Alternative Energy

New Renewable Energy Alternatives
21
Icelands Blue Lagoon and Svartsengi geothermal power plant
Upon successfully completing this chapter, you will be able to:

Outline the major sources of renewable energy and assess their potential for growth Describe solar energy and the ways it is harnessed, and evaluate its advantages and disadvantages Describe wind energy and the ways it is harnessed, and evaluate its advantages and disadvantages
Describe geothermal energy and the ways it is harnessed, and evaluate its advantages and disadvantages Describe ocean energy sources and the ways they can be harnessed, and evaluate their advantages and disadvantages Explain hydrogen fuel cells and assess future options for energy storage and transportation
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Icelands hydrogen buses arrive in Reykjavik
North America
Europe Iceland
Atlantic Ocean
Africa
Central Case: Iceland Moves toward a Hydrogen Economy

I believe that water will one day be employed as fuel, that hydrogen and oxygen which constitute it, used singly or together, will furnish an inexhaustible source of heat and light . . . . Water will be the coal of the future. Jules Verne, in The Mysterious Island, 1874 Our long-term vision is of a hydrogen economy. Robert Purcell, Jr., executive director, General Motors, 2000
Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Most of Icelands 290,000 people live in the capital city of Reykjavik, leaving much of the island an unpeopled and starkly beautiful landscape of volcanoes, hot springs, and glaciers. The magma that gave birth to the island heats its groundwater in many places, giving Iceland some of the worlds best sources of geothermal energy. Iceland has also dammed some of its many rivers for hydropower. Together these two renewable energy sources provide 73% of the countrys energy supply and virtually all its electricity generation. Yet the nation, like most others,
Iceland are blazing a bold new path, one they believe the rest of the world may follow. Iceland aims to become the first nation to leave fossil fuels behind and convert to an economy based completely on renewable energy. Iceland is essentially a hunk of lava the size of Kentucky that has risen out of the North Atlantic from the rift between tectonic plates known as the
he Viking explorers who first set foot centuries ago on the remote island of Iceland were trailblazers. Today the citizens of the nation of
also depends on fossil fuels. Oil powers its automobiles, some of its factories, and its economically vital fishing fleetand together these have given Iceland one of the highest per capita rates of greenhouse gas emission in the world. Because it possesses no fossil fuel reserves, all fossil fuels must be importeda weak link in an otherwise robust economy that has given its citizens one of the highest per capita incomes in the world. Enter Bragi rnason, a University of Iceland professor popularly known as Dr. Hydrogen. rnason began
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arguing in the 1970s that Iceland could achieve independence from fossil fuel imports, boost its economy, and serve as a model to the world by converting from fossil fuels to a renewable energy economy based on hydrogen. He suggested zapping water with Icelands cheap and renewable electricity in a chemical reaction called electrolysis, splitting the hydrogen from the oxygen and then using the hydrogen to power fuel cells that would produce and store electricity. The process is clean; nothing is combusted, and the only waste product is water. In the late 1990s rnasons countrymen began to listen. The nations leaders decided to embark on a grand experiment to test the efficacy of switching to a hydrogen economy. By setting an example for the rest of the world to follow, and by getting a head start at producing and exporting hydrogen fuel, these leaders hoped Iceland could become a Kuwait of the North and get rich by exporting hydrogen to an energy-hungry world, as Kuwait has done by exporting oil. The leaders planning the shift to a hydrogen economy sketched a stepped transition in which fossil fuels would be phased out over 3050 years. Conversion of the Reykjavik bus fleet to run on hydrogen fuel is the first step. After that, Icelands 180,000 private cars would be powered by fuel cells, and then the fishing fleet would be converted to hydrogen. The final stage would be the export of hydrogen fuel to mainland Europe. To make this happen, Icelanders in 1999 teamed up with corporate partners looking to develop technology for the future. Auto company Daimler-Chrysler is producing hydrogen buses, oil company Royal Dutch Shell is running hydrogen filling stations to fuel the buses, and Norsk Hydro is providing electrolysis technology. In 2003, the worlds first commercial hydrogen filling station opened in Reykjavik, and three hydrogen-fueled buses began operation. The public-private consortium, Icelandic New Energy (INE), is monitoring the technologys effectiveness and the costs of developing infrastructure. Icelands citizens are behind the effort; a recent poll showed 93% support among Icelanders. Meanwhile, Daimler-Chrysler has introduced trios of hydrogen-fueled buses to nine other European cities. Hydrogen buses are also being developed by other companies and run in cities in Europe and throughout the world, from Tokyo to Chicago to Perth to Winnipeg. Hydrogen refueling stations are being demonstrated in Japan, Singapore, and the United States, and fuel-cell passenger automobiles are being tested in Japan and California. A global hydrogen economy could be closer than we suspect.
New Renewable Energy Sources

Icelands bold drive toward a hydrogen economy is one facet of a global move toward renewable energy. Across the world, nations are taking different approaches to figure out how to move away from fossil fuels while ensuring a continued supply of energy for their economies. In Chapter 20 we explored the two renewable energy sources that are most developed and widely used: biomass energy, the energy from combustion of wood and other plant matter, and hydropower, the energy from running water. These conventional alternatives to fossil fuels are renewable energy sources that can be depleted with overuse and that exert some undesirable environmental impacts. In this chapter we explore a group of alternative energy sources that are often called new renewables. These include energy from the sun, from wind, from Earths geothermal heat, and from the movement of ocean water. These energy sources are not truly new. In fact, they are as old as our planet, and people have used them for millennia. They are commonly referred to as new because (1) they are not yet used on a wide scale in our modern industrial society, as are fossil fuels and the conventional renewable alternatives; (2) they are harnessed using technologies that are still in a rapid phase of development; and (3) it is widely believed that they will come to play a larger role in our energy use in the future.
The new renewables currently provide little of our power

The new renewable energy sources currently provide only 0.5% of our global primary energy supply. Fossil fuels provide 80% of the worlds primary energy, nuclear energy provides 6.5%, and renewable energy sources account for 13.5%, nearly all of which is provided by biomass and hydropower (see Figure 20.1a, p. 591). The new renewables make a similarly small contribution to our global generation of electricity (see Figure 20.1b, p. 591). Less than 18% of our electricity comes from renewable energy, and of this amount, hydropower accounts for 90%. Nations and regions vary in the renewable sources they use. In the United States, most energy supplied by renewable sources comes from hydropower and biomass, in nearly equal proportions. As of 2004, geothermal energy accounted for 5.6%, wind energy for 2.3%, and solar energy for 1.0% (Figure 21.1a). Of electricity generated in the United States from renewables, hydropower accounts
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Environmental Issues and the Search for Solutions

60 50 40 30 20 10 0
Hydropower 44.6%
Geothermal (5.6%) Wind (2.3%)
Biomass 46.5%
Solar (1.0%)
Annual growth rate, 19712000 (%)
(a) U.S. total primary energy from renewable sources, 2004
Total primary energy supply
Solar
Wind
Geothermal
Ocean
Energy source
FIGURE 21.2 The new renewable energy sources are growing substantially faster than the total primary energy supply. Solar power has grown by 32% each year since 1971, and wind power has grown by 52% each year. Because these sources began from such low starting levels, however, their overall contribution to our energy supply is still small. Go to at www.aw-bc.com/ withgott or on the student CD-ROM. Data from International Energy
Geothermal (8.3%) Wind (3.9%) Biomass 14.0% Solar (0.2%)
Hydropower 73.6%
Agency Statistics, 2002.
(b) U.S. total electricity generation from renewable sources, 2004

FIGURE 21.1 Only 6% of the total primary energy consumed in the United States each year comes from renewable sources. Of this amount, most derives from hydropower and biomass energy. Geothermal energy accounts for 5.6% of this amount, wind for 2.3%, and solar for 1.0% (a). Similarly, only 9% of electricity generated in the United States comes from renewable energy sources, predominantly hydropower and biomass. Geothermal energy accounts for 8.3%, wind for 3.9%, and solar for only 0.2% (b). Data from Energy Information Administration, U.S. Department of
Energy. 2005. Annual Energy Review, 2004.
for nearly 75%, and biomass 14%. As of 2004, geothermal power accounted for 8.3%, wind for 3.9%, and solar for just 0.2% (Figure 21.1b).
The new renewables are growing fast

Although they comprise only a minuscule proportion of our energy budget, the new renewable energy sources are growing at much faster rates than are conventional energy sources. Over the past three decades, solar, wind, geothermal, and ocean energy sources have grown far faster than has the overall primary energy supply (Figure 21.2). Among
renewable sources, the leader in growth is wind power, which has expanded by about 50% each year over the past three decades. Because these sources started from such low levels of use, however, it will take them some time to catch up to conventional sources. For instance, the absolute amount of energy added by a 50% increase in wind power is still less than the amount added by just a 1% increase in oil, coal, or natural gas. The rapid growth of the new renewables has been motivated by concerns over diminishing fossil fuel supplies and the environmental impacts of fossil fuel combustion (Chapter 19). As these concerns build, advances in technology are making it easier and less expensive to harness renewable energy sources. The new renewables promise several benefits over fossil fuels. As they replace fossil fuels, they help alleviate air pollution and the greenhouse gas emissions that drive global climate change (Chapter 18). Unlike fossil fuels, renewable sources are inexhaustible on time scales relevant to human societies. Developing renewables can also help diversify an economys mix of energy, lowering price volatility and protecting against supply restrictions such as those caused by the 1973 oil embargo or by Hurricane Katrina in 2005 ( p. 579). New energy sources also can create new employment opportunities and sources of income and property tax for local communities, especially in rural areas passed over by other economic
development. In many rural areas and developing countries, locally based renewable sources may prove cheaper to use for electricity than would extending the electricity grid infrastructure out from cities. Rapid growth in renewable energy sectors seems likely to continue as population and consumption grow, global energy demand expands, fossil fuel supplies decline, and citizens demand cleaner environments. More governments, utilities, corporations, and consumers are now promoting and using renewable energy sources, and, as a result, the costs of renewables are falling.
diminishing fossil fuel supplies could outpace our ability to develop new sources, and we could find our economies greatly disrupted, and our environment greatly degraded. Thus, encouraging the speedy development of renewable energy alternatives holds promise for bringing us a vigorous and sustainable energy economy without the environmental impacts of fossil fuels.
Solar Energy
The sun provides energy for almost all biological activity on Earth ( pp. 105106) by converting hydrogen to helium in nuclear fusion ( pp. 595596). Each square meter of Earths surface receives about 1 kilowatt of solar energy 17 times the energy of a lightbulb. As a result, an averagesized house whose roof is covered in panels that harness solar energy has enough roof area to generate all its power needs. The suns raw energy is so strong that if only 0.1% of Earths surfaceroughly the combined area of New Mexico and South Dakotawere covered with solar panels, we would have enough solar energy to power all the worlds electrical plants. The amount of energy Earth receives from the sun each day, if it could be collected in full for our use, would be enough to power human consumption for 27 years. Clearly, the potential for using sunlight to meet our energy needs is tremendous. However, all this free energy from the sun cannot be harnessed just yet. We are still in the process of developing solar technologies and learning the most effective and cost-efficient ways to put the suns energy to use. The most commonly used way to harness solar energy is through passive solar energy collection. In this approach, buildings are designed and building materials are chosen to maximize direct absorption of sunlight in winter, even as they keep the interior cool in the heat of summer. This approach contrasts with active solar energy collection, which makes use of technological devices to focus, move, or store solar energy. We tend to think of using solar power as a novel phenomenon, but people have chosen and designed their living sites with passive solar collection in mind for millennia. Moreover, solar energy was first harnessed with active solar technology in 1767, when Swiss scientist Horace de Saussure built a thermal solar collector to heat water and cook food. In 1891, U.S. inventor Clarence Kemp claimed the first commercial patent for a solar-powered water heater. Two California entrepreneurs bought the patent rights and outfitted one-third of the homes in Pasadena, California, with solar water heaters by 1897.
The transition cannot be immediate, but it must be soon

If our civilization is to persist in the long term, it will need to shift to renewable energy sources. A key question is whether we will be able to shift soon enough and smoothly enough to avoid widespread war, social unrest, and further damage to the environment. The answer to this question will largely determine the quality of life for all of us in the coming decades. We cannot switch completely to renewable energy sources overnight, because there are technological and economic barriers. Currently, most renewables lack adequate technological development and lack infrastructure to transfer power on the required scale. However, dramatic improvements in technology and infrastructure in recent years suggest that most of the remaining barriers are political. Renewable energy sources have received far less in subsidies, tax breaks, and other incentives from governments than have conventional sources. By one estimate, of the $150 billion in subsidies the U.S. government provided to nuclear, solar, and wind power in the past half century, the nuclear industry received 96%, the solar industry received 3%, and the wind industry less than 1%. For decades, research and development of renewable sources have suffered from the continuing availability of fossil fuels made inexpensive in part by government policy. Many corporations in the fossil fuel and automobile industries understand that they will eventually need to switch to renewable sources. They also know that when the time comes, they will need to act fast to stay ahead of their competitors. However, in light of continuing short-term profits and unclear policy signals, companies have not been eager to invest in the transition. Under these circumstances, our best hope may be for a gradual transition from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources, one driven largely by economic supply and demand. However, if the transition proceeds too slowlyif we wait solely for economics to do its work, without government encouragement
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Passive solar heating is simple and effective

One passive solar design technique involves installing low, south-facing windows to maximize sunlight capture in the winter (in the Northern Hemisphere; north-facing windows are used in the Southern Hemisphere). Overhangs block light from above, shading these windows in the summer, when the sun is high in the sky and when cooling, not heating, is desired. Passive solar techniques also include the use of heat-absorbing construction materials. Often called thermal mass, these materials absorb heat, store it, and release it later. Thermal mass (of straw, brick, concrete, or other materials) most often makes up floors, roofs, and walls, but also can comprise portable blocks. Thermal mass may be strategically located to capture sunlight in cold weather and radiate heat in the interior of the building. In warm weather, the mass should be located away from sunlight so that it absorbs warmed air in the interior to cool the building. Passive solar design can also involve planting vegetation in particular locations around a building. By heating buildings in cold weather and cooling them in warm weather, passive solar methods help conserve energy and reduce energy costs.
antifreeze solutions are run through tubes that pass through the collectors, transferring heat throughout a building. Heated water can be pumped to tanks to store the heat for later use and through pipes designed to release the heat into the building. Such systems have proven especially effective for heating water for residences. Active solar energy is being used for heating, cooling, and water purification in Gaviotas, a remote town in the high plains of Colombia far from any electrical grid. Engineers have developed inexpensive solar panels that harvest enough solar energy, even under cloudy skies, to boil drinking water for a family of four. They also have designed, built, and installed a unique solar refrigerator in a rural hospital, along with a large-scale solar collector to boil and sterilize water. Their innovations show that solar power does not need to be expensive or confined to regions that are always sunny.
Concentrating solar rays magnifies the energy received

The strength of solar energy can be magnified by gathering sunlight from a wide area and focusing it on a single point. This is the principle behind solar cookers, simple portable ovens that use reflectors to focus sunlight onto food and cook it (see Figure 3.13, p. 71). Such cookers are becoming widespread and proving extremely useful in parts of the developing world. The principle of concentrating the suns rays has also been put to work by utilities in large-scale, high-tech approaches to generating electricity. In one approach, mirrors concentrate sunlight onto a receiver atop a tall power-tower (Figure 21.3). From the receiver, heat is
Active solar energy collection can heat air and water in buildings
One active method for harnessing solar energy involves using solar panels or flat-plate solar collectors, most often installed on rooftops. These panels generally consist of dark-colored, heat-absorbing metal plates mounted in flat boxes covered with glass panes. Water, air, or
FIGURE 21.3 At the Solar Two facility operated by Southern California Edison in the desert of southern California, mirrors are spread across wide expanses of land to concentrate sunlight onto a receiver atop a power-tower. Heat is then transported through fluid-filled pipes to a steamdriven generator that produces electricity.
Light
Panel
Module Array
Electricity generated (direct current)
Phosphorusenriched silicon Junction Photovoltaic cell Boron-enriched silicon
FIGURE 21.4 A photovoltaic (PV) cell converts sunlight to electrical energy. When sunlight hits a layer of silicon infused with phosphorus, electrons are released and travel toward the layer of silicon laced with boron. This movement of electrons induces an electric current, producing electricity. PV cells are grouped in modules, which can comprise panels, which can be erected in arrays.
transported by fluids (often molten salts) piped to a steamdriven generator to create electricity. These solar power plants can harness light from large mirrors spread across many hectares of land. The worlds largest such plant so fara collaboration among government, industry, and utility companies in the California desertproduces power for 10,000 households. Another approach is the use of solar-trough collection systems, which consist of mirrors that gather sunlight and focus it on oil in troughs. The superheated oil creates steam that drives turbines, as in conventional power plants.
Photovoltaic cells generate electricity directly from sunlight

A more direct approach to producing electricity from sunlight involves photovoltaic (PV) systems. Photovoltaic (PV) cells collect sunlight and convert it to electrical energy directly by making use of the photovoltaic, or photoelectric effect, first proposed in 1839 by French physicist Edmund Becquerel. This effect occurs when light strikes one of a pair of metal plates in a PV cell, causing the release of electrons, which are attracted by electrostatic forces to the op-
posing plate. The flow of electrons from one plate to the other creates an electrical current, which can be converted into alternating current (AC) and used for residential and commercial electrical power (Figure 21.4). The plates of a PV cell are made primarily of silicon, enriched on one side with phosphorus and on the other with boron. Silicon is a semiconductor, so it conducts and controls the flow of electricity. Because of the chemical properties of boron and phosphorus, the phosphorusenriched side has excess electrons, and the boron-enriched side has fewer electrons. When sunlight strikes the cell surface, it transfers energy and causes electrons to move. When wires connect the two sides, electricity is created as electrons flow from the phosphorus-enriched side to the boron-enriched side. Photovoltaic cells can be connected to batteries that store the accumulated charge until it is needed. You may be familiar with small PV cells that power your watch or your calculator. Atop the roofs of homes and other buildings, multiple PV cells are arranged in modules. These modules can comprise panels, which can be gathered together in flat arrays. Increasingly, PV roofing tiles are being used instead of these arrays. PV roofing
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tiles look like normal roofing shingles but generate electricity by the photovoltaic effect. In some remote areas, such as Xcalak, Mexico, PV systems are being used in combination with wind turbines ( pp. 627628) and a diesel generator to power entire villages.
Solar power offers many benefits

The fact that the sun will continue burning for another 45 billion years makes it practically inexhaustible as an energy source for human civilization. Moreover, the amount of solar energy reaching Earths surface should be enough to power our civilization once solar technology is adequately developed. Although these overarching benefits of solar energy are clear, the technologies themselves also provide benefits. PV cells and other solar technologies use no fuel, are quiet and safe, contain no moving parts, require little maintenance, and do not even require a turbine or generator to create electricity. An average unit can produce energy for 2030 years. Another advantage of solar systems is that they allow for local, decentralized control over power. Homes, businesses, and isolated communities can use solar power to produce their own electricity and may not need to be near a power plant or connected to the grid of a city. In developing nations, solar cookers enable families to cook food without gathering fuelwood; as a result, they lessen peoples daily workload and help reduce deforestation. In locations such as refugee camps, solar cookers are helping relieve social and environmental stress. The low cost of solar cookersmany can be built locally for $210 eachhas made them available for purchase or donation in many impoverished areas. In the developed world, most PV systems today are connected to the regional electric grid. As a result, owners of houses with PV systems can sell their excess solar energy to their local power utility through a process called two-way metering. The value of the power the consumer sells to the utility is subtracted from the consumers monthly utility bill. Finally, a major advantage of solar power over fossil fuels is that it does not pollute the air with greenhouse gas emissions and other air pollutants. The manufacture of photovoltaic cells does currently require fossil fuel use, but once it is up and running, a PV system produces no emissions. Consumers may be able to access online calculators to calculate the economic and environmental impacts of installing PV solar cells. For example, a calculator offered by BP Solar estimated that installing a 5-kilowatt PV system in a home in Dallas, Texas, can provide 51% of annual power needs, save $391 per year on energy bills, and prevent the emission of 9,023 lb of carbon dioxide from fossil fuel combustion. Even in overcast Seattle, Washington, a 5-kilowatt system can produce 32% of energy needs, save $336 per year, and prevent the emission of 6,419 lb of carbon dioxide.
Solar power is little used but fast growing

Although active solar technology dates from the 18th century, it was pushed to the sidelines as fossil fuels gained a stronger foothold in our energy economy. Even as solar technology was being refined for applications ranging from handheld calculators to spacecraft, it was not being developed for the roles that fossil fuels have filled. In recent U.S. history, funding for research and development of solar technology has been erratic. After the 1973 oil embargo, the U.S. Department of Energy funded the installation and testing of over 3,000 PV systems, providing a boost to companies in the solar industry. As oil prices declined, however, so did government support for solar power, and funding for solar has remained far below that for fossil fuels. Largely because of the lack of investment, solar power currently contributes only a minuscule portion of our energy production. In 2004, solar accounted for only 0.06% less than 6 parts in 10,000of the U.S. primary energy supply, and only 0.02% of U.S. electricity generation. However, use of solar energy has grown by nearly one-third annually worldwide since 1971, a growth rate second only to that of wind power. Solar power is proving especially attractive in developing countries, many of which are rich in sun but poor in power infrastructure, and where hundreds of millions of people are still without electricity. Some multinational corporations that built themselves on fossil fuels are now investing in alternative energy as well. BP Solar, British Petroleums solar energy wing, recently completed $30 million projects in the Philippines and Indonesia, and is working on a $48 million project to supply electricity to 400,000 people in 150 villages. Sales of PV cells are growing fastby 25% per year in the United States, for instance, and by 63% annually in Japan, which uses PV roofing tiles widely. Use of solar technology is widely expected to continue increasing as prices fall, technologies improve, and economic incentives are enacted. However, the very small amount of energy currently produced by solar power means that its market share will likely remain small for years or decades to comeunless governments, businesses, and consumers become more motivated by the benefits that solar energy can provide.
FIGURE 21.5 Because some locations receive more sunlight than others, harnessing solar energy is more profitable in some areas than in others. In the United States, many areas of Alaska and the Pacific Northwest receive only 34 kilowatt-hours per square meter per day, whereas most areas of the Southwest receive 67 kilowatt-hours per square meter per day. Data from National
Renewable Energy Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy, 2005.
Solar radiation (kWh/m2/day) 6.57.0 6.06.5 5.56.0 5.05.5 4.55.0 4.04.5 3.54.0 3.03.5
Location and cost can be drawbacks for solar power

Solar power currently has two major disadvantages. One is that not all regions are sunny enough to provide adequate power, given current technology. Although Earth as a whole receives vast amounts of sunlight, not every location on Earth does (Figure 21.5). People in cities such as Seattle might find it difficult to harness enough sunlight most of the year to rely on solar power. Daily or seasonal variation in sunlight can also pose problems for stand-alone solar systems if storage capacity in batteries or fuel cells is not adequate or if backup power is not available from a municipal electricity grid. The primary disadvantage of current solar technology as with other renewable sourcesis the up-front cost of investing in the equipment. The investment cost for solar is higher than that for fossil fuels, and indeed, solar power remains the most expensive way to produce electricity. Proponents of solar power argue that decades of government promotion of fossil fuels and nuclear powerwhich have received many financial breaks that solar power has not have made solar power unable to compete. Because the external costs ( pp. 4344) of nonrenewable energy have not been included in market prices, these energy sources have remained relatively cheap. Governments, businesses, and consumers thus have had little economic incentive to switch to solar and other renewables.
However, decreases in price and improvements in energy efficiency of solar technologies so far are encouraging, even in the absence of significant financial commitment from government and industry. At their advent in the 1950s, solar technologies had efficiencies of around 6%, while costing $600 per watt. Recent single-crystal silicon PV cells are showing 15% efficiency commercially and 24% efficiency in lab research, suggesting that future solar technologies may be more efficient than any energy technologies we have today. Solar systems have become much cheaper over the years and now can often pay for themselves in 1015 years. After that time, they provide energy virtually for free as long as the equipment lasts. With future technological advances, some experts believe that the time to recoup investment could fall to 13 years.
Wind Energy
Wind energy can be thought of as an indirect form of solar energy, because it is the suns differential heating of air masses on Earth that causes wind to blow. We can harness power from wind by using devices called wind turbines, mechanical assemblies that convert winds kinetic energy, or energy of motion, into electrical energy.
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FIGURE 21.6 A wind turbine converts winds energy of motion into electrical energy. Wind causes the blades of a wind turbine to spin, turning a shaft that extends into the nacelle that is perched atop the tower. Inside the nacelle, a gearbox converts the rotational speed of the blades, which can be up to 20 revolutions per minute (rpm) or more, into much higher rotational speeds (over 1,500 rpm). These high speeds provide adequate motion for a generator inside the nacelle to produce electricity.
Gearbox (increases rotational speed of blades) Blades
Generator (produces electricity)
Tower
Nacelle
Wind has long been used for energy

Todays wind turbines have their historical roots in Europe, where wooden windmills have been used for 800 years. The Netherlands in particular is known for its windmills, whose power has been used to pump water to drain wetlands and irrigate crops, and to grind grain into flour. In each application, wind causes a windmills blades to turn, driving a shaft connected to several cogs that turn wheels, which either grind grain or pull buckets from a well. In the United States, countless ranches in arid areas of the West and Great Plains feature windmills that draw groundwater up to supply thirsty cattle. The first wind turbine built to generate electricity was constructed in the late 1800s in Cleveland, Ohio, by inventor Charles Brush, who designed a turbine 17 m (50 ft) tall with 144 rotor blades made of cedar wood. But technology advanced slowly during the 20th century, and it was not until after the 1973 oil embargo that wind energy was funded by governments in North America and Europe. This moderate infusion of funding for research and development boosted technological progress, and the cost of wind power was cut in half in less than 10 years. Today wind power at favorable locations generates electricity for nearly as little cost per kilowatt-hour as do conventional sources, and modern wind turbines appear more like airplane propellers or sleek new helicopters than romantic old Dutch paintings.
equipment to monitor and control the turbines activity. Most of todays towers range from 40 to 100 m (131328 ft) tall. Higher is generally better, to minimize turbulence (and potential damage) and to maximize wind speed. Most rotors consist of three blades and measure 4280 m (138262 ft) across. Turbines are designed to yaw, or rotate back and forth in response to changes in wind direction, ensuring that the motor faces into the wind at all times. Turbines can be erected singly, but they are most often erected in groups called wind parks, or wind farms. The worlds largest wind farms contain several hundred or thousand turbines spread across the landscape. Engineers have designed turbines to begin turning at specific wind speeds to harness wind energy as efficiently as possible. Some turbines create low levels of electricity by turning in light breezes. Others are programmed to rotate only in strong winds, operating less frequently but generating large amounts of electricity in short time periods. Slight differences in wind speed can yield substantial differences in power output, for two reasons. First, the energy content of a given amount of wind increases as the square of its velocity; thus if wind velocity doubles, energy quadruples. Second, an increase in wind speed causes more air molecules to pass through the wind turbine per unit time, making power output equal to wind velocity cubed. Thus a doubled wind velocity actually results in an eightfold increase in power output.
Modern wind turbines convert kinetic energy to electrical energy

Wind blowing into a turbine turns the blades of the rotor, which rotate the machinery inside a compartment called a nacelle, which sits atop a tall tower (Figure 21.6). Inside the nacelle are a gearbox and a generator, as well as
Wind power is the fastest-growing energy sector

Like solar energy, wind provides only a minuscule proportion of the worlds power needs, but wind power is growing fastnearly 30% per year globally between 2000 and 2004. Wind provided 3.9% of U.S. renewable electricity
Spain (16%) Denmark (8%) Germany (37%) Rest of world (18%)
perts agree that wind powers rapid growth will continue, because only a very small portion of this resource is currently being tapped. Meteorological evidence suggests that wind power could be expanded in the United States to meet the electrical needs of the entire country (see The Science behind the Story, p. 632).
Offshore sites can be promising

Wind speeds on average are roughly 20% greater over water than over land. There is also less air turbulence over water surfaces than over land surfaces. For these reasons, offshore wind turbines are becoming popular Figure 21.8). Although costs to erect and maintain turbines in water are higher, the stronger, less turbulent winds produce more power and make offshore wind potentially more profitable. Currently, offshore wind farms are limited to shallow water, where towers are sunk into sediments singly or with a tripod configuration to stabilize them. However, in the future towers may be placed on floating pads anchored to the seafloor in deep water. At great distances from land, it may be best to store the generated electricity as hydrogen and then ship or pipe this to land (instead of building submarine cables to carry electricity to shore), but further research is needed on this option. Denmark erected the first offshore wind farm in 1991. Over the next decade, nine more came into operation across northern Europe, where the North and Baltic Seas offer strong winds. The power output of these farms increased by 43% annually as larger turbines were erected. Several northern European nations are encouraging continued rapid
U.S. (16%)
India (5%)
FIGURE 21.7 Most of the worlds fast-growing wind power generating capacity is concentrated in a handful of countries. Tiny Denmark obtains the highest percentage of its energy needs from wind, but the larger nations of Germany, the United States, and Spain have so far developed more total wind capacity. Data from
Global Wind Energy Council; and American Wind Energy Association. 2005. Global wind energy market report. AWEA.
generation in 2004a small amount but nearly 20 times more than solar power. So far, wind energy production is geographically concentrated; only five nations account for 82% of the worlds wind energy output (Figure 21.7). California and Texas account for two-thirds of the wind power generated within the United States. Denmark is a leader in wind power; there, a series of wind farms supplies over 20% of the nations electricity needs. Ex-
FIGURE 21.8 More and more wind farms are being developed offshore, because offshore winds tend to be stronger yet less turbulent. Denmark is a world leader in wind power, and much of it comes from offshore turbines. This Danish wind farm is one of several that provide over 20% of the nations electricity.
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growth in the near future. Wind advocates in Iceland are considering developing 240 offshore wind turbines in the nations waters to meet future electricity demand for its hydrogen economy.
Wind power has many benefits

Like solar power, wind produces no emissions once the necessary equipment is manufactured and installed. As a replacement for fossil fuel combustion in the average U.S. utility generator, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has calculated that running a 1-megawatt wind turbine for one year prevents the release of more than 1,500 tons of carbon dioxide, 6.5 tons of sulfur dioxide, 3.2 tons of nitrogen oxides, and 60 lb of mercury. The amount of carbon pollution that all U.S. wind turbines together prevent from entering the atmosphere is greater than the cargo of a 50-car freight train, with each car holding 100 tons of solid carbon, each and every day. Wind power appears considerably more energyefficient than conventional power sources. One recent study, which compared the amount of energy that various types of technology produce to the amount they consume, found that wind turbines produce 23 times as much as they consume. For nuclear energy, the ratio was 16:1; for coal it was 11:1; and for natural gas it was 5:1. Wind farms also use less water than do conventional power plants. Wind turbine technology can be used on many scales, from a single tower for local use to fields of thousands that supply large regions. Small-scale turbine development can help make local areas more self-sufficient, just as solar energy can. For instance, the Rosebud Sioux Tribe of Native Americans in 2003 set up a single turbine on their reservation in South Dakota. The turbine is producing electricity for 220 homes and brings the tribe an estimated $15,000 per year in revenue. Wind resources are rich in this region, and the tribe plans to develop a wind farm nearby in coming years. Another societal benefit of wind power is that landowners can lease their land for wind development, which provides them extra revenue while also increasing property tax income for rural communities. A single large turbine can bring in $2,0004,500 in annual royalties while occupying just a quarter-acre of land. Because each turbine takes up only a small area, most of the land can still be used for farming, ranching, or other uses. Economically, wind energy involves up-front costs for the erection of turbines and the expansion of infrastructure to allow electricity distribution, but over the lifetime of a project it requires only maintenance costs. Unlike fossil fuel power plants, the turbines incur no ongoing fuel costs.
Currently, startup costs of wind farms generally are higher than those of fossil-fuel-driven plants, but wind farms incur fewer expenses once they are up and running. Advancing technology is driving down the costs of wind farm construction; as large wind farms become more efficient, the cost of each unit of electricity produced is dropping.
Wind energy has some downsides

Unlike power sources that can be turned off and on at will, wind is an intermittent resource; we have no control over when wind will occur. This poses little problem, however, if wind is only one of several sources contributing to a utilitys power generation. Moreover, several technologies are available to address problems posed by relying on intermittent wind resources. For example, batteries or hydrogen fuel can store energy generated by wind and release it later when needed. Just as wind varies from time to time, it also varies from place to place. Some areas are simply windier than others. Global wind patterns combine with local topography mountains, hills, water bodies, forests, citiesto create local wind patterns, and companies study these patterns closely before investing in a wind farm. Meteorological research has given us information with which to judge prime areas for locating wind farms. A map of average wind speeds across the United States (Figure 21.9a) shows that mountainous regions and areas of the Great Plains are best. Based on such information, the young wind power industry has located much of its generating capacity in states with high wind speeds (Figure 21.9b), and is seeking to expand in the Great Plains and mountain states. Provided that wind farms are strategically erected in optimal locations, an estimated 15% of U.S. energy demand could be met using only 43,000 km2 (16,600 mi2) of land (with less than 5% of this land area actually occupied by turbines, equipment, and access roads). Good wind resources, however, are not always near population centers that need the energy. Thus, transmission networks would need to be greatly expanded. Moreover, when wind farms are proposed near population centers, local residents often oppose them. Turbines are generally located in exposed, conspicuous sites, and many people object to wind farms for aesthetic reasons, feeling that the structures clutter the landscape. Although polls show wide public approval of wind projects in regions where wind power has already been introduced, new wind projects often elicit the so-called not-in-my-backyard (NIMBY) syndrome. For instance, a proposal for North Americas first offshore wind farm, in Nantucket Sound between Cape Cod and the islands of Nantucket and Marthas Vineyard, has faced stiff opposition from wealthy
Wind power density at 10 m height (watts/m2) 4001,000 300400 250300 200250 150200 100150 0100 (a) Annual average wind power
WA (240) OR (263)
MT (2) WY (285)
ND (66) SD (44) NE (14) KS (114)
VT (6) MN (615) WI (53) IA (632) IL (51) MI (2) OH (7) NY (48) PA (129) MA (1)
CA (2096)
CO (229) NM (267)
WV (66) TN (29)
OK (176) TX (1293)
Wind power capacity (megawatts) 1,0002,100 1001,000 20100 120 0
HI (9)
AK (1)
(b) Wind generating capacity, 2004

FIGURE 21.9 Winds capacity to generate power varies according to wind speed. Meteorologists have measured wind speed to calculate the potential generating capacity from wind in different areas. The map in (a) shows average wind power in watts per square meter at a height of 10 m (33 ft) above ground across the United States. Such maps are used to help guide placement of wind farms. The development of U.S. wind power so far is summarized in (b), which shows the megawatts of generating capacity developed in each state through the end of 2004. Sources: (a) Elliott,
D. L., et al. 1987. Wind energy resource atlas of the United States. Golden, CO: Solar Energy Research Institute; (b) National Renewable Energy Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy, 2005.
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The nce Idahos Scieind eh b the y Where does wind Stor
Wind Prospectors
array of three or four hollow cups set to catch the wind and rotate around a vertical rod. The force of wind on the cups causes them to rotate at a speed proportional to the wind speed; the greater the wind, the faster the cups rotate. Wind direction is measured by a vane that turns on a vertical axis pointing directly into the wind. The cup wheel and wind vane are connected electrically to speed and direction dials, which relay wind data. More than 80 landowners borrowed anemometers from the state in the Idaho programs first year, and sent data to the state every 60 days for review by energy planners and for subsequent posting online. The studies have generated new funding and wind farm plans in the state. In the fall of 2003, one farm near Idaho Falls won a $500,000 federal grant to help build a 1.5-megawatt wind farm that could supply power for approximately 500 homes. In eastern Idaho, five anemometers set up on Shoshone-Bannock tribal lands have revealed good prospects for a commercial wind farm on two Native American reservations. The research effort has shown that the lands are worldclass sites for wind power, according to a state energy official. With average wind speeds in the 29 km/hr (18 mi/hr) range, further study of the tribal lands revealed possible sites for large-scale commercial wind farms, which could mean jobs and revenue for the reservations. Similar wind prospecting programs are now under way on other reservations, as well as in other states, including Utah, Oregon, Virginia, and Missouri.
translate into energy? In Idaho, where resource planners decided that the states power future lies in generating electricity from wind. Now scores of Idahoans, from small farmers to Native American tribes, have joined in the search for gusts with energy potential. By handing out wind-measuring devices to interested landowners, Idaho has turned its citizens into wind prospectors who pinpoint potential areas for wind farms. Idaho first launched the public wind prospecting program in 2001, after joining several other northwestern states in a regional research effort. People who join the program must collect data on wind speed and direction, share that data with the state, and agree to make it public. A promising wind farm site requires some infrastructure, such as roads for erecting wind turbines and transmission lines for sending out power the turbines generate. But the single most important factor is the speed and frequency of the wind. Effective commercial wind farms have a steady flow of wind just above ground level, with regular gusts of at least 21 km/hr (13 mi/hr) at a height of about 50 m (164 ft). Determining whether a site merits further study starts with analyzing existing data. In many parts of the developed world, decades worth of weather information have been compiled into computerized wind maps that indicate general wind conditions. In Idaho, energy planners provide prospectors with starter maps that divide the state into seven wind classes and reveal
To determine where to build wind farms, Idahos wind prospectors use anemometers, which collect and relay wind data. Cup wheels rotate to indicate wind speed, and a vane turns on a vertical axis to reveal wind direction.
which general areas might have enough wind to make a wind farm worthwhile. Areas listed as Class 3 or higher, with wind speeds of about 23 km (14.3 mi) per hour at 50 m (164 ft) above ground, offer the best possibilities. Such maps, however, may not provide enough detail about a specific location. A piece of property, for example, may sit in a Class 3 area but be sheltered by a small hill that blocks the wind. Knowing that kind of detail requires site-specific on-the-ground research. To make such research possible, Idaho loans landowners in areas listed as Class 3 or higher devices called anemometers (see the figure), which measure wind speed and direction. The Idaho program uses a common cup anemometer, with an
area residents, even though many of these residents like to think of themselves as environmentalists. Wind turbines are also known to pose a threat to birds and bats, which can be killed when they fly into the rotating blades. At Californias Altamont Pass wind farm, which is located in a region with one of the densest populations of golden eagles in the country, turbines killed many eagles and other raptors during the 1990s. Studies since then at other sites have suggested that bird deaths may be a less severe problem than was initially feared. It has been estimated that roughly one to two birds are killed per turbine per yearfar fewer than the millions already being killed annually by television, radio, and cell phone towers, tall buildings, automobiles, domestic cats, pesticides, and other human causes. Bat mortality may be higher, but more research is needed. The key for protecting birds and bats seems to be selecting sites that are not on flyways or in the midst of prime habitat for species that are likely to fly into the blades.
Weighing the Issues:

Wind and NIMBY
If you could choose to get your electricity from a wind farm or a coal-fired power plant, which would you choose? How would you react if the electric utility proposed to build the wind farm that would generate your electricity atop a ridge running in back of your neighborhood, such that the turbines would be clearly visible from your living room window? Would you support or oppose the development? Why? If you would oppose it, where would you suggest the farm be located? Do you think anyone might oppose it in that location?
of volcanic activity along the spreading boundary of two tectonic plates. Because of the geothermal heat in this region, volcanoes and geysers are numerous in Iceland. In fact, the word geyser originated from the Icelandic Geysir, the name for the islands largest geyser, which recently resumed its periodic eruptions after many years in dormancy. Geothermal power plants use the energy of naturally heated water to generate power. Rising underground water and steam are harnessed to turn turbines and create electricity. Geothermal energy is renewable in principle (its use does not affect the amount of heat produced in Earths interior), but the power plants we build to use this energy may not all be capable of operating indefinitely. If a geothermal plant uses heated water at a rate faster than the rate at which groundwater is recharged, the plant will eventually run out of water. This is occurring at The Geysers, in Napa Valley, California, where the first generator was built in 1960. In response, operators have begun injecting municipal wastewater into the ground to replenish the supply. More and more geothermal power plants throughout the world are now injecting water, after it is used, back into aquifers to help maintain pressure and thereby sustain the resource. A second reason geothermal energy may not always be renewable is that patterns of geothermal activity in Earths crust shift naturally over time, so an area that produces hot groundwater now may not always do so.
Geothermal energy is harnessed for heating and electricity

Geothermal energy can be harnessed directly from geysers at the surface, but most often wells must be drilled down hundreds or thousands of meters toward heated groundwater. Generally, water at temperatures of 150370 C (300700 F) or more is brought to the surface and converted to steam by lowering the pressure in specialized compartments. The steam is then employed in turning turbines to generate electricity (Figure 21.10). Hot groundwater can also be used directly for heating homes, offices, and greenhouses; for driving industrial processes; and for drying crops. Iceland heats most of its homes through direct heating with piped hot water. Iceland began putting geothermal energy to use in the 1940s, and today 30 municipal district heating systems and 200 small private rural networks supply heat to 86% of the nations residences. Other locales are benefiting in similar ways; the Oregon Institute of Technology heats its buildings with geothermal energy for 1214% of the cost it would take to heat them with
Geothermal Energy
Geothermal energy is one form of renewable energy that does not originate from the sun. Instead, it is generated from deep within Earth. The radioactive decay of elements amid the extremely high pressures deep in the interior of our planet generates heat that rises to the surface through magma (molten rock, p. 206) and through fissures and cracks. Where this energy heats groundwater, natural spurts of heated water and steam are sent up from below. Terrestrial geysers and submarine hydrothermal vents ( pp. 106107) are the surface manifestations of these processes. Iceland is built from magma that extruded above the oceans surface and cooledmagma from the Mid-Atlantic Ridge ( pp. 209, 471472), the area
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2 Where natural
fissures or cracks appear, heated water or steam surfaces in geysers or hot springs Geyser Fault
3 Wells tap underground

heated water or steam to turn turbines and generate power
Turbine and generator
Cooling tower
Recharge area
Impermeable rock Confined aquifer Impermeable rock Heat source (magma)
Steam
1 Magma heats
groundwater
Injection well
4 Steam is cooled, condensed,

and injected back into the aquifer to maintain pressure
(a) Geothermal energy
(b) Nesjavellir geothermal power station, Iceland
FIGURE 21.10 With geothermal energy (a) magma heats groundwater deep in the earth (1), some of which is let off naturally through surface vents such as geysers (2). Geothermal facilities tap into heated water below ground and channel steam through turbines in buildings to generate electricity (3). After being used, the steam is often condensed and pumped back into the aquifer to maintain pressure (4). At Nesjavellir geothermal power station in Iceland (b), steam is piped from four wells to a condenser at the plant where cold water pumped from lakeshore wells 6 km (3.7 mi) away is heated. The water, heated to 83 C (181 F), is sent through an insulated 270-km (170-mi) pipeline to Reykjavik and environs, where residents use it for washing and space heating.
natural gas. Such direct use of naturally heated water is cheap and efficient, but it is feasible only in areas such as Iceland or parts of Oregon, where geothermal energy sources are available and near where the heat must be transported. Thermal energy from water or solid earth can also be used to drive a heat pump to provide energy. Geothermal ground source heat pumps (GSHPs) use thermal energy from near-surface sources of earth and water rather than the deep geothermal heat for which utilities drill. Roughly half a million GSHPs are already used to heat U.S. residences. Compared to conventional electric heating and cooling systems, GSHPs heat spaces 5070%
more efficiently, cool them 2040% more efficiently, can reduce electricity use by 25%60%, and can reduce emissions by up to 72%. These pumps work because soil does not vary in temperature from season to season as much as air does. The pumps heat buildings in the winter by transferring heat from the ground into buildings; they cool buildings in the summer by transferring heat from buildings into the ground. Both types of heat transfer are accomplished by a single network of underground plastic pipes that circulate water. Because heat is simply moved from place to place rather than being produced using outside energy inputs, heat pumps can be highly energy-efficient.
Use of geothermal power is growing

Geothermal energy provides less than 0.5% of total primary energy used worldwide. It provides more power than solar and wind combined, but only a small fraction of the power from hydropower and biomass. Geothermal energy in the United States provides enough power to supply electricity to over 1.4 million homes. At the worlds largest geothermal power plants, The Geysers in northern California, generating capacity has declined by more than 50% since 1989 as steam pressure has declined, but The Geysers still provide enough electricity to supply a million residents. Currently Japan, China, and the United States lead the world in use of geothermal power.
Ocean Energy Sources

The oceans are home to several underexploited energy sources. Each involve continuous natural processes that could potentially provide sustainable energy for our needs. Of the three approaches developed so far, two involve motion and one involves temperature.
We can harness energy from tides and waves

Just as dams on rivers use flowing freshwater to generate hydroelectric power, some scientists, engineers, businesses, and governments are developing ways to use the motion of ocean water to generate electrical power. Two types of kinetic energy show the most promise so far: the energy of wave motion and the energy of tidal motion. The rising and falling of ocean tides twice each day at coastal sites throughout the world can move large amounts of water past any given coastal point. Differences in height between low and high tides are especially great in long, narrow bays such as Alaskas Cook Inlet or the Bay of Fundy between New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. Such locations are best for harnessing tidal energy, which is accomplished by erecting dams across the outlets of tidal basins. The incoming tide flows through sluices past the dam, and as the outgoing tide passes through the dam, it turns turbines to generate electricity (Figure 21.11). Some designs allow for generating electricity from water moving in both directions. The worlds largest tidal generating facility is the La Rance facility in France, which has operated for over 30 years. Smaller facilities now operate in China, Russia, and Canada. Tidal stations release few or no pollutant emissions, but they can have impacts on the ecology of estuaries and tidal basins. Wave energy could be developed at a greater variety of sites than could tidal energy. The principle is to harness the motion of wind-driven waves at the oceans surface and convert this mechanical energy into electricity. Many designs for machinery to harness wave energy have been invented, but few have been adequately tested. Some designs are for offshore facilities and involve floating devices that move up and down with the waves. Wave energy is greater at deep-ocean sites, but transmitting the electricity produced to shore would be expensive. Other designs are for coastal onshore facilities. Some of these designs funnel waves from large areas into narrow channels and elevated reservoirs, from which water is then allowed to flow out, generating electricity as hydroelectric dams do. Other coastal designs use rising and falling
Geothermal power has benefits and limitations

Like other renewable sources, geothermal power greatly reduces emissions relative to fossil fuel combustion. Geothermal sources can release variable amounts of gases dissolved in their water, including carbon dioxide, methane, ammonia, and hydrogen sulfide. However, these gases are generally in very small quantities, and it has been estimated that geothermal facilities on average release only one-sixth of the carbon dioxide produced by plants fueled by natural gas. Geothermal facilities using the latest filtering technologies produce even fewer emissions. By one estimate, each megawatt of geothermal power prevents the emission of 7.8 million lb of carbon dioxide emissions and 1,900 lb of other pollutant emissions from gas-fired plants each year. On the negative side of the ledger, geothermal sources, as we have seen, may not always be truly sustainable. In addition, the water of many hot springs is laced with salts and minerals that corrode equipment and pollute the air. These factors may shorten the lifetime of plants, increase maintenance costs, and add to pollution. Moreover, use of geothermal energy is limited to areas where the energy can be tapped. Unless technology is developed to penetrate far more deeply into the ground, geothermal energy use will remain more localized than solar, wind, biomass, or hydropower. Places such as Iceland are rich in geothermal sources, but most of the world is not. In the United States, geysers exist in some areas, such as Yellowstone National Park, and hot groundwater and steam exist in various locations in the western part of the country. Nonetheless, many hydrothermal resources remain unexploited around the world, awaiting improved technology and governmental encouragement of their development.
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Basin Barrage
Ocean
Sluice gate closed
Turbine
Sluice gate closed
Basin Barrage
1 High tide: Ocean level

rises while water level in basin remains low Ocean
Basin Barrage
Ocean
Turbine
4 Sluice gates open;

water leaves basin and flows past turbine to generate power
Basin Barrage
2 Sluice gates open and

water fills basin; turbine does not generate power Ocean
Sluice gate closed Turbine
Sluice gate closed
3 Tide recedes;
water level in basin remains high
FIGURE 21.11 Energy can be extracted from the movement of the tides at coastal sites where tidal flux is great enough. One way of doing so is involves using bulb turbines in concert with the outgoing tide. At high tide, ocean water is let through the sluice gates, filling an interior basin. At low tide, the basin water is let out into the ocean, spinning turbines to generate electricity.
waves to push air into and out of chambers, turning turbines to generate electricity (Figure 21.12). No commercial wave energy facilities are operating yet, but some have been deployed as demonstration projects in several western European nations.
The ocean stores thermal energy

Besides the motion of tides and waves, other oceanic energy sources we have not yet effectively tapped include the motion of ocean currents, chemical gradients in salinity, and the immense thermal energy contained in the oceans. The concept of ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC)
has been most fully developed. Each day the tropical oceans absorb an amount of solar radiation equivalent to the heat content of 250 billion barrels of oilenough to provide 20,000 times the electricity used daily in the United States. The oceans sun-warmed surface is higher in temperature than its deep water, and OTEC approaches are based on this gradient in temperature. In the closed cycle approach, warm surface water is piped into a facility to evaporate chemicals, such as ammonia, that boil at low temperatures. These evaporated gases spin turbines to generate electricity. Cold water piped in from ocean depths then condenses the gases so they can be reused. In the open cycle approach, the warm
Oscillating water column
Column of air
Turbine and generator
Incoming waves
3 Air flow in both
directions drives the turbine, generating power
FIGURE 21.12 Coastal facilities can make use of energy from the motion of ocean waves. As waves are let into and out of a tightly sealed chamber, the air inside is compressed and decompressed, creating air flow that rotates turbines to generate electricity.
2 The rise and fall of 1 Incoming waves

enter chamber
water level within the chamber compresses and decompresses the column of air above it
surface water is evaporated in a vacuum, and its steam turns the turbines and then is condensed by the cold water. Because the ocean water loses its salts as it evaporates, water can be recovered, condensed, and sold as desalinized freshwater for drinking or agriculture. Research on OTEC systems has been conducted in Hawaii and other locations, but costs remain high, and as of yet no facility is commercially operational.
Hydrogen
All the renewable energy sources we have discussed can be used to generate electricity more cleanly than can fossil fuels. As useful as electricity is to us, however, it cannot be stored easily in large quantities for use when and where it is needed. This is why vehicles rely on fossil fuels for power. The development of fuel cells and hydrogen fuel show promise to store energy conveniently and in considerable quantities and to produce electricity at least as cleanly and efficiently as renewable energy sources. In the hydrogen economy that Icelands leaders and many energy experts worldwide envision, hydrogen fuel, together with electricity, will serve as the basis for a clean, safe, and efficient energy system. This system will use as a fuel the universes simplest and most abundant element. In this system, electricity generated from renewable sources that are intermittent, such as wind or solar energy, can be used to produce hydrogen. Fuel cells can then employ hydrogen to produce electrical energy as needed to power vehicles, computers, cell phones, home heating, and countless other applications. Fuel cell technology has been used since the 1960s in NASAs space flight programs. Basing an energy system on hydrogen could alleviate dependence on foreign fuels and help fight climate change. For these reasons, governments are funding research into hydrogen and fuel cell technology, and automobile companies are investing in research and development to produce vehicles that run on hydrogen.
Weighing the Issues:

Your Islands Energy?
Imagine you have been elected the president of an island nation the size of Iceland, and your nations congress is calling on you to propose a national energy policy. Unlike Iceland, your country is located in equatorial waters. Your geologists do not yet know whether there are fossil fuel deposits or geothermal resources under your land, but your country gets a lot of sunlight and a fair amount of wind, and broad, shallow shelf regions surround its coasts. Your islands population is moderately wealthy but is growing fast, and importing fossil fuels from mainland nations is becoming increasingly expensive. What approaches would you propose in your energy policy? What specific steps would you urge your congress to fund immediately? What trade relationships would you seek to establish with other countries? What questions would you ask of your economic advisors? What questions would you fund your countrys scientists to research?
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The nce Algae as Scieind eh b the y As scientists search Stor
a Hydrogen Fuel Source

up an experiment with energy experts at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory in Colorado, aiming to develop ways to tweak the algas basic biological functions so that the plant produced greater quantities of hydrogen. Green algae, like terrestrial green plants, photosynthesize, drawing in carbon dioxide and water, absorbing energy from light that converts those nutrients into food, and then expelling oxygen as a waste product. Additional nutrients from soil or water, and catalysts called enzymes within the plant, keep this process running smoothly. To conduct photosynthesis effectively, Chlamydomonas reinhardtii needs the element sulfur as a nutrient. The alga also contains an enzyme called hydrogenase, which can trigger the alga to stop producing oxygen as a metabolic by-product and start releasing hydrogen instead.
for new ways to generate energy, some are looking past wind farms and solar panels to an unlikely power sourcepond scum. Algae are being studied as an innovative way to generate large amounts of hydrogen to move society toward a more sustainable energy future. Hydrogens benefits hinge on how hydrogen fuel is produced. Some methods release substantial amounts of carbon dioxide, and other, nonpolluting, processes can be costly. These drawbacks have kept scientists searching for new hydrogen sources. At the University of California at Berkeley, plant biologist Anastasios Melis thought one possible hydrogen source might be a single-celled aquatic plant known to be a capable, if sporadic, hydrogen producer. The alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii was
Could green algae such as this provide hydrogen for our energy needs?
known to emit small amounts of hydrogen for brief periods of time when deprived of light. Melis hypothesized that the alga might be encouraged to produce hydrogen in large amounts. He set
Hydrogen fuel may be produced from water or from other matter

Hydrogen gas (H2) does not tend to exist freely on Earth; rather, hydrogen atoms bind to other molecules, becoming incorporated in everything from water to organic molecules. To obtain hydrogen gas for fuel, we must force these substances to release their hydrogen atoms, and this requires an input of energy. Several potential ways of producing hydrogen are being studied (see The Science behind the Story, above). In electrolysis, the process being pursued by Iceland, electricity is input to split hydrogen atoms from the oxygen atoms of water molecules:
2H2O 2H2 + O2
Electrolysis produces pure hydrogen, and it does so without emitting the carbon- or nitrogen-based pollutants of
fossil fuel combustion. However, whether this strategy for producing hydrogen will cause pollution over its entire life cycle depends on the source of the electricity used for the electrolysis. If coal is burned to create the electricity, then the entire process will not reduce emissions compared with reliance on fossil fuels. If, however, the electricity is produced by some less-polluting renewable source, then hydrogen production by electrolysis would create much less pollution and greenhouse warming than reliance on fossil fuels. The cleanliness of a future hydrogen economy in Iceland or anywhere else would, therefore, depend largely on the source of electricity used in electrolysis. The environmental impact of hydrogen production will also depend on the source material for the hydrogen. Besides water, hydrogen can be obtained from biomass and fossil fuels. Obtaining hydrogen from these sources generally requires less energy input, but results in emissions
Hydrogenase is normally active only after Chlamydomonas reinhardtii has been deprived of light. When the alga is deprived of light, the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis ebb, little oxygen is produced, and hydrogenase is activated. When light returns and the alga begins producing oxygen again, hydrogenase is promptly deactivated, and its associated hydrogen release stops. Meliss team wanted to activate hydrogenase so that more hydrogen would be produced. But simply keeping the algae in the dark would not escalate hydrogen production because the algas metabolic functions slowed without light, resulting in small amounts of released hydrogen. The researchers decided to try limiting the algas oxygen output another way, by putting it on a sulfur-free, bright-light regimen. The lack of sulfur would hinder
photosynthesis, limiting oxygen output enough to activate hydrogenase and trigger hydrogen production. The presence of light would keep the algae metabolically active and releasing large amounts of byproducts. The researchers cultured large quantities of the algae in bottles in labs. Then they deprived the cultures of sulfur but kept the algae exposed to light for long periods of timein some cases up to 150 hours. After the sustained light exposure, gas and liquids were extracted from the bottles and analyzed. The analysis supported the teams hypothesis. Without sulfur or photosynthesis, the algae were not producing oxygen. This low-oxygen, or anaerobic, environment had induced hydrogenase, which spurred the algae to begin splitting water molecules and releasing gas. The plants had released amounts of
hydrogen that were substantial relative to the size of the algal cultures. Hydrogen also dominated the algas emissionsin gas collection analysis, approximately 87% of the gas was hydrogen, 1% was carbon dioxide, and the remaining 12% was nitrogen with traces of oxygen. The research teams published their findings in the journal Plant Physiology in 2000. Many questions remain about algae-derived hydrogen, particularly how much fuel can be harvested continuously using this photobiological process. Nevertheless, the research results so far are helping to fuel the momentum of a future hydrogen economy. Within 30 years, some federal energy experts predict that photobiological methods for generating hydrogen could be commonplace meaning cars on future freeways might just be powered by pond scum.
of carbon-based pollutants. For instance, extracting hydrogen from the methane (CH4) in natural gas entails producing one molecule of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide for every four molecules of hydrogen gas:
CH4 + 2H2O 4H2 + CO2
Weighing
the Issues:
Precaution over Hydrogen?

Some environmental scientists have recently warned that we do not yet know enough about the environmental consequences of replacing fossil fuels with hydrogen fuel. An increase in tropospheric hydrogen gas would deplete hydroxyl (OH) radicals, they hypothesize, possibly leading to stratospheric ozone depletion and global warming from increased concentrations of methane. Some scientists say such effects will be small; others say there could be further effects that are presently unknown. Do you think we should apply the precautionary principle to the development of hydrogen fuel and fuel cells? Or should we embark on pursuing a hydrogen economy before knowing all the scientific answers? What factors inform your view?
Thus, whether a hydrogen-based energy system is environmentally cleaner than a fossil fuel system depends on how the hydrogen is extracted. In addition, some new research suggests that leakage of hydrogen from the production, transport, and use of the gas at Earths surface could potentially deplete stratospheric ozone and lengthen the atmospheric lifetime of the greenhouse gas methane. Research into these questions is ongoing, because scientists do not want society to switch from fossil fuels to hydrogen without first knowing the possible risks from hydrogen.
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Proton (H+) exchange membrane
Hydrogen (fuel)
H2
H 2O
Water (H2O) (waste)
1 In the negative
electrode, hydrogen is stripped of its electrons, leaving hydrogen ions (protons, H+) Negative electrode
H+ H+
3 Meanwhile,
the protons traverse the membrane

4 In the positive electrode, water is formed when Oxygen oxygen combines with the protons and electrons that flow from the negative electrode
Positive electrode
FIGURE 21.13 Hydrogen fuel drives electricity generation in a fuel cell, creating water as a waste product. Atoms of hydrogen are first stripped of their electrons (1). The electrons move from a negative electrode to a positive one, creating a current and generating electricity (2). Meanwhile, the hydrogen ions pass through a proton exchange membrane (3) and combine with oxygen to form water molecules (4).
2 The electrons
move from the negative electrode to the positive electrode, creating a current and generating electricity
Fuel cells produce electricity by joining hydrogen and oxygen

Once hydrogen gas has been isolated, it can be used as a fuel to produce electricity within fuel cells. The chemical reaction involved in a fuel cell is simply the reverse of that shown for electrolysis; an oxygen molecule and two hydrogen molecules each split so that their atoms can bind and form two water molecules:
2H2 + O2 2H2O
gens electrons from one electrode to the other creates the output of electricity.
Hydrogen and fuel cells have many benefits

As a fuel, hydrogen offers a number of benefits. We will never run out of hydrogen; it is the most abundant element in the universe. It can be clean and nontoxic to use, anddepending on the source of the hydrogen and the source of electricity for its extractionit may produce few greenhouse gases and other pollutants. Pure water and heat may be the only waste products from a hydrogen fuel cell, along with negligible traces of other compounds. In terms of safety for transport and storage, hydrogen can catch fire, but if it is kept under pressure, it is probably no more dangerous than gasoline in tanks. Hydrogen fuel cells are energy-efficient. Depending on the type of fuel cell, 35% to 70% of the energy released in the reaction can be used. If the system is designed to capture heat as well as electricity, then the energy efficiency of fuel cells can rise to 90%. These rates are comparable or superior to most nonrenewable alternatives. Fuel cells are also silent and nonpolluting. Unlike batteries (which also produce electricity through chemical reactions), fuel cells will generate electricity whenever
The way this occurs within one common type of fuel cell is shown in Figure 21.13. Hydrogen gas (usually compressed and stored in an attached fuel tank) is allowed into one side of the cell, whose middle consists of two electrodes that sandwich a membrane that only protons (hydrogen ions) can move across. One electrode, helped by a chemical catalyst, strips the hydrogen gas of its electrons, creating two hydrogen ions that begin moving across the membrane. Meanwhile, on the other side of the cell, oxygen molecules from the open air are split into their component atoms along the other electrode. These oxygen ions soon bind to pairs of hydrogen ions traveling across the membrane, forming molecules of water that are expelled as waste, along with heat. While this is occurring, the electrons from the hydrogen atoms have traveled to a device that completes an electric current between the two electrodes. The movement of the hydro-
Hydrogen and Renewable Energy
VIEWPOINTS
Is establishing a hydrogen economy, as Iceland is trying to do, the best way to reduce the use of fossil fuels?
The Role of Renewable Energy for the Hydrogen Economy
Is Hydrogen the Answer?
Abundant, reliable, and affordable energy is an essential component of a healthy economy. Because hydrogen can be produced from a wide variety of domestically available resources and can be used in heat, power, and fuel applications, it is uniquely positioned to contribute to our growing energy demands, particularly for resourceconstrained communities. However, if we are to realize the true benefits of a hydrogen economy, other renewables must play a substantial role in the efficient and affordable production of the hydrogen. Several renewable options could make a substantial impact in the production of hydrogen: electrolysis powered by wind, photovoltaic, solar-thermal electric, hydropower, and geothermal energy; use of microorganisms and semiconductors to split water; and the thermal and biological conversion of biomass and wastes. Researchers around the globe are working on improving these renewable technologies. As a result, costs continue to drop. Technologies for renewable hydrogen production, coupled with advances in hydrogen production equipment (e.g., electrolyzers) can supply cost-competitive hydrogen and will ultimately play a substantial role in our energy supply. In addition to the potential supply of affordable hydrogen, these technologies also offer a wide variety of opportunities for developing new centers of economic growth. Most investments in renewable energy are spent on materials and workmanship to build and maintain the facilities, rather than on costly energy imports. Therefore, funds are usually spent regionally and even locally, leading to new jobs and investments in local economies. Because of this synergistic relationship, the shift toward a hydrogen economy will naturally facilitate the advancement of renewable energy. By diversifying our energy supply, we will not only reduce our dependence on imported fuels, but also will benefit from cleaner technologies and investment in our communities.
Susan Hock directs the Electric and Hydrogen Technologies and Systems Center of the National Renewable Energy Daryl Prigmore has studied energy and the environment since Laboratory. The center conducts research activities in four the late 1960s. After receiving bachelor and master of science areas: distributed power systems integration, hydrogen degrees in mechanical engineering from Colorado State technologies and systems, geographic University, he spent 10 years in industry with a information system analysis, and solar company developing solar, geothermal, and lowExplore this issue measurements and instrumentation. pollution automotive power systems. He has
further by accessing Viewpoints at www.aw-bc.com/withgott.
Well never use the last drop of oil, the last chunk of coal, the last cubic foot of natural gas, or the last pound of uranium. Eventually though, these fossil and nuclear fuels will become too expensive to extract, or politics will make one or more of them unavailable, leaving us to ask how well satisfy our voracious appetite in the future. We should immediately apply all practical energy conservation strategies. Mother Nature is out there making more fossil fuels as we speak, but we dont have time to wait the few million years that will take. The short list of renewables: solar, wind, hydro, biomass, geothermal, waves, tides, and ocean thermal energy conversion. These are all relatively benign and abundant. An alternative: hydrogen. It can either be burned or electrochemically used in fuel cells to provide useful energy. The by-product or exhaust is water. You start with water, get some energy, and end up with water, making it renewable. Another form of hydrogen energy is fusion, hydrogen atoms fusing to form helium plus a lot of energy, the way the sun does it. The catch? It takes about as much energy to extract hydrogen gas from water (by electrolysis) as you get back from your energy conversion device. Until it becomes cheaper (economically and in physical terms), fossil fuels will continue to rule the energy world. The breakthrough may involve using our renewable energy resources to separate hydrogen from other molecules. Arguably, to reduce our dependence on fossil fuels, the priority list for this country should be: 1. Energy conservation 2. Wind 3. Passive solar 4. Biomass 5. Active solar 6. Hydrogen (chemical) 7. Hydroelectricity 8. Hydrogen (fusion) 9. Others (geothermal, tides, waves, ocean thermal)
taught energy science classes for the past 23 years, 20 at the University of Colorado (Colorado Springs).
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Environmental Issues and the Search for Solutions 5 Air conditioning 4 Cooling 3 Fuel cell
stacks units unit
7 Water
vapor exhaust
2 Fuel cell 1 Hydrogen tanks
supply unit
6 Electric motor
The hydrogen-fueled Citaro buses operating in Reykjavik and other European capitals are designed by Mercedes-Benz and Daimler-Chrysler. Hydrogen is stored in nine fuel tanks (1) The fuel cell supply unit (2) controls the flow of hydrogen, air, and cooling water into the fuel cell stacks (3). Cooling units (4) and the air conditioning unit (5) dissipate waste heat produced by the fuel cells. Electricity generated by the fuel cells is changed from direct current (DC) to alternating current (AC) by an inverter, and it is transmitted to the electric motor (6), which powers the operation of the bus. The vehicles exhaust (7) consists simply of water vapor.
FIGURE 21.14
hydrogen fuel is supplied, without ever needing recharging. For all these reasons, hydrogen fuel cells are being used to power vehicles, including the buses now operating on the streets of Reykjavik and many other European, American, and Asian cities (Figure 21.14).
Conclusion
The coming decline of fossil fuel supplies and the increasing concern over air pollution and global climate change have convinced many people that we will need to shift to renewable energy sources that will not run out and will not pollute. Renewable sources with promise for sustaining our civilization far into the future without greatly degrading our environment include solar energy, wind energy, geothermal energy, and ocean energy sources.
Moreover, by using electricity from renewable sources to produce hydrogen fuel, we may be able to use fuel cells to produce electricity when and where it is needed, helping convert our transportation sector to a nonpolluting, renewable basis. Most renewable energy sources have been held back for a variety of reasons, including little funding for research and development, and artificially cheap market prices for nonrenewable resources that do not include external costs. Despite this, renewable technologies have progressed far enough to offer hope that we can shift from fossil fuels to renewable energy with a minimum of economic and social disruption. Whether we can also limit environmental impact will depend on how soon and how quickly we make the transition and to what extent we put efficiency and conservation measures into place.
REVIEWING OBJECTIVES
You should now be able to:
Outline the major sources of renewable energy and assess their potential for growth
The new renewable energy sources include solar, wind, geothermal, and ocean energy sources. They are not truly new, but rather are in a stage of rapid development. (pp. 621622) The new renewables currently provide far less energy and electricity than the conventional renewables, hydropower and biomass energyand only a small fraction of the energy and electricity we obtain from fossil fuels. (pp. 621622) Use of new renewables is growing quickly, and this growth is expected to continue as people seek to move away from fossil fuels. (pp. 622623)
Describe geothermal energy and the ways it is harnessed, and evaluate its advantages and disadvantages
Energy from radioactive decay in Earths core rises toward the surface and heats groundwater. Energy from this heated water and steam is harnessed at the surface or by drilling at geothermal power plants. (pp. 633634) Use of geothermal energy for direct heating of water, as well as for electricity generation, can be efficient, clean, and renewable. (pp. 633635) Geothermal sources occur only in certain areas and may become exhausted if too much water is pumped out without being replenished. (p. 635)
Describe solar energy and the ways it is harnessed, and evaluate its advantages and disadvantages
Energy from the suns radiation can be harnessed using passive methods or by active methods involving powered technology. (pp. 623624) Major solar technologies include solar panels, mirrors to concentrate solar rays, and photovoltaic cells. (pp. 624626) Solar energy is perpetually renewable, and solar technology creates no emissions and allows for decentralized power. (p. 626) Solar radiation varies in intensity from place to place and time to time, and harnessing solar energy remains expensive. (p. 627)
Describe ocean energy sources and the ways they can be harnessed, and evaluate their advantages and disadvantages
Major ocean energy sources include the motion of tides and waves and the thermal heat of ocean water. (pp. 635637) Tidal and wave energy is perpetually renewable and holds much promise, but so far technologies have seen only limited development. (pp. 635637)
Explain hydrogen fuel cells and assess future options for energy storage and transportation
Hydrogen can serve as a fuel to store and transport energy, so that electricity generated by renewable sources can be made portable and used to power vehicles. (p. 637) Hydrogen can be produced through electrolysis, but it may also be produced by using fossil fuelsin which case its environmental benefits are greatly reduced. (pp. 638639) There is some concern that releasing excess hydrogen could have negative impacts on the atmosphere. (p. 639) Fuel cells create electricity by controlling an interaction between hydrogen and oxygen, and they produce only water as a waste product. (pp. 640, 642) Hydrogen can be clean, safe, and efficient. Fuel cells are silent, are nonpolluting, and do not need recharging. (pp. 640, 642)
Describe wind energy and the ways it is harnessed, and evaluate its advantages and disadvantages
Energy from wind is harnessed using wind turbines mounted on towers. (pp. 627628) Turbines are often erected in arrays at wind farms located on land or offshore. Wind farms are developed in locations with optimal wind conditions. (pp. 628632) Wind energy is renewable, turbine operation creates no emissions, wind farms can generate economic benefits, and the cost of wind power is nearly competitive with that of electricity generated from fossil fuels. (p. 630) Wind is an intermittent resource and occurs at adequate strengths only in some locations. Turbines kill some birds and bats, and wind farms can face opposition from local residents. (pp. 630633)
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TESTING YOUR COMPREHENSION

1. About how much of our energy now comes from renewable sources? What is the most prevalent form of renewable energy we use? What form of renewable energy is most used to generate electricity? 2. What is causing renewable energy sectors to expand? What renewable source is experiencing the most rapid growth? 3. Describe how passive solar heating works. How does active solar heating work? Give examples of each. 4. Describe the photoelectric effect. Describe a photovoltaic (PV) cell, and explain one way these are used. 5. What are the environmental and economic advantages and disadvantages of solar power? 6. How do modern wind turbines generate electricity? How does wind speed affect the process? 7. What are the environmental and economic benefits of wind power? What are its disadvantages? 8. Define geothermal energy and explain how it is obtained and used. In what ways is it renewable, and in what way is it not renewable? 9. List and describe three approaches to obtaining energy from ocean water. 10. How is hydrogen fuel produced? Is this a clean process? What factors determine the amount of pollutants hydrogen production will emit?
SEEKING SOLUTIONS
1. Why might a hydrogen economy be closer than we think? Why might it instead not come to pass? Do you think water could be the coal of the future? Why or why not? 2. For each source of renewable energy discussed in this chapter, what factors are standing in the way of an expedient transition from fossil fuel use? 3. Explain how the use of new renewable energy sources can reduce fossil fuel emissions. 4. Do you think development and implementation of renewable energy resources to replace fossil fuels can be moved forward without great social, economic, and environmental disruption? What steps would need to be taken? Will market forces alone suffice to bring about this transition? Do you think such a shift will be good for the economy? 5. Iceland is giving itself many years to phase in its planned hydrogen economy. Do you think the United States could transition to a hydrogen economy more quickly, less quickly, or not at all? Why? What steps could the United States take to accelerate such a transition? 6. Imagine you are the CEO of a company that develops wind farms. Your staff is presenting you with three options, listed below, for sites for your next development. Describe at least one likely advantage and at least one likely disadvantage you would expect to encounter with each option. What further information would you like to know before deciding on which to pursue? Option A. A remote rural site in North Dakota Option B. A ridge-top site among the suburbs of Philadelphia Option C. An offshore site off the Florida coast
INTERPRETING GRAPHS AND DATA

Of the new renewable energy alternatives discussed in this chapter, photovoltaic conversion of solar energy is the one that most areas of the United States could most easily adopt. The influx of solar radiation varies with time of day, time of year, and location, so all areas are not equally well suited. Todays photovoltaic technology is approximately 10% efficient at converting the energy of sunlight into electricity, but new technologies under development may increase that efficiency to as much as 40%.
500 Kilowatt-hours per month 400 300 200 100
Per capita electricity use Solar radiation/m2
0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Month
Average per capita residential use of electricity in the United States in 2004 (red line) and average influx of solar radiation per square meter for Topeka, Kansas (blue line). The dashed lines represent the yearly average values for each. Data from Renewable
Resource Data Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy (DOE); and Energy Information Administration. 2005. Annual energy review 2004. DOE.
1. Given a 10% efficiency for photovoltaic conversion of solar energy, approximately how many square meters of photovoltaic cells would be needed to supply one persons residential electrical needs for a year, based on the yearly average values? How many square meters would be needed if efficiency were improved to 40%? 2. Given the same 10% conversion efficiency, approximately how many square meters of photovoltaic cells would be required to supply one persons residential electrical needs during the month of April? During July? How many square meters would be required to supply the average U.S. household of four people for each of those months? 3. Commercially available photovoltaic systems of this capacity cost approximately $20,000. The average cost of electricity in the United States is approximately 9 per kilowatt-hour. At these prices, how long would it take for the PV system to generate $20,000 worth of electricity? Calculate a combination of PV system cost and electricity cost at which the system would pay for itself in 10 years.
CALCULATING ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINTS

Assume that average per capita residential consumption of electricity is 12 kilowatt-hours per day, that photovoltaic cells have an electrical output of 10% incident solar radiation, and that PV cells cost $800 per square meter. Now refer to Figure 21.5 on p. 627, and estimate the area and cost of the PV cells needed to provide all of the residential electricity used by each group in the table.
Area of photovoltaic cells You Your class Your state United States 25 Cost of photovoltaic cells $20,000
1. What additional information do you need in order to increase the accuracy of your estimates for the areas in the table above? 2. Considering the distribution of solar radiation in the United States, where do you think it will be most feasible to greatly increase the percentage of electricity generated from photovoltaic solar cells? 3. The purchase price of a photovoltaic system is considerable. What other costs and benefits should you consider, in addition to the purchase price, when contemplating going solar?
Take It Further
Go to www.aw-bc.com/withgott or the student CD-ROM where youll find: Suggested answers to end-of-chapter questions Quizzes, animations, and flashcards to help you study Research Navigator database of credible and reliable sources to assist you with your research projects graphs
tutorials to help you master how to interpret current news articles that link the topics that you study to case studies from your region to around the world

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New Renewable Energy Alternatives

Icelands Blue Lagoon and Svartsengi geothermal power plant

Upon successfully completing this chapter, you will be able to:

Icelands hydrogen buses arrive in Reykjavik

Central Case: Iceland Moves toward a Hydrogen Economy

New Renewable Energy Alternatives 621

New Renewable Energy Sources

The new renewables currently provide little of our power

Environmental Issues and the Search for Solutions

Geothermal (5.6%) Wind (2.3%)

Annual growth rate, 19712000 (%)

(a) U.S. total primary energy from renewable sources, 2004

Total primary energy supply

Geothermal (8.3%) Wind (3.9%) Biomass 14.0% Solar (0.2%)

Agency Statistics, 2002.

(b) U.S. total electricity generation from renewable sources, 2004

Energy. 2005. Annual Energy Review, 2004.

The new renewables are growing fast

New Renewable Energy Alternatives 623

The transition cannot be immediate, but it must be soon

Environmental Issues and the Search for Solutions

Passive solar heating is simple and effective

Concentrating solar rays magnifies the energy received

New Renewable Energy Alternatives 625

Electricity generated (direct current)

Phosphorusenriched silicon Junction Photovoltaic cell Boron-enriched silicon

Photovoltaic cells generate electricity directly from sunlight

Environmental Issues and the Search for Solutions

Solar power offers many benefits

Solar power is little used but fast growing

New Renewable Energy Alternatives 627

Renewable Energy Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy, 2005.

Location and cost can be drawbacks for solar power

Environmental Issues and the Search for Solutions

Gearbox (increases rotational speed of blades) Blades

Generator (produces electricity)

Wind has long been used for energy

Modern wind turbines convert kinetic energy to electrical energy

Wind power is the fastest-growing energy sector

New Renewable Energy Alternatives 629

Spain (16%) Denmark (8%) Germany (37%) Rest of world (18%)

Offshore sites can be promising

Environmental Issues and the Search for Solutions

Wind power has many benefits

Wind energy has some downsides

New Renewable Energy Alternatives 631

ND (66) SD (44) NE (14) KS (114)

Wind power capacity (megawatts) 1,0002,100 1001,000 20100 120 0

(b) Wind generating capacity, 2004

Environmental Issues and the Search for Solutions

The nce Idahos Scieind eh b the y Where does wind Stor

New Renewable Energy Alternatives 633

Weighing the Issues:

Geothermal energy is harnessed for heating and electricity

Environmental Issues and the Search for Solutions

3 Wells tap underground

Turbine and generator

Impermeable rock Confined aquifer Impermeable rock Heat source (magma)

4 Steam is cooled, condensed,

(a) Geothermal energy

(b) Nesjavellir geothermal power station, Iceland

New Renewable Energy Alternatives 635