Connectivism: ALearningTheoryfortheDigitalAge

GeorgeSiemens

Introduction
Behaviorism,cognitivism,andconstructivismarethethreebroadlearningtheoriesmostoftenutilizedin thecreationofinstructionalenvironments.Thesetheories,however,weredevelopedinatimewhen learningwasnotimpactedthroughtechnology.Overthelasttwentyyears,technologyhasreorganized howwelive,howwecommunicate,andhowwelearn.Learningneedsandtheoriesthatdescribe learningprinciplesandprocesses,shouldbereflectiveofunderlyingsocialenvironments.Vaill emphasizesthatlearningmustbeawayofbeinganongoingsetofattitudesandactionsby individualsandgroupsthattheyemploytotrytokeepabreastofthesurprising,novel,messy,obtrusive, recurringevents(1996,p.42). Learnersaslittleasfortyyearsagowouldcompletetherequiredschoolingandenteracareerthat wouldoftenlastalifetime.Informationdevelopmentwasslow.Thelifeofknowledgewasmeasuredin decades.Today,thesefoundationalprincipleshavebeenaltered.Knowledgeisgrowingexponentially. Inmanyfieldsthelifeofknowledgeisnowmeasuredinmonthsandyears.Gonzalez(2004)describes thechallengesofrapidlydiminishingknowledgelife: Oneofthemostpersuasivefactorsistheshrinkinghalflifeofknowledge.Thehalflifeofknowledge isthetimespanfromwhenknowledgeisgainedtowhenitbecomesobsolete.Halfofwhatisknown todaywasnotknown10yearsago.Theamountofknowledgeintheworldhasdoubledinthepast10 yearsandisdoublingevery18monthsaccordingtotheAmericanSocietyofTrainingand Documentation(ASTD).Tocombattheshrinkinghalflifeofknowledge,organizationshavebeenforced todevelopnewmethodsofdeployinginstruction. Somesignificanttrendsinlearning: Manylearnerswillmoveintoavarietyofdifferent,possiblyunrelatedfieldsoverthecourseof theirlifetime. Informallearningisasignificantaspectofourlearningexperience.Formaleducationnolonger comprisesthemajorityofourlearning.Learningnowoccursinavarietyofwaysthrough communitiesofpractice,personalnetworks,andthroughcompletionofworkrelatedtasks. Learningisacontinualprocess,lastingforalifetime.Learningandworkrelatedactivitiesareno longerseparate.Inmanysituations,theyarethesame. Technologyisaltering(rewiring)ourbrains.Thetoolsweusedefineandshapeourthinking. Theorganizationandtheindividualarebothlearningorganisms.Increasedattentionto knowledgemanagementhighlightstheneedforatheorythatattemptstoexplainthelink betweenindividualandorganizationallearning. Manyoftheprocessespreviouslyhandledbylearningtheories(especiallyincognitive informationprocessing)cannowbeoffloadedto,orsupportedby,technology. Knowhowandknowwhatisbeingsupplementedwithknowwhere(theunderstandingof wheretofindknowledgeneeded).

Background
Driscoll(2000)defineslearningasapersistingchangeinhumanperformanceorperformance potential[which]mustcomeaboutasaresultofthelearnersexperienceandinteractionwiththe world(p.11).Thisdefinitionencompassesmanyoftheattributescommonlyassociatedwith behaviorism,cognitivism,andconstructivismnamely,learningasalastingchangedstate(emotional, mental,physiological(i.e.skills))broughtaboutasaresultofexperiencesandinteractionswithcontent orotherpeople. Driscoll(2000,p1417)exploressomeofthecomplexitiesofdefininglearning.Debatecenterson: ValidsourcesofknowledgeDowegainknowledgethroughexperiences?Isitinnate(present atbirth)?Doweacquireitthroughthinkingandreasoning?

ContentofknowledgeIsknowledgeactuallyknowable?Isitdirectlyknowablethrough humanexperience? Thefinalconsiderationfocusesonthreeepistemologicaltraditionsinrelationtolearning: Objectivism,Pragmatism,andInterpretivism o Objectivism(similartobehaviorism)statesthatrealityisexternalandisobjective,and knowledgeisgainedthroughexperiences. o Pragmatism(similartocognitivism)statesthatrealityisinterpreted,andknowledgeis negotiatedthroughexperienceandthinking. o Interpretivism(similartoconstructivism)statesthatrealityisinternal,andknowledge isconstructed.

Alloftheselearningtheoriesholdthenotionthatknowledgeisanobjective(orastate)thatis attainable(ifnotalreadyinnate)througheitherreasoningorexperiences.Behaviorism,cognitivism,and constructivism(builtontheepistemologicaltraditions)attempttoaddresshowitisthatapersonlearns. Behaviorismstatesthatlearningislargelyunknowable,thatis,wecantpossiblyunderstandwhatgoes oninsideaperson(theblackboxtheory).Gredler(2001)expressesbehaviorismasbeingcomprisedof severaltheoriesthatmakethreeassumptionsaboutlearning: 1. Observablebehaviourismoreimportantthanunderstandinginternalactivities 2. Behaviourshouldbefocusedonsimpleelements:specificstimuliandresponses 3. Learningisaboutbehaviourchange Cognitivismoftentakesacomputerinformationprocessingmodel.Learningisviewedasaprocessof inputs,managedinshorttermmemory,andcodedforlongtermrecall.CindyBuelldetailsthisprocess: Incognitivetheories,knowledgeisviewedassymbolicmentalconstructsinthelearner'smind,andthe learningprocessisthemeansbywhichthesesymbolicrepresentationsarecommittedtomemory. Constructivismsuggeststhatlearnerscreateknowledgeastheyattempttounderstandtheir experiences(Driscoll,2000,p.376).Behaviorismandcognitivismviewknowledgeasexternaltothe learnerandthelearningprocessastheactofinternalizingknowledge.Constructivismassumesthat learnersarenotemptyvesselstobefilledwithknowledge.Instead,learnersareactivelyattemptingto createmeaning.Learnersoftenselectandpursuetheirownlearning.Constructivistprinciples acknowledgethatreallifelearningismessyandcomplex.Classroomswhichemulatethefuzzinessof thislearningwillbemoreeffectiveinpreparinglearnersforlifelonglearning.

LimitationsofBehaviorism,Cognitivism,andConstructivism
Acentraltenetofmostlearningtheoriesisthatlearningoccursinsideaperson.Evensocial constructivistviews,whichholdthatlearningisasociallyenactedprocess,promotestheprincipalityof theindividual(andher/hisphysicalpresencei.e.brainbased)inlearning.Thesetheoriesdonot addresslearningthatoccursoutsideofpeople(i.e.learningthatisstoredandmanipulatedby technology).Theyalsofailtodescribehowlearninghappenswithinorganizations Learningtheoriesareconcernedwiththeactualprocessoflearning,notwiththevalueofwhatisbeing learned.Inanetworkedworld,theverymannerofinformationthatweacquireisworthexploring.The needtoevaluatetheworthinessoflearningsomethingisametaskillthatisappliedbeforelearning itselfbegins.Whenknowledgeissubjecttopaucity,theprocessofassessingworthinessisassumedto beintrinsictolearning.Whenknowledgeisabundant,therapidevaluationofknowledgeisimportant. Additionalconcernsarisefromtherapidincreaseininformation.Intodaysenvironment,actionisoften neededwithoutpersonallearningthatis,weneedtoactbydrawinginformationoutsideofour primaryknowledge.Theabilitytosynthesizeandrecognizeconnectionsandpatternsisavaluableskill. Manyimportantquestionsareraisedwhenestablishedlearningtheoriesareseenthroughtechnology. Thenaturalattemptoftheoristsistocontinuetoreviseandevolvetheoriesasconditionschange.At somepoint,however,theunderlyingconditionshavealteredsosignificantly,thatfurthermodificationis nolongersensible.Anentirelynewapproachisneeded. Somequestionstoexploreinrelationtolearningtheoriesandtheimpactoftechnologyandnew sciences(chaosandnetworks)onlearning:

Howarelearningtheoriesimpactedwhenknowledgeisnolongeracquiredinthelinear manner? Whatadjustmentsneedtomadewithlearningtheorieswhentechnologyperformsmanyofthe cognitiveoperationspreviouslyperformedbylearners(informationstorageandretrieval). Howcanwecontinuetostaycurrentinarapidlyevolvinginformationecology? Howdolearningtheoriesaddressmomentswhereperformanceisneededintheabsenceof completeunderstanding? Whatistheimpactofnetworksandcomplexitytheoriesonlearning? Whatistheimpactofchaosasacomplexpatternrecognitionprocessonlearning? Withincreasedrecognitionofinterconnectionsindifferingfieldsofknowledge,howare systemsandecologytheoriesperceivedinlightoflearningtasks?

AnAlternativeTheory
Includingtechnologyandconnectionmakingaslearningactivitiesbeginstomovelearningtheoriesinto adigitalage.Wecannolongerpersonallyexperienceandacquirelearningthatweneedtoact.We deriveourcompetencefromformingconnections.KarenStephensonstates: Experiencehaslongbeenconsideredthebestteacherofknowledge.Sincewecannotexperience everything,otherpeoplesexperiences,andhenceotherpeople,becomethesurrogateforknowledge. Istoremyknowledgeinmyfriendsisanaxiomforcollectingknowledgethroughcollectingpeople (undated). Chaosisanewrealityforknowledgeworkers.ScienceWeek(2004)quotesNigelCalder'sdefinitionthat chaosisacrypticformoforder.Chaosisthebreakdownofpredictability,evidencedincomplicated arrangementsthatinitiallydefyorder.Unlikeconstructivism,whichstatesthatlearnersattemptto fosterunderstandingbymeaningmakingtasks,chaosstatesthatthemeaningexiststhelearner's challengeistorecognizethepatternswhichappeartobehidden.Meaningmakingandforming connectionsbetweenspecializedcommunitiesareimportantactivities. Chaos,asascience,recognizestheconnectionofeverythingtoeverything.Gleick(1987)states:In weather,forexample,thistranslatesintowhatisonlyhalfjokinglyknownastheButterflyEffectthe notionthatabutterflystirringtheairtodayinPekingcantransformstormsystemsnextmonthinNew York(p.8).Thisanalogyhighlightsarealchallenge:sensitivedependenceoninitialconditions profoundlyimpactswhatwelearnandhowweactbasedonourlearning.Decisionmakingisindicative ofthis.Iftheunderlyingconditionsusedtomakedecisionschange,thedecisionitselfisnolongeras correctasitwasatthetimeitwasmade.Theabilitytorecognizeandadjusttopatternshiftsisakey learningtask. LuisMateusRocha(1998)definesselforganizationasthespontaneousformationofwellorganized structures,patterns,orbehaviors,fromrandominitialconditions.(p.3).Learning,asaselforganizing processrequiresthatthesystem(personalororganizationallearningsystems)beinformationallyopen, thatis,forittobeabletoclassifyitsowninteractionwithanenvironment,itmustbeabletochangeits structure(p.4).WileyandEdwardsacknowledgetheimportanceofselforganizationasalearning process:Jacobsarguesthatcommunitiesselforganizeisamannersimilartosocialinsects:insteadof thousandsofantscrossingeachotherspheromonetrailsandchangingtheirbehavioraccordingly, thousandsofhumanspasseachotheronthesidewalkandchangetheirbehavioraccordingly..Self organizationonapersonallevelisamicroprocessofthelargerselforganizingknowledgeconstructs createdwithincorporateorinstitutionalenvironments.Thecapacitytoformconnectionsbetween sourcesofinformation,andtherebycreateusefulinformationpatterns,isrequiredtolearninour knowledgeeconomy.

Networks,SmallWorlds,WeakTies
Anetworkcansimplybedefinedasconnectionsbetweenentities.Computernetworks,powergrids, andsocialnetworksallfunctiononthesimpleprinciplethatpeople,groups,systems,nodes,entitiescan beconnectedtocreateanintegratedwhole.Alterationswithinthenetworkhaverippleeffectsonthe whole.

AlbertLszlBarabsistatesthatnodesalwayscompeteforconnectionsbecauselinksrepresent survivalinaninterconnectedworld(2002,p.106).Thiscompetitionislargelydulledwithinapersonal learningnetwork,buttheplacingofvalueoncertainnodesoverothersisareality.Nodesthat successfullyacquiregreaterprofilewillbemoresuccessfulatacquiringadditionalconnections.Ina learningsense,thelikelihoodthataconceptoflearningwillbelinkeddependsonhowwellitis currentlylinked.Nodes(canbefields,ideas,communities)thatspecializeandgainrecognitionfortheir expertisehavegreaterchancesofrecognition,thusresultingincrosspollinationoflearning communities. Weaktiesarelinksorbridgesthatallowshortconnectionsbetweeninformation.Oursmallworld networksaregenerallypopulatedwithpeoplewhoseinterestsandknowledgearesimilartoours. Findinganewjob,asanexample,oftenoccursthroughweakties.Thisprinciplehasgreatmeritinthe notionofserendipity,innovation,andcreativity.Connectionsbetweendisparateideasandfieldscan createnewinnovations.

Connectivism
Connectivismistheintegrationofprinciplesexploredbychaos,network,andcomplexityandself organizationtheories.Learningisaprocessthatoccurswithinnebulousenvironmentsofshiftingcore elementsnotentirelyunderthecontroloftheindividual.Learning(definedasactionableknowledge) canresideoutsideofourselves(withinanorganizationoradatabase),isfocusedonconnecting specializedinformationsets,andtheconnectionsthatenableustolearnmorearemoreimportantthan ourcurrentstateofknowing. Connectivismisdrivenbytheunderstandingthatdecisionsarebasedonrapidlyalteringfoundations. Newinformationiscontinuallybeingacquired.Theabilitytodrawdistinctionsbetweenimportantand unimportantinformationisvital.Theabilitytorecognizewhennewinformationaltersthelandscape basedondecisionsmadeyesterdayisalsocritical.

Principlesofconnectivism:
Learningandknowledgerestsindiversityofopinions. Learningisaprocessofconnectingspecializednodesorinformationsources. Learningmayresideinnonhumanappliances. Capacitytoknowmoreismorecriticalthanwhatiscurrentlyknown Nurturingandmaintainingconnectionsisneededtofacilitatecontinuallearning. Abilitytoseeconnectionsbetweenfields,ideas,andconceptsisacoreskill. Currency(accurate,uptodateknowledge)istheintentofallconnectivistlearningactivities. Decisionmakingisitselfalearningprocess.Choosingwhattolearnandthemeaningof incominginformationisseenthroughthelensofashiftingreality.Whilethereisarightanswer now,itmaybewrongtomorrowduetoalterationsintheinformationclimateaffectingthe decision.

Connectivismalsoaddressesthechallengesthatmanycorporationsfaceinknowledgemanagement activities.Knowledgethatresidesinadatabaseneedstobeconnectedwiththerightpeopleintheright contextinordertobeclassifiedaslearning.Behaviorism,cognitivism,andconstructivismdonot attempttoaddressthechallengesoforganizationalknowledgeandtransference. Informationflowwithinanorganizationisanimportantelementinorganizationaleffectiveness.Ina knowledgeeconomy,theflowofinformationistheequivalentoftheoilpipeinanindustrialeconomy. Creating,preserving,andutilizinginformationflowshouldbeakeyorganizationalactivity.Knowledge flowcanbelikenedtoariverthatmeandersthroughtheecologyofanorganization.Incertainareas, theriverpoolsandinotherareasitebbs.Thehealthofthelearningecologyoftheorganizationdepends oneffectivenurturingofinformationflow. Socialnetworkanalysisisanadditionalelementinunderstandinglearningmodelsinadigitalera.Art Kleiner(2002)exploresKarenStephensonsquantumtheoryoftrustwhichexplainsnotjusthowto recognizethecollectivecognitivecapabilityofanorganization,buthowtocultivateandincreaseit. Withinsocialnetworks,hubsarewellconnectedpeoplewhoareabletofosterandmaintainknowledge

flow.Theirinterdependenceresultsineffectiveknowledgeflow,enablingthepersonalunderstandingof thestateofactivitiesorganizationally. Thestartingpointofconnectivismistheindividual.Personalknowledgeiscomprisedofanetwork, whichfeedsintoorganizationsandinstitutions,whichinturnfeedbackintothenetwork,andthen continuetoprovidelearningtoindividual.Thiscycleofknowledgedevelopment(personaltonetworkto organization)allowslearnerstoremaincurrentintheirfieldthroughtheconnectionstheyhaveformed. LandauerandDumais(1997)explorethephenomenonthatpeoplehavemuchmoreknowledgethan appearstobepresentintheinformationtowhichtheyhavebeenexposed.Theyprovideaconnectivist focusinstatingthesimplenotionthatsomedomainsofknowledgecontainvastnumbersofweak interrelationsthat,ifproperlyexploited,cangreatlyamplifylearningbyaprocessofinference.The valueofpatternrecognitionandconnectingourownsmallworldsofknowledgeareapparentinthe exponentialimpactprovidedtoourpersonallearning. JohnSeelyBrownpresentsaninterestingnotionthattheinternetleveragesthesmalleffortsofmany withthelargeeffortsoffew.Thecentralpremiseisthatconnectionscreatedwithunusualnodes supportsandintensifiesexistinglargeeffortactivities.BrownprovidestheexampleofaMaricopa CountyCommunityCollegesystemprojectthatlinksseniorcitizenswithelementaryschoolstudentsina mentorprogram.Thechildrenlistentothesegrandparentsbetterthantheydotheirownparents, thementoringreallyhelpstheteachersthesmalleffortsofthemanytheseniorscomplementthe largeeffortsofthefewtheteachers.(2002).Thisamplificationoflearning,knowledgeand understandingthroughtheextensionofapersonalnetworkistheepitomeofconnectivism.

Implications
Thenotionofconnectivismhasimplicationsinallaspectsoflife.Thispaperlargelyfocusesonitsimpact onlearning,butthefollowingaspectsarealsoimpacted: Managementandleadership.Themanagementandmarshallingofresourcestoachieve desiredoutcomesisasignificantchallenge.Realizingthatcompleteknowledgecannotexistin themindofonepersonrequiresadifferentapproachtocreatinganoverviewofthesituation. Diverseteamsofvaryingviewpointsareacriticalstructureforcompletelyexploringideas. Innovationisalsoanadditionalchallenge.Mostoftherevolutionaryideasoftodayatonetime existedasafringeelement.Anorganizationsabilitytofoster,nurture,andsynthesizethe impactsofvaryingviewsofinformationiscriticaltoknowledgeeconomysurvival.Speedof ideatoimplementationisalsoimprovedinasystemsviewoflearning. Media,news,information.Thistrendiswellunderway.Mainstreammediaorganizationsare beingchallengedbytheopen,realtime,twowayinformationflowofblogging. Personalknowledgemanagementinrelationtoorganizationalknowledgemanagement Designoflearningenvironments

Conclusion:
Thepipeismoreimportantthanthecontentwithinthepipe.Ourabilitytolearnwhatweneedfor tomorrowismoreimportantthanwhatweknowtoday.Arealchallengeforanylearningtheoryisto actuateknownknowledgeatthepointofapplication.Whenknowledge,however,isneeded,butnot known,theabilitytoplugintosourcestomeettherequirementsbecomesavitalskill.Asknowledge continuestogrowandevolve,accesstowhatisneededismoreimportantthanwhatthelearner currentlypossesses. Connectivismpresentsamodeloflearningthatacknowledgesthetectonicshiftsinsocietywhere learningisnolongeraninternal,individualisticactivity.Howpeopleworkandfunctionisalteredwhen newtoolsareutilized.Thefieldofeducationhasbeenslowtorecognizeboththeimpactofnew learningtoolsandtheenvironmentalchangesinwhatitmeanstolearn.Connectivismprovidesinsight intolearningskillsandtasksneededforlearnerstoflourishinadigitalera.

References
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