CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW

In this chapter, theoretical approaches and other studies related with the research are served to answer the research question. This research uses the myth of anti-intellectualism and bullying study, social psychological approach, and at last semiotics film theory.

A. The Myth of Anti-Intellectualism The myth of anti-intellectualism has two narratives frequently circling among American societies. The first myth-narrative concerns about leadership and judgment and it seems to be serious conversation. The second myth-narrative centers upon peer culture. It seems less complex rather than the first but perhaps even more common.

A. 1. The Myth among Adult Life

Firstly the myth of anti-intellectualism emerged as a form of dislikeness European-Americans to their ancestor, aristocratic Europeans, devoting

themselves to study yet lack of human sight. As aristocratic people, the ruling class, surely the condition had them be smart in order to organize the lower class; they must enhance their education. Accordingly aristocratic Europeans spent their much time in learning digging out any knowledge. But, higher intellectual quality

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became a causal problem of the fleeing Europeans. The fleeing people assumed that the Europeans (aristocratic classes) had been blinded by glistened knowledge. Aristocratic classes regarded themselves as human set in the top over others snob and worthyand higher cleverness leading themselves to ignorant people. Aristocratic Europeans tried to enrich their wealth by using their tricky skill to befool the superficial poor people. Hence they were escaping because the better educational people (aristocrat) took the poor peoples properties by using the manipulated law. In brief, European-Americans hated Aristocratic-Europeans started from intellectualism. Therefore old Americans gave a suspicion to aristocratic Europeans that the aristocratic people put power of mind or mind-over-body in the paramount of life (so passionate in thought). In one side, because of rejection toward intellectual people, The Americans did not count herself as dumb or stupid. They regarded themselves as intelligent people perfectly suited to their circumstances and needs. Then, the early settlers gave clearly characteristics separation among intelligence and intellect. Toward the historian Richard Hofstadter, we can see how American people differentiate themselves to aristocratic Europeans.
Intelligence American Practical Thought---action Knowledge derived from experience and books Shrewd, clever, inventive Democratic, common man, One of us Real world Professionals (live off ideas) Intellect European Contemplative Thought---more thought Thought derived from thought and experimentation books Abstract, ideological Aristocratic, learned man, One of them Ivory tower Egg heads (live for ideas)

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Intelligent and intellectual people are separated clearly by those opposition values. Furthermore, the historian Hofstadter (1963), in Nachbar and Lause (1992), gives additional information through his conclusion toward the opposition values.
Intelligence isa manipulative, adjustive, unfailingly practical quality (which) works within the framework of limited but stated goals, and may be quick to shear away questions of thought that do not seem to helping reaching them.intellect, on the other hand, is the criticaland contemplative side of mind.(I)ntellect examines, ponders, wonders, theorizes, criticizes, imagine. (Nachbar and Lause, 1992, p. 87)

Then through the Hofstadters explanation we get clearly understanding what American people hold. Americans believe that they have great way of life Intelligence has ingrained and has mold their life. Intelligence is over intellect because intelligence attributed with an amazing practical thought which can finish problems quickly rather than intellect which needs thought and more thought toward problems. Clearly, people who regard themselves as practical do not want to think over about problems, they tend to have actions. Thus according to practical people, ideologists like to think over problems and more thought so they do not finish the problem effectively. The value of anti-intellectualism, practical, and the value of

intellectualism, ideological, became an important problem during the exploration age. In this age, many west countries did explorations to find something new for progress of human civilizations. If American people say that they hate intellectuals, it may be they less enlightened. American people such as John Bartram contributed a science development in botany plain, Franklin and Jefferson as cosmopolitan figures of scienceespecially Franklin contributed in

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electricity plain. Nevertheless during these ages many important people such as politicians and keepers of the purse emerged a simple but clear boundary between practical and ideological.
By and large, those who demanded only practical science in America and Europe were not scientists but politician and keepers of the purse. And even these men did not scorn science as long as it was practical, leading them to mineral depositsand the discovery of commercial products like baking powder, rubber, and most recently, oil. (William H. Goetzmann, 1992, p. 317)

The politicians and the money holders only employed the scientists to get their purpose. As long as the scientists were able to make money, those men loved and supported the scientists experiments. On the other hand the scientists who failed in their experiments would be scorned and boldly classed as ideologists who like playing with ideas but no clear stated goal. Then whether this myth is still strong or decrease to weak, in fact, the myth of anti-intellectualism is able to penetrate up to this era. Take a look at the flash back journey of the myth. Through political field, according to many researches, the election between Andrew Jackson and John Quincy Adams in 1828 was one of the realities of the applied myth of anti-intellectualism. Jackson planned by setting Adams as an elitist intellectual with lack of moral and values who could not relate to the common man. He had provoked the society that intellectuals as counterfeiters used smart structured language and rhetoric to deceive ordinary people. At that time Jackson was able to defeat Adams by setting himself as the peoples candidate. Likewise president election between Jackson and Adams, George Bush set Al Gore as a boring, monotonous intellectual, even, an arrogant intellectual out of touch with the common man. As Jackson, Bush

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spread image that he was the right person who could bring America to the better future because he was the common man who had heart than mind. Therefore the myth of anti-intellectualism still remains and molds its holders to believe that intellects are dangerous characters. The issues around the myth of anti-intellectualism tend to be felt ambivalence rather than totally hate intellects. Common knowledge, United States of America is united by the great intellects founding fathers. Furthermore the amazing development in its technologies and sciences does not apart from the intellects contributions and the societies like them. But, the myth which is held for long years from the ancestors makes them still in the same line with the other major holders. Generally, if they are out of the culture has been built for long years; certainly they are none other the outcast. Thus they hate the intellects; on the other hand they love them.

A. 2. The Myth among Peer Culture

The second myth-narrative centers upon peer culture relating to an identity and self-image. There is a group called as nerds comprising of intellectual adolescents. An adolescent labeled as a nerd is always characterized has awful characteristics. An intellectual adolescent is related closely to physically repulsive, socially inept, shy, and show higher insecurity. To understand the root of nerd, we can see its history development. The terminology of nerd is firstly known from the comic book made by Dr. Seuss (1950), If I Ran the Zoo. The word nerd is one of long list fantastic creatures,

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And then, just to show them, Ill sail to Ka-Troo, and bring back IT-KUTCH, a PREEP, and a PROO, a NERKLE, a NERD, and a SEERSUCKER, too (Anderreg, 2008: 25). Thereafter in 1951, term of nerd gets its first debut in an article of Newsweek, In Detroit, someone who once would be called drip or a square is now, regrettably, a nerd, or in a less severe case, a scurve. Around 1959, an Ottawa lab uses N.E.R.D acronym for Northern Electric Research and Development. In another point of view, nerd derived from its origin tale begins as a joke. The original spelling is knurd, or drunk spelled backward to describe those who prefer studying to partying (ibid). In 1985 Life magazine lists nerd characteristics, including adhesive-tape repaired glasses, high-waisted and high-water geezer pants, goofy smile, nerd pack (plastic protector with pencils, pen, slide rule or calculator, etc) (Nerd Look, n. d.). Culturally, those characteristics firstly belong to male intellects. Year by year, the characteristics of male intellects pervasively attach to female intellects including wearing eyeglasses, dressing unfashionably, leaving her hair in unfashionable styles, being shy and may be socially inept in social life, unskilled in sports, may be slightly overweight or notably thin (Nerd girl, n. d.). In brief, the stereotypes of male and female nerds are very close to students who are socially inept, freak or uncool, out of style since nerds can be recognized by their dress, clumsy, gangling or slovenly, and concentrates only on study. Afterward, American culture still maintains the myth of antiintellectualism through its products. For example, there is a nerd self test published broadly in society through a box of toy.

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SCORING THE NERD TEST: Each yes answer is worth three points. Total number of points determines your percentage of nerdiness, up to 100 percent. You get one point for reading this far. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. Has anyone ever called you a nerd? Did you skip a grade in elementary school? Was your SAT math score 600 or more? Can you figure out anagram without a piece of paper? Did you try to figure out if the last question was an anagram? Did you letter in high school for academics or band? Did you have your first drink on your twenty-first birthday? Do you know at least one of these languages? Perl. COBOL, C, C+, C++, FORTRAN. Was your last intimate relationship in chat room? Do you own a fanny pack or pocket protector?... Do you consider chess a sport?... Have you ever told a joke about chemistry or physics?

(David Anderreg, 2008, p. 17)

Through the questions of the nerd self-test, we know that nerds have great achievement in the math and scientific plane. They have SAT (Scholastic Aptitude Test) score in or above 600 and they seem to know every single about computer program. Definitely they have academic success since they much allocate their time in academic sector. Yet, the test seems to undervalue for the dumbest nerd. American societies consider the test as a normal treatment for the young intellects; in fact, it actually humiliates the intellectual adolescents. Through the point nine, the question signifies that being a nerd is far from beloved person. None girls or boys want to approach nerds because nerds spend more time in front of computer than real act of social life. Nerds like to surf in internet world even for their date. Thus nerds are always stereotyped having unsuccessful relationship in real social life. The stereotypes labeled to nerds are often expressed trough negative behaviors. Frequently, students perceiving themselves have higher status above a

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nerd always persecute and bully this intellectual student. For example, it comes from the twelve years girl named Ellie. She was hospitalized briefly after taking an overdose of Tylenol. The reason of her action based on the vicious her friends about her bookishness, and she slowly lost one friend after another. Her last friend abandoned her explaining that she still liked her, but could not be seen with her or speak with her at school because Ellie was so nerdy that her friends own reputation was in danger (Anderreg, 2008, p. 41). Ellies experience may be suffered by many students labeled as a nerd. Having no friends because of excluded by others make Ellie decide herself to try doing suicide. However, the most terrible situation happened in April 20th 1999 when two students, Dylan Klebold and Eric Harris, shot 12 students and one teacher before deciding to shoot themselves. All this time, there are two points of view about the cause of Columbine massacre done by the two. In the book Human Development written by Diane E. Papilia and friends say that Klebold and Harris do the homicide because both of them show partly the anti-social behaviors such as using drug and alcohol, involving into certain gang, fight, stealing, and properties destruction. Diane and friend do not totally blame Klebold and Harris because their anti-social activities. Yet, in their book, Diane and friends tend to blame the sub-urban Columbines social condition. They summarize a boy who live in bad social conditions tend to involve into violence actions. On the other hand, several reports say that the two commit shooting because of unbearable pressures being bullied. Since Klebold and Harris labeled

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as smart students, they often get humiliations by their average peers and even the lower grades.
And after the Columbine massacre in 1999, parents and school officials across the country started persecuting nerds and geeks in the same manner. They were sort of like the Columbine killers: smart, computer-savvy, social outcast (Anderreg, 2008, p. 32).

Additionally, according to Dedman (2000) (in American Medical Association, 2002) U.S Secret Service reported that 41 school shooters (including Columbine) disclosed two-third of the doers felt persecuted or threatened by their peers. Thus the Columbine shooters are type of smart students who are often bullied. Then they determine to express their hatred by shooting their peers because negative effect of the awful pressures.

B. The Social Psychological Development of Adolescents in High School Plane The wider branch of psychology is social psychology which studies individual behavior and thoughts and it is also concerned with the social side of lifehow people think and interact with others. As stated by Baron and Byrne (2000, p. 6), social psychology is the scientific field that seeks to understand the nature and causes of individual behavior and thought in social situations. Hence, to understand individual behavior and thoughts can be started from analyzing psychology plane. Then, an individual psychology is linked with social setting where the individual lives.

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Kids enter adolescence in the age between 12/13 up to 17 years old. In this age, adolescents experience the blooming time in several facets such as biological growth, psychological growth, and changes in their social environment. Because of biological growth, adolescents reproduction organs both boys and girls start undergoing sexual maturity. The maturity of reproduction organs can be seen in several cues represented in adolescents body for example because of the ovum maturity, girls are usually bleeding every month depend on their condition, and their breasts are getting bigger. For boys, the average of their maturity is usually about two years later than girls. Boys also experience increasing hormone and usually their voices become husky. Definitely boys and girls become taller than their childhood. In some research, biological growth can influence the psychological of any adolescent. The boys who are late in their maturity will be hard to join the same activity. Those who are shorter and less strong among others, socially they might lose opportunity to join certain activities and they are supposed to disable to achieve same position with those who are mature earlier in handling every physical activity. Hence boys who are late in puberty tend to be less popular.
Studi yang pernah dilakukan menunjukkan bahwa anak laki-laki yang lambat mencapai pubertas, cenderung menjadi kurang populer dibandingkan dengan teman sekelas mereka dan memiliki konsep diri yang jelek, serta lebih banyak terlibat dalam perilaku yang lebih tidak matang yaitu mencari perhatian (Dharma and Adriyanto, 1991, p. 137)

The unpopularity labeled to boys who are mature later has a tendency to commit inappropriate behavior such as looking for attention and they will also

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feel unaccepted and dominated by their friends. In one hand, for those who are mature earlier tend to have more self-confidence and more independent. As boys, girls condition in getting their maturity gives almost same impact with boys. Psychologically girls who are mature earlier feel more prestige than others and it gives contributions to social life. The earlier mature girls usually become a leader in any school activity. Furthermore the development of psychological can be viewed when adolescents eagerly want to join in a desirable group. They are entangled in two most common thingsself-esteem and self-competenceto enhance their image among peers. Generally adolescents enhance their self-esteem trough appearance it could be body shape, hair style, make up or dress that they are wearing. According to research by Kwon cited in by Baron and Byrne (2000, p. 173) that self-esteem increases when people like the clothes they are wearing. If an adolescent ignore his appearance in the middle of crowd, it will denigrate his selfesteem and it completely give serious negative effects. He may be excluded from group or even he becomes an object of prank. Then adolescents who are excluded tend to evaluate themselves negatively. In line with Olmstead and friends research that people who value lower than others will suffer negative effects such as less adequate social skills, loneliness, depression, and decreased effort on a task following a failure experience (ibid). The adolescents success in enhancing selfesteem is more capable to compete with the others and the possibility to involve in their desirable group is wider than adolescents with low self-esteem.

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The changing psychological is going along with the alteration social life of adolescentswhen adolescents begin to enter high school, relationship and competition with their classmates are more important. In U.S., adolescents allocate much their time with pleasant peers rather with their parents. Peers can stand for an adolescent both in good or bad attitudes. Peers set parents position when an adolescent has no enough emotional support. Fortunately if an adolescent befriends good peers who have enough support for beneficial actions, it will lead him into brighter future. Unluckily parents are worrying about peer friendship in supporting bad attitudes, the idea here is that peers provide, or model, both delinquent attitudes and delinquent behaviors, (Burfeind and Bartusch, n. d.). Not only peers relationship which able to support delinquent behavior, but also peers rejection represents a constructive factor for the development of antisocial behavior, isolation by other students because peers do not want to lose status by associating with him/her or because peers do not want to increase the risks of being bullied by higher group, (Lumsden, 2002). It is because the nature behavior of adolescents that they befriend with others who have same common goals and they do not tolerate dissimilarity.

C. Bullying Bullying study constitutes a new study. This study is inspired by the suicides of several severely victimized students. One of prominent figures of this study is Dan Olweus. Olweus has contributed his bullying prevention program among students and he firstly has applied his program in Norway and Sweden.

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Olweuss program is felt good for the development of children and then many nations stand with him to prevent bullying. Those nations which conduct prevention program for bullying such as United States of America, Australia, Ireland, Canada, Great Britain, and Japan. Problems associated with bullying have been noted and discussed wherever formal schooling environments exist. Thus, Dan Olweus is recognized as the father of bullying research because of his big contributions in preventing bullying. Then what is meant by bullying? We know it is sort of like persecution among children. Therefore Olweus is capable to enlighten through his understanding about bullying:
A person is being bullied when he or she is exposed, repeatedly and over time, to negative actions on the part of one or more other persons (Olweus, 1993).

Bullying happens because imbalance power between more powerful students or group attacking those who are less powerful. Bullying is conducted repeatedly and it certainly raises negative effects. Through the characteristics above, students who close related to bullies tend to popular students. Somehow, popular students set superior life over the other students, and they often do well socially and get lots of friends (popular students have a social capital). Hence, bullying actions most be conducted by the popular students to students look like weak, less power, and etc. Then bullying can be categorized into three forms: physical, verbal and psychological (Ericson, 2001). Physical bullying, where the perpetrators use their physical actions to hurt the victims. Physical bullying can be many actions

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including hitting, kicking, spitting, pushing, and taking personal belongings. The second form of bullying is verbal bullying. The perpetrators make verbal threats or inconvenience voices to their victims. Taunting, malicious teasing, and making threats are the verbal forms of bullying. The last form is non-verbal/ non-physical bullying. This bullying action attacks the psychological of its victims. It can be embodied in several ways such as manipulating social relationships, or engaging in social exclusion, extortion, or intimidation. Those three forms of bullying can be subdivided into two methods: direct and indirect bullying methods. Boys usually conduct direct bullying and girls tend to use indirect bullying to others, Boys more often use direct bullying and indirect bullying is more common in girls (Wyrick, 2002). To get clearly description about bullying, it can be understood easily through simple table which is got in the paper of American Medical Association in 2002. Types of bullying and its methods are categorized finely.

Table 1. Common Forms of Bullying Direct bullying Verbal bullying Taunting, teasing, namecalling Physical bullying Hitting, kicking, shoving, destruction or theft of property Non-verbal/ Threatening, obscene gesture Non-physical bullying

Indirect bullying Spreading rumors Enlisting a friend to assault someone for you Excluding others from a group, manipulation of friendship, threatening e-mail

Each two major groups involved into bullying action, the bullies and the victims, has their own characteristics. According to Ron Banks, there are typical

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characteristics owned by both the bullies and the victims. First, studies indicate that bullies often come from homes where physical punishment is used or hostile family environments." Their parents indirectly teach them to strike back physically as the way to handle problems. Second, children are strongly predicted conducting bullying behavior is because parents lack in supervising them. Third, bullies displaying bullying action usually show defiant attitudes toward adults, antisocial, and pertinent to break school rules (Banks, 1997). In one side, victims of bullying have typical characteristics, anxious, insecure, cautious, and low of self-esteem (ibid). The other opinion comes from Charach and friends, in Banks (1997), about typical characteristics of the victims, that students considered victims to be "weak," "nerds," and "afraid to fight back." Beside those two groups: the bullies and the victims, we cannot ignore the third party, the bystanders. Bystanders are the peers who attend when bullying action happen. There are two types of bystander: the active bystanders who participate in the harassment, and the passive bystanders. A study found that peers were present in 83 percent of the bullying episodes but they intervened to stop the bullying only 30 percent of the case (American Medical Association, 2011). Numerous studies noted that some of them did not want to intervene bullying because it was not their problem and many of them avoid intervening bullying action because they did not want to be the next target (American Medical Association, 2002). Bullying creates huge effects both to the bully and the bullied. There are short-and long-term consequences for the perpetrators and the victims of bullying.

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The victims experience having no friends and having trouble making social adjustment. According to longitudinal studies, victims of bullying in early grades also reported being bullied several years later. The effect of bullying to the chronic victims may be brought to the adult life such as depression, poor selfesteem and other mental health problem (Limber and Nation, 2002). The perpetrators of bullying also cannot avoid the negative outcome. The bullies tend to drop out than other student. Several researches reported that bullying behavior as a factor to the future violence and delinquency and according to Dan Olweus that bullying could lead later criminal behavior.

D. Semiotic Film Theory To be certain Christian Metz is well-known as person who develops semiotic into film theory. However, when this study is rolled back into its root, two famous persons such as Ferdinand de Saussure and Roland Barthes may enlighten our understanding about semiotics. Semiotics or semiology is a science that studies how a meaning is derived from signs. Through Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure about his language study, we can get the understanding of semiology. Semiology comes from Greek semeion which means sign. Sign is a union of signifier and signified. The signifier is the sensible, material, acoustic, or visual signal which triggers a mental concept, the signified while the signifier is the perceptible aspect of the sign (Stam, et al, 1992). In short, we can say that the signifier is the image and the signified is the mental concept, and the relation between image and mental

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concept is sign. Afterward the relationship between signifier and signified according to Saussure is arbitrary. For example, the word shoes are interpreted differently by each person. Nevertheless what are imagined by persons when they hear the word shoes in a sentence I need a new shoes remain shoes itself, not the image of sandal, stone, or anything else. Every person has own mindset about shoes and whatever model of shoes are (basketball shoes, boot, and etc), there is a convention in society that shoes refers to outer covering for persons foot. Thus, arbitrary means certain idea (regardless types or models) related to certain form based on a convention among societies. Then this science is advanced by Roland Barthes who studied signs in the mass culture. In Barthes book, la culture de masse, Barthes uncovered meaning in the product of mass culture including advertisings, newspapers, magazines, photographs, cars, childrens toys, and so on. In his book, Barthes added one system of the Saussures sign (sign= signifier + signified) by including second order semiological system. We can see it through the Barthess sign diagram.

Language

1. Signifier

2. Signified 3. Sign II SIGNIFIED SIGN

Myth

I SIGNIFIER III

Through the diagram, we can see that there are two semiological systems. First, it is like Saussures system. For example, the word ROSE, in the language plane, the signifier is the alphabetic order of R-O-S-E, and the signified is the

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conventional meaning of rose, (bush or shrub, usu with thorns on its stems, bearing an) ornamental and usu sweet-smelling flower, (Hornby, 1994, p. 1100). The word of rose interprets meaning explicitly of rose itselfthere is no implicit meaning behind it. Hence in the first, it is found denotation meaning both languages and images. Subsequently a sign created in the first system becomes a signifier in the second order semiological system and it automatically forms a new signified. After that, the combination between both new signifier and signified create a new sign. A sign in the second system is clarified implicitly. In brief, when a certain sign is viewed from the second order system, it directly explains a certain myth which full of connotation depends upon the users cultural experience (Turner, 1993, p. 46). Then around 1960s semiotics develop again reaching the range of film theory. Christian Metz becomes the prominent figure in introducing this new study. According to Metz that semiotic system in film is not like semiotics in language system. Language system can modify a certain root of word, yet in the film, object which is shown cannot be modified. For example, along with Metz in Monaco a rose can be simply a rose, but it can be modified with similar words: rose, rosy, rosier, rosiest, rise, risen, rows (ruse, arose, roselike, and so forth (Monaco, 2000, p. 158). Distinctly semiotics in film lacks of the arbitrary linguistic sign (Stam, p. 35). Signs in film consist of the signifier nearly equals with the signified. As language system, film also has its own language. Film language can be recognized through its terminologies and techniques. To know more about film

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language, lets have a look what types of terminologies and techniques contained in film.

D. 1. Codes

There are a number of codes that cinema shares with culturally derived codes and allocates with other arts. Culturally derived codes are set outside of film and the filmmakers reproduce it simply, for example the way people eat. Then codes shared with the other arts, for example a gesture, which is a code of theater as well as in film. The use of illumination in the film also uses shared codes with the photography, where the filmmakers want to modify the image with certain lighting. There is also musical code existing outside of film.

D. 2. Mise-en-scene

Mise-en-scene pronounced as meez-on-scene, is derived from French phrase which has literally means placing on stage. The phrase refers to the arrangement of all visual elements within a given playing area or stage. People and object are arranged in actual space which means that all of the measurement on the frame has been thought including depth, height, and width. Mize-en-scene itself is three dimensional, but after mize-en-scene is on frame of shot, it seems like two dimensional images. In brief, mize-en-scene resembles the art of painting

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where the image presented on a flat surface and enclosed with a frame. Beneath several involving in part of mize-en-scene:

D. 2. a. The framed shot

According to Louis Giannetti, the movie frame has function as a metaphor since through the frame, the filmmakers put their ideas. For instance, when a visual image is set near the top of the frame, it will deal with power, authority, and aspiration. Yet the top does not always give such kind of ideas, sometimes image which is shot from medium shot seems to be set near the top of the frame. The images are also set in the bottom of the frame and these images will deal with the meaning of subversive, vulnerability and powerlessness. Moreover, the images are also set onto the side of frame: left and right edges which suggest insignificant, and usually the filmmakers give darkness lighting to the images. The framed shots also contain the illumination in cinema. There are three ways of the filmmakers in using light: key, fill, and backlighting. Then, the key lighting is divided into two: low and high key. High key lighting gives most the scene of the film bright light, whereas low key produces less light in the scene or even give it darkness shafts. Fill light is an additional illumination; it usually gives illumination from side of the subject. This function can soften the shadow of the subject. The backlighting in the movie produces a silhouette of visual image in the screen. This technique is taken from the rear or the bottom of the image, often with a glaring light. The filmmakers use these three kinds of illumination to

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describe the genre of the movie, for instance, high key in comedy and low key in horror film. Besides explaining illumination, obviously the framed shots give certain understanding about limitation of visual image in frame. There are two aspects which are considered important in the framed shot; limitation and composition. Since the frame determines the limit of images, composition must be arranged carefully. The framed shot is divided into two: closed and open form. Closed form is when the image of the frame is self-sufficient, conversely if the filmmakers have composed the shot in such a way that we are always subliminally aware of the area outside the frame, (Monaco, 2000: 213) then the form is considered as open form. For instance, if the camera follows the subject constantly, we can call it as closed form. And on the other hand, when the filmmakers encourage the subject to leave and reenter in the shot, then this form is clearly open.

D. 2. b. Diachronic shot

Shot of the image in the frame is the way the filmmakers portray the images to the audiences. Shot is also very important to give clearness to the images. Giannetti stated that there are six categories of shot in cinema; the extreme long shot, the long shot, the full shot, the medium shot, the close up, and the extreme close up and the examples each of the shots are taken from Wilson (2010).

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D. 2. b. 1. The Extreme Long Shot

The extreme long shot is taken from a great distance around a quarter of mile away. This shot happens mostly on exterior shot where the visual images taken appear as mere specks or spots on the screen. The film genres that always use this shot are including western, war film, samurai film, and historical film.

Figure 2. 1: Extreme long shot

D. 2. b. 2. The Long Shot

The long shot is hard to describe because this shot is the most complex in the cinema and the term itself is one of the most imprecise. The easiest way to understand the range of this shot as many filmmakers said, The range of the shot is like the distance of the audience in the live theater. (Giannetti, 1972, p. 7).

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Figure 2. 2: Long shot

D. 2. b. 3. Full Shot

Full shot is the closest range within the long shot. This shot shows full human body with the head near the top and the feet near the bottom.

D. 2. b. 4. The Medium Shot

The medium shot is taken mostly for conversation and movement of characters. This shot contains a figure from the knees or waist up. The medium shot is always used for transition between close up and the longer shot.

Figure 2. 3: Medium shot

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D. 2. b. 5. The Close Up

The distance of this shot appears almost on the frame space, for example the cat face in the figure 2.4. This shot usually to lift up the importance of things.

Figure 2. 4: Close-up

D. 2. b. 6. Extreme Close Up

This shot is variation of close up shot. Extreme close up might show only a persons eyes or mouth or a cats eye in the figure 2.5.

Figure 2. 5: Extreme close-up

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D. 3. Sound

Sound is one of the richest sources of meaning in films. There are several sub sounds, but only dialogue which gives the audience of major source of meaning. In domain of sound, sound is divided into three classifications: sound effect, music, and spoken language. Sound effect is also sub-divided again into three aspects, those are: pitch, volume, and tempo. Three of them are sub-divided again into, pitch: high and low, volume: loud and quite, tempo: fast and slow. High pitched sounds generally produce a tension sense in the listener and low pitched sounds emphasize the dignity of scene or it can also suggest anxiety and mystery. Loud sounds in a film seem threatening, forceful, and interested for the audiences, whereas quiet sounds make us delicate, doubtful, and often weak. The last is tempo which goes along with the pitch and the volume. The faster the tempo of sound, the greater the tension produced in the listener. The second type of sound is music. Music in the films tells the listener what kind of film they are watching. We can understand a genre of film from the very beginning when a film is opened which is usually accompanied by music. For example, music of frontier instruments such as harmonica or concertino identifies that the movie has a theme of American frontier. Spoken language is the third types of sound. In sound affairs, language in film can be more complex than in literature. The words of film are spoken, not written, and the words have more degrees than printed words. And tone of voice can be much more communicative than words in revealing a persons thought. A

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sentence of language when it is spoken using different tone, then the sentence has several meanings to deliver to the listener.

D. 4. Angle

The filmmakers always use angle of camera to make connotation meaning of image. Angle happens when camera is set in certain position from the image. Somehow, angle can be juxtaposed with a writers use of adjective which they often reflect his or her attitude toward a subject. There are three types of angle in film: low angle, eye-level angle, and high angle. Low angles are when camera set near the ground toward the subject vertically. In short, low angles increase a short actors height that means heighten the importance of the subject. Eye-level shots mean to keep the camera neutral. Eye-level shots permit us to think what kind of people is being presented. High angles are when camera set upon the image. According to Giannetti, high angles reduce the importance of the subject. Subjects shot from above seem harmless and significant.

D. 5. The Moving Camera

Cinema has many types of camera movement in shooting the image on the screen. According to Giannetti, there are seven basic moving camera shots including pans, tilts, crane shots, dolly shots, zoom shots, hand-held shots, and aerial shots.

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Panning shots is a movement of the camera that scans a scene horizontally. The camera moves horizontally in order to keep the subject in the center of the composition. The filmmakers always support this movement with a tripod. Tripod makes the camera more stable since the filmmakers want to get clear image.

Figure 2. 6: Panning shots

Tilts shot movements are like the pan shots where the movements of camera keep the image in the center of composition, but the way this shot taken is not horizontally but vertically. Dolly shots are sometimes called trucking or tracking shots. These shots use a moving vehicle (dolly) to catch the subject. The vehicle regularly moves in, out, or alongside a moving figure or object while the action is taken. Hand-held shots are, like their name, mounted on the shoulder of cinematographer. The characteristics of these shots are often jumpy and ragged since the cinematographer moves to follow the figure unstably. Crane shots movement using vehicle also seem like dolly shots. A crane is a mechanical arm which has more than twenty feet in length. It can move virtually in any direction: up down, diagonal, in, out, or any combinations of these.

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Figure 2. 7: Crane shot

Zoom shots are combination between the movement and the lenses of camera. These shots permit the camera to change from close wide-angle distances to extreme telephoto position almost simultaneously. Aerial shots movement usually use helicopter to take the figure. These shots are variation of crane shot. Since a crane is impractical to be used in exterior locations, helicopter is more flexible in taking the image.

D. 6. Editing

Editing is the main part of a film to create motion picture. As stated by Giannetti (1987, p. 125) that many talented people including Eisenstein, Kuleshov, and Pudovkin believed that montage (editing) was the foundation of film art. Editing is to disguise the transition from shot to shot, making the film flawless in flowing images. In short, editing is a primary means of organizing the film. There are four types of basic transitional happening in contemporary cinema: the cut, the fade, the dissolve, and the wipe. The cut is simple break where two shots are joined together. There are two kinds of fade; fade in and fade out. Fade in is where the shots take a darkened image which gradually because the illumination to the image, then the image becomes visible and achieve its proper

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brightness. Whereas fade out is the converse of fade in where the image undergoes gradual darkening until it becomes black. The dissolve is achieved by at the same time fading out in one shot while fading in on the next so the image gradually disappears in one hand and another becomes visible. The last is wipe transition, a transition in which the second shot appears to wipe the first shot off the screen.