Biology Evolution Study Notes Evolution: Organisms changed because they had to adapt to the changing earth Charles

s Darwin: had credit for being first to say why evolution occurred with evidence, but not the first with the idea. 2 Main ideas: 1 Organisms change from one common ancestor with changes over time -Started with one, then changes differ between each species. 2. Nature will favour changes that survives -Accumulation of traits that allows the to survive -Whatever that doesnt work well will die -Earth changes + Mutation + trait changes. Controversy: People thought that the earth was unchanged -Believed that god made everything just as it is today -Said that things didnt change, as thats how god says it should be Other than Darwin: Baron Georges Cuvier (1769 1832) -Investigated fossils, found that there were layers that contained different species -Species were unique to that layer. Shell found in one layer couldnt be found in another. -Suggested that catastrophes (changes in earth), caused extinctions -Then another form migrated later on -Theory of Catastrophism : how species are extinct due to a catastrophe, then species from the surrounding environment will repopulate the area. James Hutton (1726 1797) -Said that the earth is very old -Small changes here and there adds up to big changes (ie Mountains) Sir Charles Lyell (1797 1875) -Supported Huttons theory with the Theory of uniformitarianism -said that the earths surface is always changing and continues to change. -supported with fossil samples Impact of Lyell and Hutton: Earth is very old, and changes are slow and become dramatic over time. George Buffon (1707 1788) -Said species change over time into new species -Introduced idea about common ancestry and similarities between species Carolus Linnaeus (1707 1778) -Father of Taxonomy -Classified species based on their origin with names. Alfred Russell Wallace (1823 1913) -Proposed the idea of natural selection to Darwin -Influenced Darwin to publish his papers about the idea of Natural Selection Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744 1829) -Said species adapt to changing environment, and has some role in evolution -Theory of Inheritance of Acquired Traits: This theory stated that an organism could pass on to its offspring any characteristics it had acquired in its lifetime. He proposed that by using or not using its body parts, an individual tends to develop certain characteristics, which it passes on to its offspring. This idea is called use and disuse. ex. A giraffe acquired its long neck because its ancestor stretched higher and higher into the trees to reach leaves, and that the animals increasingly lengthened neck was passed on to its offspring. Thomas Robert Malthus (1766 1834) -Said that too many organisms born and survive

-But with limited supply of resources, only the brighter and better will survive; supporting the idea of natural selection Evidence of Evolution: Common Ancestry Analysis Evolution: Species change over time to adapt to changing environment -All living things have descended with modifications from a common ancestor. Fossil Record -Physically preserved organism from ancient rocks or amber -Used to see them change over time from old fossils Vestigial Structures -Physical structures with no function -Suggests an evolutionary past Human vestigial features -Ear-wiggling muscles -Tail bone in human and embryos -Appendix structure -Wisdom molar teeth -When people used to eat vegetables, they needed to chew harder, so there were molar teeth that helped that -When people used to eat vegetables, it took more digestion. Now, theres less digestion required, so the intestines shrunk, and the Appendix is the remaining piece that dangles down Homologous Structures -Structures with similar organization and function -Suggest common ancestry -Structures are similar; conclude that they are common, but diverged from a common ancestor. Embryology: -Studying the embryos of animals -All very similar suggesting ancestry Molecular Evidence: -Amino Acids make proteins -Similarities in DNA and amino sequences are molecular evidence of similarity and common ancestry. DNA sequence similarity -Humans and chimps have 97.5% identical genes -Humans and lemur have 58% identical gene -Means that we were in a divergence between sooner than with a lemur. Homologous Sequences -Have similar sequence of genes -Genes in cytochrome C (used for cellular respiration) -nearly identical in app species: suggests that theyre all related Vestigial Sequences -DNA sequences thats part of a non-functional gene -Called a Pseudogene -once functional, but not anymore; evidence of evolutionary past Theories on Natural Selection Charles Darwin 1) More individuals are born than survive 2) There is variation in traits 3) Some traits are more advantageous than others 4) Advantageous traits -> better chance of surviving and reproducing 5) Traits that are not suitable for a certain environment will be destroyed

Natural Selection: Selection of the favorable characteristics and rejection of unfavorable characteristics. 1) More individuals are born than can survive -Leads to competition among individuals within a population -any creature with traits who can help them win food can survive to carry on their traits to the new generation. 2) There is variation in heritable traits -Heritable: A trait that is passed down from generation to generation Traits passed down through alleles and all the genetics in it Example: -white coloured mouse in a black environment cant hide and will be eliminated. While a dark mouse in a white situation would do the same -Over time, dark areas would have darker creatures, and lighter coloured creatures will live in lighter coloured areas. Mutation: rare mistake in DNA copying Only in reproductive cells that affect the gametes and passed onto the offsprings -Most are harmless, but ones that change phenotypes are deleterious (bad) 3) Some traits may be advantageous -They increase their chances of survival -Their traits allow them to get food or not to be eaten, then to survive Example: -Monarch butterflies have poison, so birds avoid it Survival -Depends on the environment, selection will occur to see who lives -Survival is one thing, whether or not they can survive long enough to reproduce is another -Fittest: most number of reproduction offsprings -Creatures must survive long enough to reproduce -They must attract mates to fertilize (females pick males) Sexual Selection -Adaptations have evolved to increase reproductive success -Females choose, Males must adapt to attract the ladies w/o these adaptations, the males may not attract the females, and therefore not reproduce and not creating off springs to carry on that trait. Summary of Natural Selection -Not enough resources -Competition -Whoever wins will get resources -With resources, they can survive and reproduce; victorious traits will be passed onto offspring and possibly the entire species. Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium Population: A localized group of individuals belonging to the same species. Species: A group of populations whose individuals have the potential to interbreed and produce viable offspring. Gene pool: The total collection of genes in a population at any one time. Microevolution: Changing percentages, or frequencies, of alleles within populations are the small events that lead to evolution within a population = microevolution Hardy-Weinberg Principle: The concept that the shuffling of genes that occur during sexual reproduction, by itself, cannot change the overall genetic makeup of a population. This principle will be maintained in nature only if all five of the following conditions are met:

1. Very large population 2. Isolation from other populations 3. No net mutations 4. Random mating 5. No natural selection Remember :If these conditions are met, the population is at equilibrium. This means No Change or No Evolution. Microevolution: The origin of taxonomic groups higher than the species level. A change in a populations gene pool over a secession of generations. Evolutionary changes in species over relatively brief periods of geological time. Factors that Cause Evolutionary Change: Five Mechanisms of Microevolution Mutation Gene flow 1. Non-random mating 2. Genetic drift 3. Natural selection Mutation: Change in an organisms DNA that creates a new allele. Randomly introduces new alleles into a population and can change allele frequencies in a population Gene Flow: Net movement of alleles from one population to another due to the migration of individuals Occurs between two different interbreeding populations that have different allele frequencies Non-Random Mating: Selection of mates other than by chance Individuals in a population select mates often based on their phenotypes Increases the population of particular characteristics Based on: Preferred Phenotypes Inbreeding Preferred Phenotypes: Choosing of mates based on their physical and behavioural traits Prevents individuals with particular phenotypes form breeding Only the individuals that mate will contribute to the gene pool of the next generation Inbreeding: Occurs when closely related individuals breed together Genetic Drift : Some parts of population are lost, that allele will be lost Bottlenecks -after disaster, theyre killed off, leaving only a few traits -High genetic diversity > disaster > only a few left, then the entire population will be based off of those genes Founder Effect -Physical boundaries that separate a small population of the gene pool. Whatever dominates the gene pool will soon make up the entire generation. (small number of them colonize in a new area) Natural Selection: Some traits are favored over others simple. a) Stabalizing Selection: Acts upon extremes and favors the intermediate Reduces variation, improves the adaptation of the population to aspects of the environment that remain constant b)Directional Selection: Favors variants of one extreme Common during times of environmental change or during migration to a new habitat c) Diversifying Selection: Favors variants of opposite extremes Intermediate phenotypes can be eliminated

Remember :If these conditions are met, the population is at equilibrium. This means No Change or No Evolution. Speciation: The process of speciation requires populations of organisms to become, and largely remain, genetically isolated from one another. Two types of speciation based on how gene flow is disrupted within a population: - Sympatric the ancestors of apple maggot flies laid their eggs only on hawthornsbut today, these flies lay eggs on hawthorns (which are native to America) and domestic apples (which were introduced to America by immigrants and bred). Females generally choose to lay their eggs on the type of fruit they grew up in, and males tend to look for mates on the type of fruit they grew up in. - Allopatric happens when the ancestral population becomes separated by a geographical barrier/isolation. Isolation might occur because of great distance or a physical barrier, such as a desert or river, as shown below Palentology The study of ancient life through the examination of fossils George Cuvier Developed the science of paleontology Mary Anning Discovered the first plesiosaur, an aquatic reptile and Found that each stratum (layer of rock) is characterized by a unique group of fossil species. The deeper (older) the stratum, the more dissimilar the species are from modern life. Evidence showed that species could become extinct Uniformitarianism: Charles Lyells theory that geological processes operated at the same rates in the past as they do today. Theorized that slow, subtle processes could happen over a long period of time and could result in substantial changes. INTERPRETATIONS OF SPECIATION: Two theories: 1. Gradualism (Neo-Darwinian): Slow changes in species overtime. 2. Punctuated Equilibrium: Evolution occurs in spurts of relatively rapid change. Converging Evolution -looks similar, but different internal structures -suggests that theyve come form a different branch, but evolved to have similar looks -Bat vs Butterfly; different things Co-Evolution Evolutionary change, in which one species act as a selective force on a second species, inducing adaptations that in turn act as selective force on the first species. Primates are mammals that: Opposable thumbs Large brain Good, stereoscopic vision Ability to brachiate Flexible elbows for hand rotation Grasping feet Appeared 60-65 million years ago Prosimian Small bodies Lemurs, Tarsiers

Anthropoids Human-like primates Evolved in Africa Hominids developed 5-8 million yrs ago Hominids are bipedal First hominids were in genus Australopithecus Lucy most famous fossil hominid More modern hominids were in genus Homo In 1974, a skeleton was found in Africa. The bones were those of a female, about 20 years old or so when she died. Scientists named her Lucy. About 3 million years ago, when Lucy was alive, she was about 4 feet tall and weighed about 50 pounds. Scientists suspect that she fell into a lake or river and drowned. Homo sapiens (developed 400,000 years ago) Neanderthals Europe arrival (100,000 years ago) Cro-Magnon Europe arrival (40,000 years ago) Americas arrival (12,000 years ago) Upright Man: people were about the same size as modern humans. Their tool-making skills were considerably improved. Their weapons included stone axes and knives. & could make FIRE. About one million years ago, Upright Man began to slowly leave Africa. These early people began to populate the world. Neanderthals were different from other species of early humans. They were tall and smart, and used caves as their homes. They were great hunters. CroMagnon: These Stone Age people learned to cure and store food for the long winter. -They used traps, which allowed them to catch food while they were busy doing something else. Fisherman used nets woven from vines and fishhooks. - Some groups built rafts and canoes to catch bigger fish in deeper waters. -Cave Paintings: To reach the deepest part of the cave, where other paintings could be found, Cro-Magnon man had to crawl through the maze like tunnels of the cave, holding a spoon-like oil lamp to light his way, while carrying his carefully prepared paints.