Biology Exam Review 2011

Biology Exam Review 2011
Taxonomy: The practice of classifying organisms. Each kingdom is sub divided several times into progressively smaller groups; a taxon. For ex; bobcat Domain largest taxon domain eukarya kingdoms (6) animalia phylum chordata class mammalia order carnivora family felidae genus lynx species smallest taxon lynx rufus 6 kingdoms: bacteria, Achaea, Protista, Animalia, Fungi, Plantae genotypic: similarities which are genetic in nature, ex; # of chromosomes. Phenotypic system: classifying by physical characteristics cladistic system: use phylogenic similarities (evolutionary similarities) ex; evolved from dinos Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells Prokaryotic: before nucleus (no membrane bound organelles) but have ribosomes. No mitochondria or endoplasmic reticulum Kingdoms: bacteria, Achaea Age: 3.5 billion years ago DNA material: concentrated in an area called NUCLEOID. Single loop of double stranded DNA, some have PLASMIDS (genetic material) size: size of mitochondria (1-10 um) - multi cellular forms are very rare reproduction: cell division NOT by mitosis and meiosis, most commonly A sexual. Respiration: many are aerobic (dont need oxygen) Eukaryotic: True Nucleus (complex membrane bound organelles, los of diversity in cell structure) Kingdoms: Animalia, Plantae, Protista, Fungi Age: 1.5 billion years old (single celled original) , 700 million years ago multi cellular formed DNA material: In membrane bound nucleus, genome arranged in CHROMOSOMES size: 100-1000 um reproduction: cell division by mitosis and meiosis, sexual reproduction respiration: most are aerobic require oxygen

Viruses: particulate that contains strands of DNA or RNA surrounded by a protective protein coat and that act as mobile genes that parasitize cells. - non living: lifeless outside living cell , chemical within a host cell they can replicate - no cellular structures, therefore not an organism - can cause diseases Structure: DNA or RNA + CAPSID (protein coat 95%) Shape of capsid: - polyhedral (polio) -cyndrical (tobacco mosaic virus)
KINGDOMS Kingdom Bacteria & Kingdom Achaea - both are prokaryotic cells How are they classified? 1. Shape of an organism: - Cocci (singular-coccus)-spherical -Bacilli (singular-bacillus)-rod shaped -Spirilla (singular-spirilla) 2. GRAM STAIN (only bacteria) positive: bacteria have thick protein layer on their cell wall; stain purple. negative: have thin protein layer on their cell wall; stain pink Kingdom Plantae Characteristics: -all are multi cellular -eukaryotic -all obtain food by photosynthesis - 3 main parts; stem (tissue that supports leaves, transports nutrients), leaves (carries nutrients), roots (reach for nutrients, water /anchor) - all 3 are adapted to land, all need water energy and nutrients
Kingdom Fungi

- fungi are heterotrophs - feed by releasing digesting enzymes into their surroundings, then absorbing the digested nutrients into their cells - majority of fungi are multi cellular - bodies are made of HYPAHE (singular hypha) Mushroom: hyphae packed tightly together, most of the organism is underground Mycelium: loose branching network of hyphae (underground part) Septa: hyphae divided into cells by cross walls, porous, allowing cytoplasm to flow through the hyphae from cell to cell. Hyphae: without septa appear to be large branching, multinucleate cells. Zygospore (zygomycotes) club fungi (basidiomycotes) sac fungi (ascoycotes) imperfect fungi (deuteromycotes) KINGDOM PROTISTA 3 general types: Protozoa: animal like protists, are heterotrophs that imjest or absorb their food. No cell wall. Vary in shape and size. Most can move. For example: flagallates- live inside of termites to help them digest the wood they eat Algae: plant like protists, autotrophs that carry out photosynthesis. Simple aquatic chlorophyll containing organisms. Range in size. Algae have been on earth for more than 2 billion years. Algae classified into 6 phyla on the type of chloroplasts and pigments they contain. Slime moulds and water moulds: difficult to classify, they produce spores(fungi), they glide from place to place and imjest food(protozoa). Cellulose cell walls(plants) 2 groups of slime moulds (plasmodial and cellular) and 1 group of water moulds (oomycotes). UNIT 3 Gas exchange: - single celled aerobic organisms do not have a respiratory system - organisms need moist environments - oxygen is dissolved in the water around the cell, diffuses through the outer membrane of each cell thereby becomes available for cellular respiration. - at the same time carbon dioxide diffuses out External Respiration: exchange of O2 and CO2 between air and blood Internal Respiration: exchange of O2 and CO2 between blood and the cells of surrounding tissue Cellular Respiration: complex series of chemical reactions that take place mainly in mitochondria of cell. Medulla Oblongata: area of the brain responsible for controlling some of the bodies reflexes. When the amount of carbon dioxide in the blood increases the medulla send out nerve impulses to initiate faster movement of the muscles of the rib cage. Also, nerve impulses are sent to the muscles in the diaphragm making it move more rapidly.
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Increse CO2 levels because your exhaling around 4% CO2, , therefore inhaling around 4% more CO2

How to Inhale and Exhale? In humans there are 2 muscular structures that control air pressure: - intercoastal muscles: ventral surface of rib cage - Diaphragm- muscle layer that separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity
Inhalation: Intercoastal muscles contract, lifting the rib cage up and out. At the same time, the diaphragm contracts and pulls downward. As the lungs expand, air moves in. Exhale: Intercoastal muscles relax, allowing the rib cage to return to its normal position. The diaphragm also moves upward, resuming its domed shape. As the lungs contract, air moves out. O2 diffuses into blood and CO2 diffuses into lungs Tidal Volume : volume of air inhaled and exhaled in a normal breathing movement Respiratory reserve volume : additional volume that can be taken in beyond regular tidal inhalation expiratory reserve volume: addition volume that can be forced out of the lung vital capacity: tidal vol + inspr. Res. Vol. + exp. Res. Vol residual volume: amount of gas in lungs and passageways bloodstream to the lungs Transport Vessels 3 types in mammals; 1) Artery, arterioles (small artery) all carry blood away from heart, MOST carry oxygenated blood (except pulmonary artery carry deoxygenated blood) 3 different structural layers : Outer covering of connective tissue with some elastic fibres (pg 290) Middle-think, circular bands of elastic fibres and smooth muscle (can expand and snap back, helps to continue pumping blood) Inner- single cell thick, smooth epithetical cells, help reduce friction
2) Vein, venules (small veins) all carry blood towards heart, MOST carry deoxygenated blood (except pulmonary vein carries O2 blood) contains 2 times as much as blood as arterial system blood is travelling slow after reaching capillaries, veins cant contract therefore above the heart, gravity will pull blood back to heart, below heart, muscle contractions and one way valves (prevent backflow) assist the blood in returning to the heart. (veins lack elasticity, still has the 3 layers) 3) Capillaries: where exchange of gasses/nutrients occurs. (pg290) small, wall is single and endothelial cell layer, diameter just large enough for a blood cell. Capillary wall regulates movement of fluids and other materials into and out of blood stream *** remember that in a closed circulatory system, blood is always contained in capillaries and never flows out to bathe the bodies cells directly (diagram) gasses, foods, wastes, hormories are exchanged across capillary wall between blood and interstitial fluid bathing each cell of body

Open Transport System: system where the blood does not always stay contained within blood vessels. (Grasshopper) - Circulate slowly - cannot provide rapid delivery of materials around the body Closed transport System: blood does not bathe cells directly, but is pumped within a network of vessels. - Animals need faster blood flow to transport respiratory gasses Double circulatory: blood is pumped through the heart twice during every complete cycle. - Humans Single circulatory: blood travels through the heart only once during every complete cycle Control of Heartbeat SINOATRIAL NOTE (S-A Node/ Pacemaker) generates electrical impulse that spreads over 2 atria, causing them to contract = 70 times/min ATRIOVENTRICULAR NODE (A-V NODE) located near atria, between 2 ventricles also generates on electrical impulse causing contraction of both ventricles Electrocardiodiagram (ECG) used to measure change in voltage produced by electrical signals ACETYLCHOLINE: sent out to e decrease rate of firing of SA node. Fight or flight: nervous system releases adrenaline, when in attack, defence or escape. Adrenaline, increases heart rate, increases blood flow to muscles causing more O2 to the muscles. Cardiac Output: amount of blood pumped by heart, total level of work of muscles 2 factors affect C.O: 1) heart rate = beats/min 2) stroke volume (SV): blood forced out of heart with heartbeat C.O = SV x H.R ; volume/beat Blood: collection of cells that are specialized for specific functions 2 elements; 1. Plasma- fluid portion (55%) water ,proteins, dissolved gasses 2. Formed portion cells RBC - 44% blood volume - function: o2 transport - mature R.B.C no nucleus, with lots of pigment of haemoglobin haemoglobin: picks up O2 in areas of high O2 concentration, and releases O2 in areas of low concentration Rbc transports in CO2 blood: 9% is carried in plasma, 45% combines with water O2 : measured in terms of partial pressure (usually highest in lungs, and lower in body tissues) - low partial pressure Hg releases O2 - high partial pressure binds O2 Acidity: high acidity release O2 Low acidity bind O2 White blood cells: (leucocytes) - take up 1% of blood - colorless, no nuclei
2 TYPES: macrophages: eating cells, innate immune response, can pass through capillary walls to engulf pathogens Lymphocytes: non phagocytic, acquired immune response (enables body to recognize then fend off pathogens) T cells: thymus gland, B cells: bone marrow Antibody: produced by body, able to recognize foreign antigens carried by invading pathogens. - only BIND with one antigen Platelets: NOT cells, component of formed portion of blood, no nucleus, break down quickly in the blood Blood Plasma: medium in which blood cells are suspended - 92% water - 7% proteins - .14% organic substances - .93% inorganic ions
Blood group A B O Ab Preoten marker, antigen A B None A and B Antibody in serum Anti b Anti A Anti A , Anti B None Genotypes IaIa or Ia i IbIb or Ibi Ii Ia Ib
Digestive System: Mouth: - equipped with teeth - surface of tongue covered with papillae (house tastes buds) - uvula: soft palate prevents food from entering pharynx -saliva: secreted by 3 pairs of salivary glands assist in chemical process of digestion. Moistens, lubricates food so it will pass to digestive system. Esophogas - food passes into tube called esophagus - lines with circular and longitudinal muscles along its length ; 24cm - muscles work together to push food along - musin: lubricant is secreted by a number of small, tubular glands located in the back of the throat Stomach - muscular j shaped, sac like organ whose interior lining is packed with millions of gastric glands. - Glands: secrete gastric juice important in digestion 3rd layer of muscle fibres: oblique layer chime: physically broken up good mixed with gastric juices pyloric sphincter: contracts and relaxes to control flow of food leaving stomach Small Intestine - subdivided into 3 regions Duodenum: U shaped, shortest and widest of regions, lacks layer of oblique muscle. - Pancreatic and bile ducts open into duodenum

- important site for further chemical breakdown of partially digested materials. - Permanent, circular fluids in nocuous membrane. - Folds increase surface area of intestine. Villi: serve to further increase absorptive surface of intestinal tract Lacteal Vessel: carry larger fat particles that are absorbed from intestine. Flow into vessels of lymphatic circulatory system Jejunum: contains more folds and intestinal glands - break down remaining proteins and carbohydrates so the end products can be absorbed Ileum: 3m long, contain fewer and smaller villi. , function is to absorb nutrients, push remaining undigested material in large intestine The Large Intestine - caecum, colon, rectum, anal, canal - 1.5 m long, it is much shorter than small intestine - diameter is greater - caecum: blind end of large intestine - appendix: organ that plays no role in digestion but fights infection undigested food colon water, minerals + bacteria = feces - passes into rectum and anal canal which is last 20 cm of intestine anus: rings of circular muscle called anal sphincters. Ph Levels: Regulation of Digestive Enzymes: Nerves and hormones (chemical regulator secreted in one part of body and transported by bloodstream to another part, causing a response) - Gastrin: stimulates digestive glands to secrete musin, pepsin, HCI, lipases -Secretin: presence of chime in duodenum stimulates duodenum to secrete it into bloodstream, arriving at pancreas, stimulates cells to release an alkaline fluid containing NA2CO2 and NaHCO2, which increases pH from 2 to 8. (If the pH did not increase, none of the enzymes of the intestine would function due to a too acidic environment) Enzymes:

Leaves : - primary organs responsible for photosynthesis - PHOTOSYNTHESIS : plants absorb carbon dioxide and give off oxygen - both photosynthesis and respiration require leaf to exchange gasses with environment STOMATA : small structures in cuticle that help gasses to pass in and out of leaf STOMA: consists of a pore bordered by a pair of guard cells, these cells allow the pore to be opened to permit exchange of gasses. - surfaces of leaf cell are moist to permit gas exchange to occur by diffusion across the membrane - In photosynthesis, oxygen is released into intracellular air space and can be used for respiration - Carbon dioxide released by respiring leaf enters intracellular space and can be taken up by photosynthesis
Stems: - contains small pores - Stomata where gasses can enter the leaf LENTICELS: arrangements of cells that provide openings from the environment into tissue of stem. - oxygen diffuses through stomata or lenticels into intracellular air space of the plant, from there can reach every cell in the stem. - In the plant, oxygen dissolves in the water of the moist cell membrane and then diffuses across membrane into the cell. - Carbon dioxide diffuses across cell membrane into intracellular air space then out through pores.
Transportation in the plants: TRANSLOCATION: movement of materials from one part of the plant to another XYLEM: formed when certain plant cells thicken, providing structural support to the plant. Transportation in Xylem: - roots take in water through root hairs and epidermal cells by osmosis - water flows through cell walls, into intracellular spaces within the root and enters xylem - water then transported in the xylem tissue up the tissue into the stem, water and materials move by diffusion - materials enters leaf, conducting vessels, branch into lots of veins. - from end of each vein, water and minerals diffuse into cells of leaf. - 99% of water that reaches leaf is lost through transpiration

Root Pressure: - roots build up pressure that forces water upward. 2 reasons for this: 1. Cells actively pump water into xylem tissue 2. Cells transport ions and in turn create concentration gradient that causes water to move into xylem by osmosis. Cohension Tension: - mechanism may act to pull water up the plant from above - each molecule of water vapour evaporates from a stomata on the surface of the leaf into air, another molecule is behind it. - 2nd molecule moves up to replace first - water will move up the xylem even when there is no transpiration taking place from the leaves. Mineral Transport: - minerals are transported within plants in the xylem tissue - water moves into the roots of the plant by osmosis - movement of minerals against concentration gradient proves mechanism other then diffusion is at work in transport minerals in plant roots Phloem...? Mass flow theory: - 2 membranes that are permeable to water but not to sucrose are connected and immersed in water to form a closed system. VASCULAR SYSTEMS human vascular systems: consists of tubes that transport water, dissolved food and oxygen throughout bodies; pushed around a heart. Plants: specialized tissue for transporting material from one location to another within the plant. - Tissue consists of internal system of tubes that transport water and food through plant. Vascular Bundles: (Xylem and Phloem) - Transport material within plant DICOT STEMS: bundles form a discontinuous ring of vascular bundles. MONOCOT STEMS: vascular bundles are scattered throughout the stem of the plant in no discernible pattern.
Structure of Xylem: ANGIOSPERM: long, mainly hollow tubes formed by non living cell walls of tracheids or vessel elements.

Stem Types: Stolons: (runners) produce new plants where the nodes in the stem touch the ground (strawberries) Rhizomes: underground, horizontal structures stems. (iris) Tubers: Enlarged rhizome section (Potato) Corms: bulbous underground structures (Dormant in winter) Development in the Meristem: Meristem: small regions of unspecialized tissue that divide by mitosis. When a cell in the meristem divides, one of the two resulting cells remains in the meristem, the other becomes part of the human body. 2 main types of meristem tissue: 1. Apical Meristem: located in roots and shoot tips of plants - division results in growth of roots, leaves and flowers. - in root, protected by root cap - in stem, protected by terminal bud 2. Lateral meristem: results in growth of tissue beneath the bark of tree stems Most woody plants have 2 kinds of lateral meristems: a. VASCULAR CAMBIUM: produces xylem and phloem cells in the stems and roots b. CORK CAMBIUM: produces a tough covering for the surface of stems and roots (bark) Hormonal Control of Plant Growth: 1. Promoter Hormones: cause growth (auxins) 2. Inhibitor Hormones: block growth (Ethylene) Plant Tropism: Tropism: directions growth response to unequal stimulation from the external environment 3 major kinds that are effected by light, gravity and touch. PHOTOTROPISM: growth of plant affected by light. Most plants are POSITIVE PHOTOTROPIC grow towards the light , roots are NEGATIVE PHOTOTROPIC GRAVITROPISM: response to gravity. Roots = negative (grow downwards) shoots and stem = upwards THIGMOTROPISM: response to plants to touch, behaviour caused by specialized cells in epidermis of the plant. (Ex. Vining plants) nastic movement: caused by stimulus that is not directional

Plant Technologies: aimed at improving the worlds carbohydrate crops (corn) Improve crops: 1. Artificial Selection: selective breeding in plants where the percentage of offspring that possess desirable traits is increased by selecting plants with the desirable traits through a) MASS SELECTION: gathering seeds of strongest plants b)PURE LINE SELECTION: mating only certain plants with desirable traits c) CROSSBREEDING: goal is to combine 2 or more desirable traits in offspring ex. Tomato shape and firmness HYBRID: an organism heterozygous for a trait or the offspring of parents with different genotypes. Root crop farmers: prevent unwanted variation by cutting up roots of previous years crops and using the pieces for this year.

Pedigrees: Sex Linked Inheritance: Some traits passed from one generation to the next depend on the sex of the parent carrying the trait. Transmission of genes that are located on one of the sex chromosomes, X or Y is called sex linked inheritance. Only on the x chromosome x linked . Only on the y chromosome y linked Ex. Color blind man marries a heterozygous female, what is the possibility that the offspring may be colorblind? Let XH represent the allele for normal . Let Xh represent color blindness.
Xh XH Xh Hh hh 50% normal ,50% colorblind Y Hy hy
Autosomal Inheritance Diseases/Disorders that are transmitted on any chromosome except the sex chromosomes. Autosomal Recessive Inheritance Need both alleles to have the disorder ; ex. Tay Sachs Meiosis
Meiosis is a type of cell division, occurs only in reproductive organs in the sex cells (sperm + egg). Each human gamete contains 23 chromosomes. 22 AUTOSOMES (general characteristics) 1 sex chromosome (determines sex)
Begins with diploid number, ends with haploid number

he organelles in eukaryotic cells allow them to perform more complex functions than prokaryotic cells, which dont have these little organs. If you dont know much about organelles, dont worry youll be learning more in an upcoming instruction. Some of the organelles in eukaryotic cells are:
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The Nucleus the brain or control center of the cell. It contains DNA, which makes up genes. That DNA gets transcribed, or copied onto messenger RNA. That messenger carries a copy of the genes orders for certain protein production. These orders go to the protein factories. Ribosomes These are the protein factories. They follow instructions from messenger RNA (remember that the messenger RNA got its orders from the DNA). The instructions tell the ribosomes to make specific proteins. Note, this particular organelle is found in prokaryotes too! Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) structures that modify proteins produced in the ribosomes. Not all of the proteins made by the ribosomes need changing, but those that do get altered here. Golgi Apparatus This structure will make even more changes to the proteins that already got changed when they were in the E.R. Remember those proteins were made in the ribosomes, changed once in the E.R. and will be changed again in the Golgi Apparatus. The Golgi also acts as a post office by packaging and shipping proteins to other parts of the cell or out of the cell. Mitochondria structures which produce the cells energy, a.k.a. powerhouses of the cell. Chloroplasts structures which allow plants to trap sunlight and carry out photosynthesis.
There are some important differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Size Eukaryotic cells are, on average, ten times larger than prokaryotic cells.

Enzyme Place Where enzymes acts Mouth Substrate Products Origin of Enzymes Salivary Glands
Salivary amylase Pepsin (likes low pH 2)
Starch
Maltose
Stomach
Protein
Peptides
Stomach glands (Pepsinogen + HCI pepsin)
Lapase (likes a pH 8)
Small Intestine pH 8
Fats
Glycerol + Fatty Stomach glands acids (BUT does not become active until in small intestine) Maltose Pancreas
Pancreatic amylase Pancreatic lipase Various Enzymes
Small intestine
Starch
Small intestine
Fat
Glycerol + fatty acids Various monomers
Pancreas
Small intestine
Proteins, RNA, DNA, sugars, etc.
Small intestine, glands, pancreas, etc.
Unit 5 Scientists involved in evolution theories: Natural Selection: Causes change in the allele frequencies of a population, which can lead to evolutionary change. For example: Ayana the tall. Acquired Characteristics: Divergent Evolutions: - pattern of evolution in which species that were once similar to an ancestral species diverge or become increasingly distinct. Convergent Evolution: - pattern of evolution in which similar traits arise because different species have independently adapted to similar environmental conditions. Surace area: volume smaller the better

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