale oxygen for the breakdown of food to produce energy. This process results into the release of carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is harmful for animals, hence, it is required to be exhaled. This entire process is called respiration. Respiration involving oxygen is called aerobic respiration, and that without it, is designated as anaerobic respiration. Almost all the animals take up oxygen and release carbon dioxide. In aquatic animals, gills perform this activity, while in the land animals, lungs and tracheal system do the same. Earthworm respires through moist and vascularised skin. Cockroach has an elaborate tracheal system throughout the body for aerial respiration. Humans have an organised respiratory system, with lung as the respiratory organ. Air enters into the lung through nasal cavity, pharynx, trachea and bronchi. Lung contains enormous air sacs or alveoli, which are

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highly vascular for the purpose of gaseous exchange. After gaseous exchange, oxygen is transported to the tissues with haemoglobin present in the blood. Carbon dioxide formed in the tissues due to oxidation of food is transported to the lung by the blood in three forms, i.e. dissolved in plasma; as bicarbonate ions in the plasma from where they pass into the erythrocytes; and in combination haemoglobin. The process of respiration is under nervous control of the respiratory centres present in the medulla oblongata. The inflammation, hypersensitivity to foreign substances, infection and deposition of particles or dust in parts of respiratory organ, cause a number of disorders. Common lung ailments are bronchitis, bronchial asthma, emphysema, pneumonia and occupational lung disease.

EXERCISES

1. 2.

How does respiration fulfil the energy requirement of an organism? Define the following terms : (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Anaerobic respiration Breathing Vital capacity Tidal volume Respiratory centre.

3. 4. 5. 6.

Write the names of the respiratory organs present in human beings. How does the skin of earthworm help in respiration?

Write the role of diaphragm and intercostal muscles in the breathing process. What is partial pressure? How does it help in gaseous exchange during respiration? 7. How does haemoglobin help in the transport of oxygen from lung to tissues? 8. What is the role of carbonic anhydrase enzyme in the transport of gases during respiration? 9. What is chloride shift? Write its significance during respiration. 10. Write true or false : (a) Inspiratory reserve volume is the volume of air, which can be inspired in addition to the normal inspiration. (b) (c) (d) (e) Vital capacity is a measure of maximum inspiration. During gaseous exchange the gases diffuse from high partial pressure to low partial pressure. Carbon dioxide cannot be transported with haemoglobin. Earthworm respires through parapodia.

11. Fill in the blanks : (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) ___________ ml of oxygen is transported per decilitre of blood. Total lung capacity is _____________ ml. There are ________________ pairs of spiracles in cockroach. Lung is enclosed by ________________ membrane. ____________________ bacteria cause pneumonia.

12. Explain the main features of respiration in cockroach.