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MULTIPLE ACCESS TECHNIQUES FOR MOBILE COMMUNICATION
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) Time Division Multiple Access Code Division Multiple Access (TDMA) (CDMA)
These multiple access systems have very different approaches to the bandwidth problem.
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Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) advantage of the fact that the useful bandwidth of the medium exceeds the required bandwidth of a given signal
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signal In March 1992, the TIA (Telecommunications Industry Association) established the TR-45.5 subcommittee with the charter of developing a spread spectrum digital cellular standard. In July of 1993, the TIA gave its approval for the CDMA Technology standard .A CDMA call starts with a standard rate of 9.6 Kbps. This is then spread to a transmitted rate of about 1.23 Mbps. The CDMA channel is nominal 1.23 MHz Wide CDMA is compatible with other cellular technologies
Generation
1G 2G 2.5G 3G
CDMA users share a common frequency channel (Fig 6.3). All users are on the same frequency at the same time. However, each pair of users is assigned a special code that reduces interference while increasing privacy.
vocoder uses its full rate when a person is talking very fast. It uses the 1/8 rate when the person is silent or nearly so.
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example shown in the Fig. 6.6, the symbols from each group are interleaved (or scrambled) in a pattern that the receiver knows. De-interleaving at the receiver unscrambles the bits, spreading any burst errors that occur during transmission.
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(a) Pseudorandom Noise (PN) codes channelize users on the reverse link (mobile to BTS). Pseudorandom Noise (PN) codes uniquely identify users on the reverse link. A PN code is one that appears to be random, but isn't. The PN codes used in CDMA yield about 4.4 trillion combinations of code. This is a key reason why CDMA is so secure.
(IV)
CONVERSION OF DIGITAL TO RADIO FREQUENCY (RF) SIGNAL The BTS combines channelized data from all calls into one signal. It then converts the digital signal to a Radio Frequency (RF) signal for transmission.
and control data to the mobile. The types of forward link channels are: i. ii. iii. iv. Pilot Sync Paging Traffic
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(i)
PILOT CHANNEL The BTS constantly transmits the pilot channel. The mobile uses the pilot signal to acquire the system. It then uses the pilot signal to monitor and adjust the power needed in order to transmit back to the BTS.
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(III)
PAGING CHANNEL CDMA uses up to seven paging channels. The paging channel transmits overhead information such as commands and pages to the mobile. The paging channel also sends commands and traffic channel assignment during call set-up. The mobile ignores the paging channel after a traffic channel is established.
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(II)
REVERSE LINK CHANNELS: uses two types of channels to transmit voice and
control data to BTS. The types of reverse link channels are: i. ii. Access Traffic
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(II)
REVERSE LINK TRAFFIC CHANNEL The reverse traffic channel is only used when there is a call. The reverse traffic channel transmits voice data to the BTS. It also transmits the overhead control information during the call.
FIG. NO. 6.14: REVERSE LINK TRAFFIC CHANNNEL 6.6: CALL PROCESSING STAGES IN CDMA
There are four stages or modes in CDMA call processing (Fig. 6.15):
(I)
INITIALIZATION MODE: During initialization, the mobile acquires the system via the Pilot code channel synchronizes with the system via the Sync code channel
(II)
IDLE MODE: The mobile is not involved in a call during idle mode, but it must stay in communication with the base station. The mobile and the base station communicate over the access and paging code channels. The mobile obtains overhead information via the paging code channel.
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(III)
ACCESS MODE: The mobile accesses the network via the Access code channel during call origination. The Access channel and Paging channel carry the required call set-up communication between the mobile phone and the BTS until a traffic channel is established.
(IV)
TRAFFIC MODE: During a land to mobile (LTM) call: The mobile receives a page on the paging channel. The mobile responds on the access channel. The traffic channel is established and maintained throughout the call. During a mobile to land call (MTL): The call is placed using the Access channel. The base station responds on the paging channel. The traffic channel is established and maintained throughout the call. Call processing (messages): During the call overhead messaging continues on the traffic channel in a limited fashion. This messaging uses "Dim and Burst" or "Blank and Burst" signaling, which replaces part of the voice traffic with system messages. The user does not detect this signaling, however, due to the strong data recovery schemes inherent to CDMA.
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(C)
HANDOFF IN CDMA: Handoff is the process of transferring a call from one cell to another. This is necessary to continue the call as the phone travels. CDMA is unique in how it handles handoff. TYPES OF CDMA HANDOFF: CDMA has three primary types of handoff: i. ii. iii. SOFT HARD IDLE
(i)
SOFT HANDOFF A soft handoff establishes a connection with the new BTS prior to breaking the connection with the old one. This is possible because CDMA cells use the same frequency and because the mobile uses a rake receiver.
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BSC. The soft-softer handoff is combination handoff involving multiple cells and multiple sectors within one of the cells.
(ii)
HARD HANDOFF A hard handoff requires the mobile to break the connection with the old BTS prior to making the connection with the new one. CDMA phones use a hard handoff when moving from a CDMA system to an analog system because soft handoffs are not possible in analog systems. A Pilot Beacon Unit (PBU) at the analog cell site alerts the phone that it is reaching the edge of CDMA coverage. The phone switches from digital to analog mode as during the hard handoff. Hard handoff may also be used when moving to a different: RF channel MTSO Carrier Market
(iii)
IDLE HANDOFF An idle handoff occurs when the phone is in idle mode. The mobile will detect a pilot signal that is stronger than the current pilot. The mobile is always searching for the pilots from any neighboring BTS. When it finds a stronger signal, the mobile simply begins attending to the new pilot.
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(iii)
CLARITY Often CDMA systems can achieve "wire line" clarity because of CDMA's strong digital processing. Specifically: The rake receiver reduces errors The variable rate vocoder reduces the amount of data transmitted per person, reducing interference. The soft handoff also reduces power requirements and interference. Power control reduces errors by keeping power at an optimal level. CDMA's wide band signal reduces fading. Encoding and interleaving reduce errors that result from fading.
(iv)
COST CDMA's better coverage and capacity result in cost benefits: Increased coverage per BTS means fewer are needed to cover a given area. This reduces infrastructure costs for the providers. Increased capacity increases the service provider's revenue potential. A CDMA cost per subscriber has steadily declined since 1995 for both cellular and PCS applications.
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(v)
COMPATIBILITY CDMA phones are usually dual mode. This means they can work in both CDMAs systems and analog cellular systems. Some CDMA phones are dual band as well as dual mode. They can work in CDMA mode in the PCS band, CDMA mode in the cellular band, or analog mode in an analog cellular network.
(vi)
CUSTOMER SATISFACTION CDMA results in greater customer satisfaction because CDMA provides better: Voice quality Longer battery life due to reduced power requirements No cross-talk because of CDMA's unique coding Privacy--again, because of coding
FIG. NO. 6.22 CDMA CUSTOMER SATISFACTION 6.8: ARCHITECTURE OF THE CDMA NETWORK
A CDMA network is composed of several functional entities, whose functions and interfaces are specified. The CDMA network can be divided into three broad parts. The Mobile Station is carried by the subscriber. The Base Station Subsystem controls the radio link with the Mobile Station. The Network Subsystem, the main part of which is the Mobile services Switching Center (MSC), performs the switching of calls between the mobile users, and between mobile and fixed network users. The MSC also handles the mobility management operations. Not shown is the Operations and Maintenance Center, which oversees the proper operation and setup of the network. The Mobile Station and the Base Station Subsystem communicate across the Um interface, also known as the air interface
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or radio link. The Base Station Subsystem communicates with the Mobile services Switching Center across the A interface.
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These communicate across the standardized Abis interface, allowing operation between components made by different suppliers.
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It acts like a normal switching node of the PSTN or ISDN, and additionally provides all the functionality needed to handle a mobile subscriber, such as registration, authentication, location updating, handovers, and call routing to a roaming subscriber. These services are provided in conjunction with several functional entities, which together form the Network Subsystem. The MSC provides the connection to the fixed networks (such as the PSTN or ISDN). Signaling between functional entities in the Network Subsystem uses Signaling System Number 7 (SS7), used for trunk signaling in ISDN and widely used in current public networks.
(IV) HOME LOCATION REGISTER (HLR) & VISITED LOCATION REGISTER (VLR) The Home Location Register (HLR) and Visitor Location Register (VLR), together with the MSC, provide the call routing and roaming capabilities. The HLR contains all the administrative information of each subscriber registered in the network, along with the current location of the mobile. The location of the mobile is typically in the form of the signaling address of the VLR associated with the mobile station. The Visitor Location Register (VLR) contains selected administrative information from the HLR, necessary for call control and provision of the subscribed services, for each mobile currently located in the geographical area controlled by the VLR. Most often these two directories are located in the same place. The HLR and VLR are big databases maintained on computers called servers, often UNIX workstations. To operate its nationwide cellular system, iDEN, Motorola uses over 60 HLRs nationwide.
(V) EQUIPMENT IDENTITY REGISTER (EIR) The other two registers are used for authentication and security purposes. The Equipment Identity Register (EIR) is a database that contains a list of all valid mobile equipment on the network, where each mobile station is identified by its International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI). An IMEI is marked as invalid if it has been reported stolen or is not type approved.
(Vi)
THE INTERFACES Cellular radio's most cryptic terms belong to these names: A, Um, Abis, and Ater.
A telecom interface means many things. It can be a mechanical or electrical link connecting equipment together. Or a boundary between systems, such as between the base station system and the network subsystem. Interfaces are standardized methods for passing 72
information back and forth. The transmission media isn't important. Whether copper or fiber optic cable or microwave radio, an interface insists that signals go back and forth in the same way, in the same format. With this approach different equipment from any manufacturer will work together. A-bis " is a French term meaning 'the second A Interface. In most cases the actual span or physical connection is made on an E1 line. But regardless of the material used, the transmission media, it is the signaling protocol that is most important. Although the interface is unlabeled, the mobile switch communicates with the telephone network using Signaling System Seven, an internationally agreed upon standard. More specifically, it uses ISUP over SS7. "ISUP defines the protocol and procedures used to set-up, manage, and release trunk circuits that carry voice and data calls over the public switched telephone network (PSTN). ISUP is used for both ISDN and non-ISDN calls."
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