Lecture 15

6 Singularities
Theorem 6.1 (Laurents Theorem). Let a C and
D = {z C : S < |z a| < R},
where 0 < S < R. Then the domain D is an annulus . Let f : D C be holomorphic.
Then f has a Laurent expansion
f(z) =

n=
b
n
(z a)
n
valid for all z D and where
b
n
=
1
2i

|za|=r
f(w)
(w a)
n+1
dw,
for any S < r < R.
Proof. Let z D. Then S < |z a| < R. Choose S

, R

such that S < S

<
|z a| < R

< R and > 0 such that S

+ < |z a| < R . Then

f(z) =
1
2i

|wz|=
f(w)
w z
dw
by Cauchys Integral Formula and by a combination of Cauchys Integral The-
orem in the standard and deformation version
f(z) =
1
2i

|wa|=R

|wa|=S

f(w)
w z
dw.
see diagram. To show this we let
1
<
2
be such that the circle given by
|w z| = lies inside the sector

1
< arg(z a) <
2
. We let
1
be the simple closed path which runs anti-
clockwise along a + R

e
i
as runs from
1
to
2
, then along the line segment
[a + R

e
i
2
, a + S

e
i
2
], then clockwise around a + S

e
i
as runs back from
2
to

1
, then along the line segment [a + S

e
i
1
, a + R

e
i
1
]. Then

|wz|=
f(w)
w z
dw =

1
f(w)
w z
dw
by the deformation version of Cauchys Integral Theorem for closed paths.
Let
2
be a similar path enclosing the remainder of the region between the
two circles. So let
2
run anti-clockwise along a + R

e
i
as runs from
2
to
46

1
+2, then along the line segment [a +R

e
i
1
, a +S

e
i
1
], then clockwise along
a + S

e
i
as runs back from
1
+ 2 to
2
, and nally along the line segment
[a + S

e
i
2
, a + R

e
i
2
]. Then by the deformation version of Cauchys Integral
Theorem for closed paths,

2
f(w)
w z
dw = 0,
by Cauchys Integral Theorem for simple closed paths. So now we have
f(z) =
1
2i

|wz|=
f(w)
w z
dw
=
1
2i

1
f(w)
w z
dw +

2
f(w)
w z
dw

=
1
2i

|wa|=R

f(w)
w z
dw

|wa|=S

f(w)
w z
dw

,
since the integrals along the line segments are each traversed twice, once in
each direction, and cancel out. Now

|wa|=R

f(w)
w z
dw =

|wa|=R

f(w)
(w a) (z a)
dw
=

|wa|=R

f(w)
(w a)

1
za
wa
dw
=

|wa|=R

f(w)
w a

n=0

z a
w a

n
dw,
because

z a
w a

=
|z a|
R

< 1. Putting M
n
=

z a
R

n
we see that

n=0

z a
w a

n
converges uniformly on the circle |w a| = R

by the Weierstrass M-theorem.

Therefore,

|wa|=R

f(w)
w z
dw =

n=0

|wa|=R

f(w)
(w a)
n+1
dw

(z a)
n
.
Now for the inner circle where now

w a
z a

=
S

|z a|
< 1. We have |za| > S

and so by the same reasoning,

n=0

w a
z a

n
converges uniformly on the circle
given by |w a| = S

. therefore,
47

|wa|=S

f(w)
w z
dw =

|wa|=S

f(w)
(w a) (z a)
dw
=

|wa|=S

f(w)
(z a)

1
wa
za
dw
=

|wa|=S

f(w)
z a

n=0

w a
z a

n
dw
=

n=0

|wa|=S

f(w)(w a)
n
dw(z a)
(n+1)
=
1

k=

|wa|=S

f(w)
(w a)
k+1

(z a)
k
,
putting k = (n + 1), n = (k + 1). Putting both together we have the
complete Laurent expansion:
f(z) =

n=0

1
2i

|wa|=R

f(w)
(w a)
n+1
dw

(za)
n
+
1

1
2i

|wa|=S

f(w)
(w a)
n+1
dw

(za)
n
.
If S < r < R then

|wa|=r
f(w)
(w a)
n+1
dw =

|wa|=S

f(w)
(w a)
n+1
dw
=

|wa|=R

f(w)
(w a)
n+1
dw,
by the deformation version of Cauchys Integral Theorem for closed paths.
Therefore,
f(z) =

|wa|=r
f(w)
(w a)
n+1
dw

(z a)
n
.
Phew!! I have lled in too many small steps and you should streamline the
argument when you have grasped it as a whole.
NOTE: In the above,

n=0
b
n
(z a)
n
is a power series which converges for
|z a| < R and converges uniformly on B

R
(a) if R

< R;

1
n=
b
n
(z a)
n
converges uniformly on C \ B
S
(a) if S

> S.
The double sided series may NOT be said to converge uniformly on the
annulus {z C : S < |z a| < R} but it converges uniformly on any compact
subset of it.
48
Example 6.1. The function exp

1
z

is holomorphic on C \ {0} and

exp

1
z

n=0
(
1
z
)
n
n!
=

n=0
1
n!
z
n
=
0

n=
1
(n)!
z
n
.
Example 6.2. The function
1
z 1
is holomorphic in C \ {1} and
1
z 1
=

n=
b
n
(z 1)
n
where b
1
= 1 and b
n
= 0 if n = 1.
Example 6.3.
f(z) =
1
z
+
1
z 1
+
1
z 2
is holomorphic in C \ {0, 1, 2}. Let
D
1
= {z C : 0 < |z| < 1},
D
2
= {z C : 1 < |z| < 2}, and
D
3
= {z C : 2 < |z| < }.
Then the function has a Laurent expansion valid in each of D
1
,D
2
,D
3
. In D
1
,
f(z) =
1
z

1
1 z

1
2

1
z
2

=
1
z

n=0
z
n

1
2

n=0

z
2

n
=
1
z

n=0

1 +
1
2
n+1

z
n
.
In D
2
,
49
f(z) =
1
z

1
z

1
1
z

1
2

1
z
2

=
1
z
+
1
z

n=0

1
z

1
2

n=0

z
2

n
=
2

n=
z
n
+
2
z
+

n=0

1
2
n+1

z
n
.
In D
3
,
f(z) =
1
z
+
1
z
1
1
1
z
+
1
z
1
1
2
z
=
1
z
+
1
z

n=0

1
z

n
+
1
z

n=0

2
z

n
.
Lecture 16
Denition 6.1. Suppose that f(z) is holomorphic in an annulus
{z C : S < |z a| < R} where S > 0
so the function f has a Laurent expansion
f(z) =

n=
b
n
(z a)
n
,
with
b
n
=
1
2i

|za|=r
f(z)
(z a)
n+1
dz.
Then

1
n=
b
n
(z a)
n
is called the principal part of the Laurent expansion.
Denition 6.2. Let D be a domain, a D and f : D \ {a} C a holomorphic
function. We say that a is an isolated singularity of a.
The isolated singularities are classied as follows. Let R > 0 be such that
B
R
(a) D. On B
R
(a)\{a}, f(z) =

n=
b
n
(z a)
n
where the b
n
are uniquely
determined by f.
Denition 6.3. We say the function f has
(i) a removable singularity at a if b
n
= 0 for all n < 0;
50
(ii) a pole of order k at a (here k N) if b
n
= 0 for all n < k and b
k
= 0; (if
k = 1 then f is said to have a simple pole at a, if k = 2 a double pole at a, etc);
(iii) an essential singularity if b
n
= 0 for innitely many n < 0.
Returning to poles, if
f(z) =

n=k
b
n
(z a)
n
= (z a)
k

n=0
b
k+n
(z a)
n
and b
k
= 0 then f(z) = (z a)
k
g(z) where g(z) is holomorphic on B
R
(a). In
fact, g(a) = 0 and g is holomorphic on D. Alternatively, and more succinctly, if
a function f is holomorphic on B
R
(a) \ {a} and lim
za
(z a)
k
f(z) exists and
is non-zero, then f has a pole of order k at a. To complete the story we must
include
Denition 6.4. Suppose f : B
R
(a) C is holomorphic and has Taylor expansion
f(z) =

n=0
b
n
(z a)
n
. If b
n
= 0 for all n < k and b
k
= 0 then we say that f has a
zero of order k at a.
Note that if f has a zero of order k then f has the form f(z) = (z a)
k
h(z)
for a function h holomorphic near a with h(a) = 0.
Proposition 6.1. Suppose that f : B
R
(a) \ {a} C is holomorphic and bounded.
Then f has a removable singularity at a.
Proof. Let
b
n
=
1
2i

|za|=
f(z)
(z a)
n+1
dz,
where < R. There exists K > 0 such that |f(z)| K for all z B
R
(a) \ {a}.
Then
|b
n
|
1
2
K

n+1
2,
by the standard estimate for integrals. So |b
n
| K
n
. If n < 0 so n > 0,

n
0 as 0. Thus b
n
= 0 if n < 0. Dening
g(z) =

n=0
b
n
(z a)
n
for all z B
R
(a) we obtain a holomorphic function with g(a) = b
0
and equal
to f(z), otherwise.
51
Example 6.4. Consider f(z) =
1
sin
1
z
. If
sin
1
z
=
1
2i

e
i
1
z
e
i
1
z

= 0 then e
i
1
z
= e
i
1
z
,
that is, e
2i
1
z
= 1. Therefore, 2i
1
z
{2ni : n Z}, that is, z {
1
n
: n Z \ {0}}.
So the function f has singularities at
1
n
where n Z\{0} and is not dened at 0. As
1
n
0 as n , 0 is a non-isolated singularity.
Example 6.5. The function
f(z) =
sin z
z
=

n=0
(1)
n
(2n+1)!
z
2n+1
z
= 1
z
2
3!
+
z
4
5!

has a removable singularity at 0
Example 6.6. The function
f(z) = e
1
z
=

n=0
1
n!
1
z
n
has an essential singularity at 0.
Example 6.7. Let g, h be holomorphic on a domain D and let f(z) =
g(z)
h(z)
. Then f is
singular at points at which h(z) = 0. Suppose that h(a) = 0. Then there exists R > 0
such that on B
R
(a), the functions g and h have Taylor expansions:
g(z) =

n=0
b
n
(z a)
n
, h(z) =

n=0
c
n
(z a)
n
and h(z) = 0 if 0 < |z a| <
R. Of course it maybe that g(a) = 0. So g(z) =

n=r
b
n
(z a)
n
with b
r
= 0,
h(z) =

n=s
c
n
(z a)
n
with c
s
= 0. So g(z) = (z a)
r
g(z), h(z) = (z a)
s

h(z),
where g and

h are holomorphic and

h does not take the value 0 on B
R
(a). Then
f(z) = (z a)
rs

f(z) where

f =
g

h
.
We see that f has a zero of order rs if rs > 0, a removable singularity if r = s and
a pole of order s r is r s < 0. The quotient cannot have an essential singularity
on D.
Example 6.8. Let f(z) =
tan z
z
3
=
sin z
z
3
cos z
. The denominator vanishes when z = 0
where it has a zero of order 3 and at (n +
1
2
) for each n Z where it has a zero of
order 1, that is, a simple zero. The numerator has simple zeros at each n for n Z.
Therefore, f(z) has a double pole at z = 0 and simple poles at each (n +
1
2
).
52
Lecture 17
Consider the Laurent expansion of a function f with a pole at a of order k:
f(z) =

n=k
b
n
(z a)
n
.
The function g(z) = (z a)
k
f(z) has a removable singularity at a:
g(z) =

n=k
b
n
(z a)
n+k
=

m=0
b
mk
(z a)
m
,
with coefcients
b
mk
= lim
za

d
dz

m
g(z)
m!
,
and if 1 r k
b
r
= lim
za

d
dz

kr
g(z)
(k r)!
= lim
za

d
dz

kr
(z a)
k
f(z)
(k r)!
.
In particular,
b
1
= lim
za

d
dz

k1
(z a)
k
f(z)
(k 1)!
.
Recall that
(i)

|za|=r
1
z a
dz = 2i,
(ii)

|za|=r
(z a)
n
dz =

|za|=r
d
dz

(z a)
n+1
n + 1

dz = 0 if n + 1 = 0.
Only the coefcient of
1
z a
contributes to an integral

|za|=r
f(z) dz if f has
no other singularities inside the the circle |z a| = r.
Denition 6.5. Let f have an isolated singularity a and Laurent expansion
f(z) =

n=
b
n
(z a)
n
.
The coefcient b
1
of
1
z a
is called the residue of f at a.
53
Proposition 6.2 (Useful formula). Suppose that functions f and g are holomorphic
near a, that f(a) = 0 and g has a simple zero at a. Then the residue of
f
g
at a is
f(a)
g

(a)
.
Proof. As g has a simple zero at a, its Taylor series has the form
g(z) = b
1
(z a) +
with b
1
= 0. Then g

(a) = b
1
= 0. The residue of
f
g
at a is given by
lim
za
(z a)f(z)
g(z)
= lim
za
f(z) + (z a)f

(z)
g

(z)
=
f(a)
g

(a)
.
Recall that we have already derived (arguments preceeding the denition
of the residue) the following useful formula for special higher order poles. It
can also be proven by using higher order Cauchy Integral formulae.
Proposition 6.3. Suppose that the function g is holomorphic near a, that g(a) = 0
and k N. Then the residue of f given by f(z) =
g(z)
(z a)
k
at a is
g
(k1)
(a)
(k 1)!
.
Theorem 6.2 (Cauchys Residue Theorem). Let D be a domain, : [a, b] D a
simple closed p.w.c.d. path with its interior in D. Suppose that points a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n

D lie in the interior of and that f : D \ {a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
} C is holomorphic with
poles at a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
. Then

f(z) dz = 2i
n

k=1
(residue of fat a
k
).
Proof. Let p
k
be the principal part of the Laurent expansion of f(z) at a
k
. Then
p
k
is holomorphic on C \ {a
k
} and f p
k
has a removable singularity at a
k
.
Thus f (p
1
+p
2
+ +p
n
) has removable singularities at a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
and is
the restriction to D\{a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
} of a function holomorphic on D. Therefore,

(f(z) (p
1
(z) + p
2
(z) + + p
n
(z))) dz = 0
and

f(z) dz =
n

k=1

p
k
(z) dz.
Suppose that p
k
(z) =

1
m=
c
k
m
(z a
k
)
m
. Then the series converges uni-
formly (in fact, it has only a nite number of non-zero terms) on the compact
image of and

p
k
(z) dz =
1

c
k
m

(z a)
m
dz.
54
If m = 1 then

(z a
k
)
m
dz =

(z a
k
)
m+1
m + 1

dz = 0,
because is a closed path. Therefore,

p
k
(z) dz = c
k
1

1
z a
dz
= c
k
1

|za|=
1
z a
k
dz
= 2ic
k
1
by the deformation version of Cauchys Integral Theorem. So we have shown
that

p
k
(z) dz is equal to the residue of f at a
k
. The theorem follows.
Example 6.9. Calculate

|z|=2
tan z
z
3
dz.
Note that

|z|=2
tan z
z
3
dz =

|z|=2
sin z
z
3
cos z
dz. The singularities of
tan z
z
3
occur
where z = 0 or cos z = 0.
We note rst that
tan z
z
3
is an even function and, in its Laurent expansion
about 0, only even powers of z occur and so the residue at 0 vanishes.
Next cos z = 0 when z = (n+
1
2
). Considering the derivative, sin(n +
1
2
) = (1
n+1
) = 0.
So at z = (n+
1
2
), cos z has a simple zero and
tan z
z
3
has a simple pole of residue:
sin z
z
3
sin z

z=(n+
1
2
)
=
(1)
n+1

(n +
1
2
)

3
.
Note

(n +
1
2
)

< 2 if n = 0 and n = 1 as > 3 and the only zeros of cos z

lying inside |z| = 2 occur at
1
2
and
1
2
.
Finally,

|z|=2
tan z
z
3
dz = 2i

residue at 0 + residue at

2
+ residue at

2

= 2i

0 +
1

1
2

3
+
1

1
2

= 0
Example 6.10. Calculate

2
0
d
3 + cos
.
55
Of course, there are several ways of doing this problem but we will use the
calculus of residues.
Put z = e
i
. Then
dz
d
= ie
i
= iz and so we substitute
1
iz
dz for d.

2
0
d
3 + cos
=

|z|=1
1
3 +
1
2

z +
1
z

dz
iz
=
2
i

|z|=1
dz
2z

3 +
1
2

z +
1
z

=
2
i

|z|=1
dz
z
2
+ 6z + 1
The quadratic expression z
2
+6z +1 has roots at
6

36 4
2
= 3 2

2
and the only root inside |z| = 1 is at z = 3 + 2

2. Therefore,

0
d
3 + cos
= 2i
2
i
(residue at 3 + 2

2)
= 4
1
2z + 6

3+2

2
= 4
1
4

2
=

2
.
56