Smart Antennas For Wireless Applications

i
Suan Soo Foo

2/43, Durham Street
St Lucia, QLD 4067
Australia

October 2000

The Dean
School of Engineering
University of Queensland
St Lucia QLD 4072

Dear Sir,

In accordance and partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of
Electrical Engineering (Honours) at the University of Queensland, I hereby submit for
your consideration this thesis entitled:

Smart Antennas for Wireless Applications

This work was accomplished under the supervision of Associate Professor Marek E.
Bialkowski.

I declared that the work submitted in this thesis is my own, except as acknowledged in
the text, and has not previous been submitted for a degree at the University of
Queensland or any other institution.

Yours faithfully,

_____________
Suan Soo Foo
ii

Smart Antennas
for
Wireless Applications

Suan Soo Foo
Approved by Assoc. Prof. Bialkowski

School of Computer Science and Electrical Engineering
Queensland 4072
Australia
iii

Acknowledgements

The author would like to express his appreciation to his supervisor, Associate Professor
M.E. Bialkowski, for providing the opportunity to research this interesting topic, for his
valuable advice and the direction he had shown throughout the year.

Many thanks to Danny Kai Pin Tan for giving the opportunity to work with him and the
tolerant he had shown while working together.

Thanks must also go to the laboratory supervisor, Damian Jones for his assistance and
the patient he had given while using the Microwave Laboratory throughout the thesis
project.

Last but no least, the author would like to extend his thanks to his girlfriend, Chai
Weichiun, and his family for their support and encouragement.
iv

ABSTRACT

The smart antenna is set to play a significant role in the development of next-generation
wireless communication system. The purpose of this thesis is to provide the concept on
smart antenna system by studying the performance of antenna array. A brief
introduction will be given before providing the overview of the thesis content.

Antenna theory and the description of different types of antennas will be discussed with
emphasis on array antennas. Two methods of antenna synthesis known as the
Woodward-Lawson and Dolph-Chebyshev will also be introduced before studying the
fundamental parameters of antenna.

With a basic understanding on antenna, this thesis will therefore discuss about the smart
antenna technology. The two types of smart antenna approaches known as the
Switching-Beam Array and Adaptive Array will be addressed after introducing the
benefits of the smart antenna technology. The smart antenna terminology together with
an adaptive algorithm called the Recursive Least Squares Algorithm will also be
presented.

After a brief introduction to the types multiple access schemes, array antennas
simulation and synthesis using the above mentioned methods and algorithm will be
carried out by varying different limiting parameters. Results will be tabulated and
antenna radiation patterns will also be plotted for discussion before wrapping up with a
conclusion and suggestion on future developments.

v

CONTENTS

Page

Chapter 1 Introduction 1

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Aim of Thesis 2
1.3 Overview of Content 3

Chapter 2 Antennas 4

2.1 Introduction 4
2.2 Types of Antenna 6
2.2.1 Microstrip Antennas 7
2.2.2 Array Antennas 10
2.3 Linear Array Antenna 11
2.4 Planar Array Antenna 12
2.5 Antenna Synthesis 15
2.5.1 Woodward-Lawson Method 16
2.5.2 Dolph-Chebyshev Method 18

Chapter 3 Parameters of Antenna 21

3.1 Introduction 21
3.2 Radiation Pattern 22
3.2.1 Rectangular/Cartesian Plots 23
3.2.2 Polar Plots 24
3.3 Main Lobe 26
3.3.1 Beamwidth Half power and 10dB 26
3.3.2 Boresight Directivity/Gain 27
3.4 Sidelobes 28
3.5 Front-to-back Ratio 29
3.6 Aperture Size 29
3.7 Polarization 29

vi
Chapter 4 Smart Antenna System 31

4.1 Introduction 31
4.2 Key Benefits of Smart Antenna Technology 32
4.3 Smart Antenna System 34
4.3.1 Switching-Beam Array (SBA) 35
4.3.2 Adaptive Array 36
4.4 Beam Forming 38
4.4.1 Null Beam Forming 39
4.4.2 Steering Vector 39
4.5 Recursive Least Squares Algorithm 40

Chapter 5 Multiple Access Schemes 43

5.1 Introduction 43
5.2 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) 44
5.3 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) 45
5.4 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) 46
5.5 Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA) 47

Chapter 6 Analysis of Array Antennas 49

6.1 Aim and Procedures 49
6.2 Microstrip Patch Antenna Design 49
6.3 Simulation on Linear Array Antenna 54
6.3.1 Effect of Varying Inter-element Spacing, d 54
6.3.2 Effect of Varying Number of Elements, N 56
6.3.3 Effect of Varying Amplitude Distribution 57
6.3.4 Effect of Varying Phase Excitation, 59
6.4 Simulation on Planar Array Antenna 61
6.4.3 Effect of Varying Amplitude Distribution 68
6.4.4 Effect of Varying Phase Excitation,
x
and
y
68
6.5 Discussion 72

Chapter 7 Antenna Synthesis Investigation 74

7.2 Woodward-Lawson Synthesis 75
7.3 Dolph-Chebyshev Synthesis 80
7.3.2 Effect of Varying Sidelobe Level 82
vii
7.4 Discussion 87

Chapter 8 Recursive Least Square Algorithm
Analysis 88

8.2 Simulated Results 88
8.3 Discussion 91

Chapter 9 Conclusion and Future Developments 92

9.1 Conclusion 92
9.2 Future Developments 93

References
Appendix A
Appendix B
Appendix C
Appendix D

viii
List of Figures

Chapter 2
Figure 2.1a Antenna as a transition device 5
Figure 2.2a Representative shapes of microstrip patch elements 8
Figure 2.2b Typical feed for microstrip antennas 9
Figure 2.3a Linear array of microstrip 11
Figure 2.4a Linear and Planar geometries 13

Chapter 3
Figure 3.2a Rectangular plot of an antenna radiation pattern 24
Figure 3.2b Polar plot of an antenna pattern 25
Figure 3.3a Typical power pattern polar plot 26
Figure 3.4a A radiation pattern showing the sidelobes level and positions 28
Figure 3.7a Variation of the electric field with time at a fixed point in space
for vertical polarization 30
Figure 3.7b Variation of the electric field with time at a fixed point in space
for horizontal polarization 30

Chapter 4
Figure 4.1a Concept of smart antenna system 32
Figure 4.3a Switch-beam array pattern 35
Figure 4.3b Switch-beam network 35
Figure 4.3c Adaptive array pattern 37
Figure 4.3d Network structure of an adaptive array 37
Figure 4.5a Representation of RLS algorithm 41

Chapter 5
Figure 5.2a Spectrum of FDMA systems 44
Figure 5.3a Frame and slot structure with basic TDMA 45
Figure 5.4a Concept of CDMA system 47

ix
Chapter 6
Figure 6.2a VSWR plot for length of 4.75cm 52
Figure 6.2b VSWR plot for length of 4.706cm 53
Figure 6.2c Radiation pattern for single microstrip patch antenna 53
Figure 6.3a Radiation pattern of inter-element spacing 55
Figure 6.3b Radiation pattern of inter-element spacing 55
Figure 6.3c Radiation pattern of a 4-elements linear array 56
Figure 6.3d Radiation pattern of a 10-elements linear array 57
Figure 6.3e Radiation pattern of a uniform distribution linear array 58
Figure 6.3f Radiation pattern of a Chebyshev distribution linear array 58
Figure 6.3g Radiation pattern of a Taylor distribution linear array 58
Figure 6.3h Radiation pattern with phase excitation 0 60
Figure 6.3i Radiation pattern with phase excitation 45 60
Figure 6.3j Radiation pattern with phase excitation 90 60
Figure 6.4a Radiation pattern for inter-element spacing of:
in x-direction & in y-direction 63
Figure 6.4b Radiation pattern for inter-element spacing of:
Figure 6.4c Radiation pattern for inter-element spacing of:
Figure 6.4d Polar plot for a 3x3 planar array 65
Figure 6.4e Polar plot for a 5x5 planar array 65
Figure 6.4f Polar plot for a 8x8 planar array 65
Figure 6.4g Radiation pattern of uniform distribution planar array 67
Figure 6.4h Radiation pattern of Chebyshev distribution planar array 67
Figure 6.4i Radiation pattern of Taylor distribution planar array 67
Figure 6.4j Radiation plots of an planar array in E-plane 70
Figure 6.4k Radiation plots of an planar array in H-plane 71

Chapter 7
Figure 7.2a Radiation pattern for 8 elements linear array 76
Figure 7.2b Radiation pattern for 10 elements uniform linear array of
wavelength inter-element spacing 76
x
Figure 7.2c Radiation pattern of an 8 elements linear array for an inter-
element spacing of 0.25 78
Figure 7.2d Radiation pattern of an 8 elements linear array for an inter-
Figure 7.2e Radiation pattern of a 16 elements linear array for an inter-
Figure 7.2f Radiation pattern of a 16 elements linear array for an inter-
Figure 7.3a Radiation pattern for 10 elements array using MATLAB
and Ensemble 81
Figure 7.3b Radiation pattern for 8 elements array with 25dB sidelobe
level using MATLAB and Ensemble 83
Figure 7.3c Radiation pattern for 8 elements linear array with normalized
inter-element spacing of 0.5using MATLAB and Ensemble 85
Figure 7.3d Radiation pattern for 16 elements linear array with normalized
inter-element spacing of 0.5using MATLAB and Ensemble 86

Chapter 8
Figure 8.2a Radiation pattern for 4 elements linear array at 0 89
Figure 8.2b Radiation pattern for 4 elements linear array at 45 90

xi
List of Tables

Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Results of varying inter-element spacing in linear array 55
Table 6.2 Results of varying number of element in linear array 56
Table 6.3 Results of varying amplitude distribution in linear array 57
Table 6.4 Results of varying phase excitation in linear array 59
Table 6.5 Results of varying inter-element spacing in planar array 62
Table 6.6 Results of varying number of element in planar array 64
Table 6.7 Results of varying amplitude distribution in planar array 66
Table 6.8 Results of varying phase excitation in planar array 69

Chapter 7
Table 7.1 Results of varying number of elements for Woodward-
Lawson synthesis 76
Table 7.2 Results of varying inter-elements spacing for Woodward-
Lawson synthesis 77
Table 7.3 Results of varying number of elements for Dolph-
Chebyshev synthesis 80
Table 7.4 Results of varying sidelobe level for Dolph-Chebyshev
synthesis 82
Table 7.5 Results of varying inter-element spacing for Dolph-
Chebyshev synthesis 84

Smart Antennas for Wireless Applications Chapter 1: Introduction
1

C hapter 1
Introduction

1.1 Introduction

Since the dawn of civilization, communication has been of foremost importance to
mankind. In the first place, communication was accomplished by sound through voice.
However, as the distance of communication increased, numerous devices were
introduced, such as horns, drums, and so forth. Visual techniques were injected for even
greater distances. Signal flags and smoke signals were used in the daytime while
fireworks in the night. These optical communications utilize the light portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum and it has only been in recent times that the electromagnetic
spectrum, outside the visible region, has been adopted for communication, through the
use of radio.

The radio antenna is a primary component in all radio system. An antenna (also know as
an aerial) is defined as a means for radiating or receiving radio waves [1]. In another
word, radio antennas coupled electromagnetic energy from one medium (space) to
another (e.g., wire, coaxial cable, or waveguide). Therefore, information can be
conveyed between various locations without any intervening structures.

Consequently, the application of wireless communication system has erupted
throughout the world and recent years have witness wireless communications relishing
its fastest growth period in history. Since, fixed antenna systems was first employed in
wireless systems, whereby antenna patterns were cautiously engineered to acquire
desired coverage characteristics, but that could not change to respond dynamically to
2
changing conditions. Besides, the exponential growth and the limiting bandwidth
available for those systems have created problems, which all wireless providers are
working to solve.

One potential solution to the dilemmas is the use of smart antenna systems, a concept
initially developed by the military but now a field that has attracted growing interest for
commercial wireless communication systems [2]. Smart antennas are believed to be the
last major technological innovation that has the capability of leading to massive
increases in wireless communication systems performance.

1.2 Aim of Thesis

The demand for high performance wireless communication systems has led to the
research and studies in this exciting topic. Therefore, it is important to study the basic
concepts of the Smart Antenna System, a system that brings the world of wireless
communication to a new era.

The first move to understanding the smart antenna system leads to the fundamental
studies on antenna theory and their design parameters. Laying a good foundation is
essential, as we will move on to examine the smart antenna system and the algorithm
that earns smartness in the antenna system.

The radiation patterns and performance of the antennas will have to be investigated and
thus, further research will be carried out to conceive a better insight by either simulating
or synthesizing different array antennas and different synthesis methods. The area of
study will conclude with analysis on simulations for the smart antenna system
algorithm. Hence, our aim is not only to analysis and study on smart antenna system,
but also how the system can increase capacity in wireless communication system
through Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA).

3
1.3 Overview of Content

The thesis will begin with an introduction on antennas and the types of antennas in
Chapter 2. In addition, the chapter will also provide an in-depth description on
microstrip antenna, array antennas and antenna synthesis techniques before considering
the fundamental parameters of antenna in Chapter 3.

Prior to discussing the multiple access schemes in Chapter 5, we will be analyzing the
smart antenna technology in Chapter 4. All simulations on array antennas were
performed and the results in addition to its discussion will be presented in Chapter 6.
Chapter 7 investigated on two types of antenna synthesis methods (Woodward-Lawson
and Dolph-Chebyshev) before discussing on the results achieved.

Lastly, Chapter 8 analysis and discussion on the Recursive Least Squares algorithm will
see Chapter 9 draws a summary and concludes the thesis with future developments.

Smart Antennas for Wireless Applications Chapter 2: Antennas
4

Chapter 2
Antennas

2.1 Introduction

Communications has become the key to momentous changes in the organization of
businesses and industries worldwide as they themselves adjust to the shift toward an
information economy. Information is indeed the lifeblood of modern economies and
antennas provide mother earth a solution to a wireless communication system.

The antenna is a means of coupling electromagnetic energy from a transmission line
into free space, thus allowing a transmitter to radiate, and a receiver to receive the
incoming electromagnetic power. It is a passive device and therefore, the power radiated
by a transmitting antenna cannot be greater than the power entering to the transmitter.

It can also be seen as a transitional structure between free-space and a guiding device
illustrated in Figure 2.1a. The guiding device or transmission line, which may take the
form of a coaxial line or a hollow pipe (waveguide), is used to transport electromagnetic
energy from the transmitting source to the antenna, or from the antenna to the receiver.
In the former example we have a transmitting antenna and in the latter a receiving
antenna.

5

In addition to transmitting and receiving energy, an antenna in an advance wireless
system is generally required to optimize or accentuate the radiation energy in a
particular direction while suppressing it in others. Physical size may vary greatly and
antennas can be just a lens, an aperture, a patch, an assembly of elements (array), a
reflector, or even a piece of conducting wire.

The antenna is one of the most critical elements for wireless communication systems
and a good design of the antenna can ease system requirements and improve overall
system performance. A typical example is TV for which the overall broadcast reception
can be improved by utilizing a high-performance antenna. The antenna serves to a
communication system the same purpose that eyes and eyeglasses serve to a human [3].
Furthermore, antennas are required in situations whereby it is impossible, impractical,
or uneconomical to provide guiding structures between the transmitter and the receiver.

E-field
Source Transmission line Antenna Radiating free-space wave
Figure 2.1a Antenna as a transition device
6
For example, it is economical to employ antennas in broadcasting where the goal is to
send energy out in literally all direction, since one transmitting terminal can serve
unlimited number of receivers. Antennas are also necessary in non-broadcast radio
applications such as municipal radio (police, fire, and rescue) and in non-
communication applications such as radar. In situation where antennas and guiding
structures are feasible, it is usually the amount of attenuation suffered by the signal that
determines the choice. In general, transmission of high frequency waves over long
distances favours the use of antennas, while small distances and low frequencies favour
the use of transmission lines [1].

In this vigorous and dynamic field, the antenna technology has been an indispensable
partner of the communication revolution over the past years. Many major advances that
took place during this era are now in common use. Despite, numerous challenges and
issues are facing us today, especially since the demands for system performance are
ever greater.

2.2 Types of Antenna

There are various types of antennas and they include wire antennas, aperture antennas,
reflector antennas, lens antennas, microstrip antennas and array antennas. However,
emphasis will be on microstrip antennas and array antennas after giving a brief idea on
wire antennas, aperture antennas, reflector antennas and lens antennas.

Wire antennas are the oldest and still the most prevalent of all antenna configurations
and they are seen virtually everywhere. There are different shapes of wire antennas such
as a straight wire (dipole), loop, and helix.

Aperture antennas are mostly utilized for higher frequencies and antennas of this class
are very useful for aircraft and spacecraft applications, because they can be easily flush-
mounted onto the surface of the aircraft or spacecraft. Furthermore, they can be coated
with a dielectric material to cushion them hazardous conditions of the environment.

7
Reflector antennas are sophisticated forms of antennas used for communication over
great distances (millions of miles). They are large in dimension as to achieve high gain
required to transmit or receive signals after millions of miles of travel.

Lenses are mainly employed to collimate incident divergent energy to prevent it from
spreading in undesired directions. Proper modeling the geometrical configuration and
using the correct material for the lenses can transform various forms of divergent energy
into plane waves and these lens antennas are used in most of the applications at higher
frequencies.

2.2.1 Microstrip Antennas

Microstrip antennas became very popular in the 1970s primarily for spaceborne
applications [3]. They are low-profile antennas that are being used in high-performance
aircraft, spacecraft, satellite and missile applications, where size, weight, cost,
performance, ease of installation, and aerodynamic profile are constraints.

On the other hand, there are also some drawbacks of microstrip antennas. They have a
low efficiency, low power, high Q, poor polarization purity, poor scan performance,
spurious feed radiation and very narrow frequency bandwidth.

Microstrip antennas are classified into three basic types: microstrip patch antennas,
microstrip travelling-wave antenna and microstrip slot antennas. The physical structure
of the microstrip antenna is very simple and they may take the form of any geometrical
shape and sizes. Figure 2.2a shows some of the shapes of microstrip patch elements.

8

However, rectangular and circular patches are most favorable because of the ease
analysis and fabrication, and their attractive radiation characteristics, especially low
cross-polarization radiation. Thus, rectangular microstrip antenna patches are chosen for
our analysis.

Typically, microstrip antenna consists of a conducting patch of any planar geometry on
one side of a dielectric substrate backed by a ground plane on the other side and the
conducting patch is printed on top of a grounded substrate. There are various methods
that can be used to feed microstrip antennas and Figure 2.2b shows the four most widely
adopted techniques: the microstrip line, coaxial probe, aperture coupling and proximity.

(a) Square (b) Rectangular (c) Dipole (d) Circular (e) Elliptical
(f) Triangular (g) Disc sector (h) Circular ring
(i) Ring sector
Figure 2.2a Representative shapes of microstrip patch elements
9

Linear and circular polarizations can be achieved with either single elements or array of
microstrip antennas. Arrays of microstrip elements, with single or multiple feeds, may
also be used to introduce scanning capabilities and achieve greater directivity [3].

(i) Microstrip line feed (ii) Probe feed
(iii) Aperture-coupled feed
(iv) Proximity-coupled feed
Figure 2.2b Typical feed for microstrip antennas
10
2.2.2 Array Antennas

A directional radiation pattern can be produced when several antennas are arranged in
spaced or interconnected. Such an arrangement of multiple radiating elements is
referred to as an array antenna, or plainly, an array.

Instead of a single large antenna, many small antennas can be used in an array to
achieve a similar level of performance. The mechanical problems associated with a
single large antenna are traded for the electrical problems of feeding several small
antennas. With the advancements in solid state technology, the feed network required
for array excitation is of improved quality and reduced cost [4].

Arrays offer the unique ability of electronic scanning of the main beam, which can be
achieved by altering the phase of the exciting currents in each element antenna of the
array. Thus, it enables the capability of scanning the radiation pattern through space.
The array is hereby known as a phased array. Arrays can be of any form of geometrical
configurations and antenna arrays include the Linear Array, Planar Array and Circular
Array.

The overall field of the array is determined by the vector addition of the fields radiated
by the individual elements and this assumes that the current in each element is the same
as that of the isolated element. In order to render a very directive pattern, it is essential
that the fields from the elements of the array interfere constructively in the required
directions and interfere destructively in the remaining space.

There are five factors that contribute to the shaping of the overall pattern of antenna
array with identical elements and there are:

Geometrical configuration of the array (linear, circular, rectangular, etc)
Displacement between the elements
Excitation amplitude of individual elements
Excitation phase of individual elements
11
Relative pattern of the individual elements

Some of the above mentioned parameters will thus be used for our simulations analysis.
In addition, this thesis will only be covering on linear and planar arrays.

2.3 Linear Array Antenna

A linear array of discrete elements is an antenna consisting of several individuals and
indistinguishable elements whose centers are finitely separated and fall on a straight-
line [5]. One dimension uniform linear array is mere and the most frequently used
geometry with the array elements being spaced equally. Figure 2.3a shows a typical
linear array of microstrip antennas, which is one of the emphases in this report.

The total field of the array is equal to the field of a single element positioned at the
origin multiple by a factor which is widely known as the array factor (AF). The array
factor is a function of geometry of the array and the excitation phase. By varying the
separation d and/or the phase between the elements, the characteristics of the array
factor and the total field of the array can be controlled [3]. In other words, the far-zone
field of a uniform array with any number of identical elements is:

E(total) = [E(single element at reference point)] X [array factor] (2.1)
Figure 2.3a Linear array of microstrip
Microstrip Patch
12
Every array will have its own array factor and thus, the array factor is generally a
function of the number of elements, geometrical sequence, relative magnitudes, relative
phases and the inter-element spacing. Nevertheless, elements having identical
amplitudes, phases and spacing will result in an array factor of simpler form.

Assuming a N elements array with identical amplitudes but each succeeding element
has a progressive phase lead current excitation relative to the preceding one (
represents the phase by which the current in each element leads the current of the
preceding element). The array factor can thus be obtained by considering the elements
to be point sources. However, if the actual elements are not isotropic sources, the total
field can be form by multiplying the array factor of the isotropic sources by the field of
a single element, which is given by:

N
n
n j
e
1
) 1 (
AF (2.2)

where = kd cos +

and since the total array factor for the array is a summation of exponentials, it can be
represented by the vector sum of N phasors each of unit amplitude and progressive
phase relative to the previous one [3].

2.4 Planar Array Antenna

In addition to placing elements along a straight row to form a linear array, individual
elements can be positioned along a rectangular grid to form a rectangular or planar
array, which is capable of providing more variables for controlling and modeling of
beam pattern. Moreover, planar arrays are also more versatile with lower sidelobe levels
and they can be used to scan the main beam of the antenna towards any point in space.
Referring to Figure 2.4a, the array factor can be derived for a planar array.

13

Placing M elements along the x-axis as shown in Figure 2.4a(i) will have an array factor
represented by

) cos sin )( 1 (
1
1
AF
x x
kd m j
M
m
m
e I
+
(2.3)

where,
I
m1
= Excitation coefficient of individual element
d
x
= Inter-element spacing along x-axis
x
= Progressive phase shift between elements along x-axis

(i) Linear array
(ii) Planar array
Figure 2.4a Linear and Planar geometries
14
A rectangular array shown in Figure 2.4a(ii) will be formed if N elements array with a
distance d
y
apart and with a progressive phase
y,
is placed in the y-direction. Thus, the
array factor for the entire planar array can be written as

{
) cos sin )( 1 (
N
1 n 1
) cos sin )( 1 (
1 1
AF
y y x x
kd n j
M
m
kd m j
m n
e e I I
+

+
(2.4)
or

AF = S
xm
S
yn (2.5)

where

M
kd m j
m
x x
e I
1 m
) cos sin )( 1 (
1 xm
S

(2.6)
N
kd n j
n
y y
e I
1 n
) cos sin )( 1 (
1 yn
S

(2.7)

From equation (2.5), it can be seen that the pattern of a rectangular array is the product
of the array factors of the arrays in the x- and y-direction.

The amplitude of the (m,n)
th
element can be written as shown in equation (2.8) if the
amplitude excitation coefficients of the elements of the array in the y-direction are
proportional to those in the x.

I
mn
= I
m1
I
1n
(2.8)

However, if the amplitude excitation of the array is uniform (I
mn
= I
o
), then equation
(2.4) can be represented by

15

N
n
kd n j
M
kd m j y y x x
e e
1
) cos sin )( 1 (
1 m
) cos sin )( 1 (
o
I AF

(2.9)

and the normalized form will be

'
'
,
`
.
|
,
`
.
|
'
'
,
`
.
|
,
`
.
|
2
sin
2
sin
1
2
sin
2
sin
1
) , ( AF
n
y
y
x
x
N
N
M
M
(2.10)
where
x
= kd
x
sincos +
x
(2.11)
y
= kd
y
sinsin +
y
(2.12)

The above derivation assumed that each element is an isotropic source. However, if the
antenna is an array of identical elements, the total field can be obtained by applying the
pattern multiplication rule of (2.1) in a manner similar as for the linear array.

2.5 Antenna Synthesis

Till now, attention has been on antenna analysis and design. The analysis problem is the
solving for the antenna radiation characteristics (pattern, directivity, beamwidth,
impedance, efficiency, polarization and bandwidth) for a given antenna configuration.

Practically, it is often necessary to design an antenna system that will produce desired
radiation characteristics. In general, there are common demands to design antenna
whose far-field pattern posses nulls in certain directions or to yield pattern that exhibit a
desired distribution, narrow beamwidth and low sidelobes, decaying minor lobes, and so
forth.
16
Therefore, there are requirements whereby there is a need to find not only the antenna
configuration but also its geometrical dimensions and excitation coefficient. Hence,
antenna synthesis is an approach that uses a systematic method or combination of
methods to arrive at an antenna configuration which yields a pattern that is either
exactly or approximately the same to the initial specified pattern, while satisfying other
system constrains.

Generally, antenna pattern synthesis can be classified into three categories. The first
group that normally utilizes the Schelkunoff Method requires the antenna patterns to
possess nulls in certain desired direction. The next category, which requires the patterns
to exhibit a desired distribution in the entire visible region, is referred to beam shaping.
It can be achieved by using the Fourier Transform and Woodward-Lawson Methods.
Finally, the Binomial Technique and Dolph-Chebyshev Method are usually used to
produce radiation

patterns with narrow beamwidth and low sidelobes. However, only the Woodward-
Lawson method and the Dolph-Chebyshev method will be discussed.

2.5.1 Woodward-Lawson Method

Woodward and Lawson introduced a very popular antenna pattern synthesis method
used for beam shaping. The synthesis is accomplished by sampling the desire pattern at
various discrete locations. Each pattern sample is associated with a harmonic current of
uniform amplitude distribution and uniform progressive phase, whose corresponding
field is known as a composing function. Each composing function for a linear array is of
an b
m
sin(N
m
)/Nsin(
m
) form.

The excitation coefficient b
m
of every harmonic current is such that its field strength is
similar to the amplitude of the desired pattern at its corresponding sampled point. The
total excitation of the source is comprised of a finite summation of space harmonic, and
the corresponding synthesized pattern is represented by a finite summation of
17
composing functions with each term representing the field of a current harmonic with
uniform amplitude distribution and uniform progressive phase [3].

The overall pattern produced by this method is as followed. The first composing
function yields a pattern whose main beam position is decided by the value of its
uniform progressive phase with the innermost sidelobes level approximately 13.5dB,
and while the rest of the sidelobes decreases monotonically. Having a similar pattern,
the second composing function will adjust its uniform progressive phase so that its main
lobe corresponds to the innermost nulls of the first composing function. This will
contribute to the filling-in of the innermost null of the first composing function pattern,
in which, the amount of filling-in is restrained by the amplitude excitation of the second
composing function. Thus, this procedure will carry on for the remaining finite number
of composing functions.

When Woodward-Lawson method is implemented to synthesized discrete linear arrays,
the pattern of each sample will be written as

]
]
]
]
]
]
) cos (cos
2
1
sin
) cos (cos
2
sin
) (
m
m
m m
kd N
kd
N
b f

(2.13)

l = Nd assumes the array is equal to the length of the line source. The overall array
factor can be written as a superposition of 2M or 2M+1 terms each of the form of (2.13)
[3]. Therefore,
]
]
]
]
]
]
M
-M m
m
) cos (cos
2
1
sin
) cos (cos
2
sin
b ) ( AF
m
m
kd N
kd
N

(2.14)
18
Generally, although Woodward-Lawson synthesis technique reconstructs pattern whose
values at the sampled points are similar to the ones of the desired signal, but it is unable
to control the pattern between the sample point. The quality of fit to the desired pattern
f
d
(w) by the synthesis pattern f(w) over the main beam is measured by the ripple, R,
which is defined as

dB
) (
) (
maximum log 20 R
'
'
u f
u f
d
(2.15)

over the main beam. Also of interest is the region between the main beam and sidelobe
region, referred to as the transition region. It is desirable to have the main beam fall off
shapely into the sidelobe region. Thus, the transition width T is introduced and defined
as

T = |w
f=0.9
w
f=0.1
| (2.16)

Where w
f=0.9
and w
f=0.1
are the values of w where the synthesized pattern f equals 90%
and 10% of the local discontinuity in the desired patter [4].

2.5.2 Dolph-Chebyshev Method

Comparing the Uniform, Dolph-Chebyshev and Binomial distribution arrays, the
uniform amplitude arrays will yield the smallest half-power beamwidth while the
binomial arrays usually possess the smallest sidelobes. On the other hand, Dolph-
Chebyshev array is mainly a compromise between uniform and binomial arrays.

Its excitation coefficients are affiliated to the Chebyshev polynomials and a Dolph-
Chebyshev array with zero sidelobes (or sidelobes of - dB) is simply a binomial
design. Thus, the excitation coefficients for this case would be the same if both methods
were used for calculation.

19
The array factor of an array of odd and even number of elements with symmetric
excitation is given by

M
n
n
u n a
1
2M
] ) 1 2 cos[( (even) (AF) (2.17)

+
+
1
1
1 2M
] ) 1 ( 2 cos[ (odd) (AF)
M
n
n
u n a (2.18)

where M is an integer, a
n
is the excitation coefficients and

cos
d
u (2.19)

The array factor is merely a summation of M or M+1 cosine terms. The largest
harmonic of the cosine terms is one less than the total number of elements in the array.
Each cosine term, whose argument is an integer times a frequency, can be rewritten as a
series of cosine functions with the fundamental frequency as the argument [3], which is,

m = 0 cos(mu) = 1
m = 1 cos(mu) = cos u
m = 2 cos(mu) = cos (2u) = 2cos
2
u -1
3
u 3cos u
4
u 8cos
2
u + 1 (2.20)

The above are achieved by using the Eulers formula

[e
ju
]
m
= (cos u + jsin u)
m
= e
jmu
= cos(mu) + jsin(mu) (2.21)

and the trigonometric identity sin
2
u = 1 cos
2
u.

20
Assuming the elements of the array is placed along the z-axis, and thus, replacing cos u
with z in (2.20), will relate each of the expression to a Chebyshev polynomial Tm(z).

m = 0 cos(mu) = 1 = T
0
(z)
m = 1 cos(mu) = z = T
1
(z)
m = 2 cos(mu) = 2z
2
1 = T
2
(z)
m = 3 cos(mu) = 4z
3
3z = T
3
(z)
m = 4 cos(mu) = 8z
4
8z
2
+ 1 = T
4
(z) (2.22)

These relations between the cosine functions and the Chebyshev polynomials are valid
only in the range of 1 z +1. Because |cos(mu)| 1, each Chebyshev polynomial is
|Tm(z)| 1 for 1 z +1. For |z| > 1, the Chebyshev polynomials are related too the
hyperbolic cosine function [3].

The recursive formula can be used to determine the Chebyshev polynomial if the
polynomials of the previous two orders are known. This is given by

T
m
(z) = 2zT
m-1
(z) T
m-2
(z) (2.23)

It can be seen that the array factor of an odd and even number of elements is a
summation of cosine terms whose form is similar with the Chebyshev polynomials.
Therefore, by equating the series representing the cosine terms of the array to the
appropriate Chebyshev polynomial, the unknown coefficients of the array factor can be
determine. Note that the order of the polynomial should be one less than the total
number of elements of the array.

Smart Antennas for Wireless Applications Chapter 3: Parameters of Antenna
21

Chapter 3
Parameters of Antenna

3.1 Introduction

Definitions of various parameters are necessary to describe the performance of an
antenna. Although the parameters may be interrelated, it is however, not a requirement
to specify all of the parameters for complete description of the antenna performance. An
antenna is chosen for operation in a particular application according to its physical and
electrical characteristics. Furthermore, the antenna must perform in a required mode for
the particular measurement system.

An antenna can be characterized by the following elements, not all of which apply to all
antenna types:
1. Radiation resistance;
2. Radiation pattern;
3. Beamwidth and gain of main lobe;
4. Position of magnitude of sidelobes;
5. Magnitude of back lobe;
6. Bandwidth;
7. Aperture;
8. Antenna correction factor;
9. Polarization of the electric field that it transmits or receive;
10. Power that it can handle in the case of a transmitting antenna.

22
Typically, antenna characteristics are measured in two principal planes and they are
known as the azimuth and elevation planes, which can also be considered as the
horizontal and vertical planes respectively, for land-based antennas. Conventionally, the
angle in the azimuth plane is denoted by the Greek letter phi, , while the Greek letter
theta, , represents the angle in the elevation plane.

Some characteristics such as beamwidth and sidelobes are the same in both planes for
symmetrical antennas such as circular waveguide horns and reflector. Other
characteristics such as the gain on boresight (i.e., where the azimuth and elevation
planes intersect) can only have a single value. In general, for unsymmetrical antennas
the characteristics are different in the two principal planes, with a gradual transition in
the intervening region between these two planes [6].

Not all of the antenna characteristic factors will be discussed here. The following
subsection will touch on some of the elements, which are essential for the understanding
of this thesis.

3.2 Radiation pattern

The antenna, which radiates or receives the electromagnetic energy in the same way, is
a reciprocal device. Radiation pattern is a very important characteristic of an antenna. It
facilitates a stronger understanding of the key features of an antenna that otherwise
cannot be achieved from the textual technical description of an antenna.

The radiation pattern is peculiar to class of antenna and its electrical characteristics as
well as its physical dimensions. It is gauged at a constant distance in the far field of the
antenna and its radiation pattern is usually plotted in terms of relative power. The power
at boresight, that is, at the position of maximum radiated power, is usually plotted at 0
dB; thus, the power at all other position appears as negative value. In other words, the
radiation power is normalized to the power at boresight. If the power were plotted in
linear units, the normalized power would be one at boreight [6].
23
The radiation is usually measured in the azimuth and the elevation planes and the
radiation power is plotted against the angle that is made with boresight direction. If the
antenna were not physically symmetrical about each of its principal planes, then it
would result in an unsymmetrical radiation patter in these planes.

The radiation pattern can be plotted using rectangular/cartesian or polar coordinates.
The rectangular plots can be read more precisely (since the angular scale can be
enlarged), but the polar plots offers a more pictorial representation and are thus easier to
visualize.

3.2.1 Rectangular/Cartesian Plots

Rectangular/Cartesian plots are standard x-y plots where the axes are plotted at right
angle to each other. The y-coordinate, which is called the ordinate, is used for the
dependent variable while the x-coordinate, known as abscissa, is used for the
independent variable.

In a radiation plot, the angle with respect to boresight is varied and the magnitude of the
power radiated is measured; thus, the angle is the independent variable and the power
radiated is the dependent variable. Thus, the magnitudes of the powers are the ordinate
while the angles are the abscissa. A typical rectangular plot of an antenna radiation
pattern is shown in Figure 3.2a.

24

The y-axis can show two sets of scales: one graduated from 0 dB to 4 dB and another
from 0 dB to 8 dB. Scales of 40 dB and 80 dB are calculated by multiplying the scales
by ten. It should be noted that the numbers below should really by negative values of 4
dB and 8 dB because the zero is at the top.

On the hand, the x-axis can show three sets of angular scales of 5, 30 and 180 on
either side of the zero, representing the angles measured clockwise and anti-clockwise
from the boresight position and in standard mathematical convention denoted by
positive and negative signs disregarded on radiation graph paper.

3.2.2 Polar Plots

In a polar plot the angles are plotted radially from boresight and the power or intensity
is plotted along the radius as illustrated in Figure 3.2b.

Figure 3.2a Rectangular plot of an antenna radiation pattern
25

This gives a pictorial representation of the radiation pattern of the antenna and is easier
to visualize than the rectangular/cartesian plots. Although the accuracy cannot be
increased as in the case of rectangular plot because the scale of the angular positions can
only be plotted from 0 to 360, however, the scale of the intensity or power can be
varied.

Each circle on the polar plot represents a contour plot where the power has the same
magnitude and is shown relative to the power at boresight. These levels will always be
less than the power at boresight and values should be shown as negative because the
power is in generally a maximum value at boresight. However, they are normally
written without a sign and should be assumed to be negative, contrary to standard
arithmetic convention.

Figure 3.2b Polar plot of an antenna pattern
26
3.3 Main Lobe

The main lobe of the antenna is in the direction of maximum radiation. The
characteristics of an antenna such as beamwidth and gain are associated to the main lobe
alone. The peak/tip of the main beam is called the boresight of the antenna and the
radiation pattern is often positioned so that its boresight corresponds with the zero
angular position of the graph, even when the antenna is not physically symmetrical.
Figure 3.3a gives an idea of the main lobe, its maximum direction and beamwidth of a
typical power pattern polar plot.

3.3.1 Beamwidth Half power and 10 dB

The beamwidth only relates to the main beam of the antenna and not the sidelobes and
in general, it is inversely proportional to its physical size. In other words, the larger the
antenna, the smaller is its beamwidth for the corresponding frequency. The plane
Figure 3.3a Typical power pattern polar plot
27
containing the largest dimension will have the narrowest beamwidth if the antenna does
not have the same dimensions in all planes.

The beam width of an antenna is usually defines in two ways. The most well known
definition is the 3-dB or half-power beamwidth. However, for antennas with very
narrow beams, the 10-dB beamwidth can also be applied. The 3-dB or half-power
beamwidth (HPBW) of an antenna is taken as the width at the points on either side of
the main beam where the radiated power is half the maximum value, and it is measured
in degrees or radians. Figure 3.3a shows the two points, half-power point (left) and half-
power (right), where the 3-dB beamwidth can be obtained.

3.3.2 Boresight Directivity/Gain

Although the terms directivity (or directive gain) and gain are frequently used
synonymously, but in fact they are not the same. The gain allows for efficiency of the
antenna, whereas directivity does not [6]. As a matter of fact, the gain of the antenna is
the product of the directivity and the efficiency. The IEEE definition of gain of an
antenna relates the power radiated by the antenna to that radiated by an isotropic
antenna (that radiates equally in all direction) and is quoted as a linear ratio or in
decibels [3].

The gain G as a linear ratio is defined as

antena isotropic an by radiated Power
boresight on radiated Power
G (3.1)

The gain G
dB
expressed in decibels is defined as

(G) 10log 10 dB G (3.2)

Directivity of an antenna is defined as the ratio of the radiation intensity in a given
direction from the antenna to the radiation intensity average over all direction. The
28
average radiation intensity is equal to the total power radiated by the antenna divided by
4. If the direction is not specified, the direction of maximum radiation intensity is
implied [3].

3.4 Sidelobes

The sidelobes are, strictly speaking, any of the maxima marked, for examples, as A, B,
C, D, E in Figure 3.4a. Nevertheless, in practice only the near-in lobes marked A are
referred to as sidelobes. Sometimes, due to the irregularities in the main beam of the
radiation pattern, it may result in small peaks such as those marked F in Figure 3.4a,
which could be mistaken for sidelobes.

Therefore, for this reason, the sidelobes are sometimes defined as the peaks, where the
difference between the peak and an adjacent trough is at least 3-dB. The sidelobes are
characterized by their level below the boresight gain and their angular position relative
to boresight. Although the sidelobe level (SLL) is usually cited as a positive quantity,
but it is a value in negative decibels since the radiation pattern is plotted with the
boresight gain at 0-dB.
Figure 3.4a A radiation pattern showing the sidelobe levels and positions
29
On top of sidelobes and main lobe, there are cases where multiple maxima occur, which
are referred to as grating lobes. Thus, one of the objectives in many designs is to avoid
grating lobes. Often it may be essential to select the largest spacing between elements
but with no grating lobes. However, the largest spacing between elements should be less
than one wavelength in order to avoid any grating lobes.

3.5 Front-to-back Ratio

The measure of the ability of a directional antenna to concentrate the beam in the
required forward direction is known as the front-to-back ratio (F/B). In linear terms, it is
determined as the ratio of the maximum power in the main beam to that in the back lobe
and it is usually expressed in decibels, as the different between the levels on boresight
and at 180 off boresight.

3.6 Aperture Size

The beamwidth is also influenced by the aperture size of an antenna. Generally, the
beamwidth gets narrower and the gain increases with an increasing aperture size at a
given frequency. The aperture size can be defined in two ways: either in terms of
wavelengths, or in terms of the actual physical size, in meters or feet.

3.7 Polarization

The polarization is another importance factor that would affect the radiation pattern.
The polarization of an antenna is defined as the polarization of the wave radiated by the
antenna in a given direction. However, the polarization is considered to be the
polarization in the direction of maximum gain when the direction is not stated.
Polarization may be classified as linear, circular, or elliptical. However, this thesis will
only touch on linear polarization.

30
As shown in Figure 3.7a, the electric field varies sinusoidally in one plane for the case
of linear polarization. In this case of a vertical polarization, it is noted that the extremity
of the electric field vector at any fixed point in space is a straight line with maximum
value, which is equal to twice the amplitude of the sinc curve that depicts the variation
of the electric field with time.

While horizontal polarization is illustrated in Figure 3.7b, it is important to note that the
polarization of a receiving antenna must match that of the incident radiation in order to
detect the maximum field.

Figure 3.7a Variation of the electric field with time at a
fixed point in space for vertical polarization
Figure 3.7b Variation of the electric field with time at a fixed
point in space for horizontal polarization
Smart Antenna for Wireless Applications Chapter 4: Smart Antenna System
31

Chapter 4
Smart Antenna System

4.1 Introduction

The field of wireless communication is growing at a dynamic rate, covering many
technical areas. Its sphere of influence is beyond imagination. An indication of its
importance is perhaps the immeasurable worldwide activities in this industry.

Since the early days of wireless communications, there have been simple antenna
designs that radiate signals omnidirectionally in a pattern resembling ripples in a pool of
water. Without the knowledge of the users locations, this unfocused technique
disseminates signals that reaches the intended user with a small percentage of overall
energy radiated out in the environment. Therefore, these strategies overcome the
problem by boosting the power level of the broadcasting signals. Moreover, there is also
additional problem of interference, which is likewise faced by directional antennas: a
system constructed to have certain fixed preferential transmission and reception
directions.

Therefore, the smart antenna systems, as shown in Figure 4.1a, have been introduced in
recent years to improve systems performance by increasing spectrum efficiency,
extending coverage area, tailoring beam shaping, steering multiple beams. Most
importantly, smart antenna system increases long-term channel capacity through Space
Division Multiple Access scheme (See Chapter 5 on Multiple Access Schemes). In
addition, it also reduces multipath fading, cochannel interferences, initial setup cost and
bit error rate (BER).
32

In this chapter, the key benefits of the smart antenna technology are covered before
looking through the smart antenna systems and the types of approaches. This chapter
will wrap up with descriptions on the Recursive Least Squares Adaptive Algorithms
after introducing to Beam Forming and Steering Vector.

4.2 Key Benefits of Smart Antenna Technology

An understanding of signal propagation environment and channel characteristics is
significant to the efficient use of a transmission medium. In recent years, there have
been signal propagation problems associated with conventional antennas and
interference is the major limiting factor in the performance of wireless communication.
Thus, the introduction of smart antennas is considered to have the potential of leading to
a large increase in wireless communication systems performance.
A smart antenna system in the wireless communication contributes to the following
major benefits:

Figure 4.1a Concept of smart antenna systems: Able to form different
beam for each user, extending coverage range, minimizing
the impact of noise and interference for each subscriber.
33
Larger Range Coverage Smart antennas provide enhanced coverage through range
extension, hole filling, and better building penetration. Given the same transmitter
power output at the base station and subscriber unit, smart antennas can increase
range by increasing the gain of the base station antenna [8].

Reduced Initial Deployment Cost Conventional wireless system networks are
initially often designed to satisfy coverage requirements, even though there are few
subscribers in the network. However, when the number of subscribers increases in
the network, system capacity can be increased at the expense of reducing the
coverage area and introducing additional cell sites. Nevertheless, smart antenna can
ease this problem by providing larger early cell sizes and thus, initial deployment
cost for the wireless system can be reduced through range extension.

Reduced Multipath Fading Multipath in radio channels can result in fading or time
dispersion. The effects of multipath fading in wireless communications
environments can be significantly reduced through smart antenna systems. This
reduction variation of the signal (i.e., fading) greatly enhances system performance
because the reliability and quality of a wireless communications system can strongly
depend on the depth and rate of fading [9].

Better Security The employment of smart antenna systems diminish the risk of
connection tapping. The intruder must be situated in the similar direction as the user
as seen from the transmitter base station.

Better Services Usage of the smart antenna system enables the network to have
access to spatial information about the users. This information can be used to assess
the positions of the users much more precisely than in existing network. This can be
applied in services such as emergency calls and location-specific billing.

Increased Capacity Smart antennas can also improve system capacity. They can
be used to allow the subscriber and base station to operate at the same range as a
conventional system, but a lower power. This may permit FDMA and TDMA
34
systems, which will be discussed in the later section, to be rechannelized to reuse
frequency channels more frequently than conventional systems using fixed
antennas, since the carrier-to-interference ratio is much greater when smart antennas
are used. In CDMA systems, if smart antennas are used to allow subscribers to
transmit less power for each link, then the Multiple Access Interference is reduced,
which increases the number of simultaneous subscribers that can be supported in
each cell.

Although the smart antenna systems are favorable in many ways, there are also
drawbacks which include a more complex transceiver structure compared to traditional
base station transceiver and a growing need for development of efficient algorithm for
real-time optimizing and signal tracking. Thus, smart antenna base stations will no
doubt be much more expensive than conventional base stations and the advantages
should always be evaluated against the cost.

4.3 Smart Antenna System

A smart antenna system can be define as a system which uses an array of low gain
antenna elements with a signal-processing capability to optimize its radiation and/or
reception pattern automatically in response to the ever changing signal environment.
This can be visualized as the antenna focussing a beam towards the communication user
only.

Truly speaking, antennas are only mechanical construction transforming free
electromagnetic (EM) waves into radio frequency (RF) signals travelling on a shielded
cable or vice-versa. They are not smart but antenna systems are. The whole system
consists of the radiating antennas, a combining/dividing network and a control unit. The
control unit is usually realized using a digital signal processor (DSP), which controls
several input parameters of the antenna to optimize the communication link. This shows
that smart antennas are more than just the antenna, but rather a complete transceiver
concept.

35
Smart antenna systems are customarily classified as either Switching- Beam Array
(SBA) or Adaptive Array (also known as Tracking-Beam Array TBA) systems, and
they are the two different approaches to realizing a smart antenna.

4.3.1 Switching-Beam Array (SBA)

In the smart antenna systems, the SBA approach forms multiple fixed beams with
enhanced sensitivity in specific area. These antenna systems will detect signal strength,
and select one of the best, predetermined, fixed beams for the subscribers as they move
throughout the coverage sector. Instead of modeling the directional antenna pattern with
the metallic properties and physical design of a single element, a SBA system couple
the outputs of multiple antennas in such a manner that it forms a finely sectorized
(directional) beams with spatial selectivity.

Figure 4.3a shows the SBA patterns and Figure 4.3b illustrated the design network of a
typical SBA system. The SBA system network illustrated is relatively simple to
implement, requiring only a beamforming network, a RF switch, and control logic to
select a specific beam.

Figure 4.3b A Switch-Beam network uses
a beamforming network to
form M beams from M array
elements
Figure 4.3a Switch-Beam
Systems can select
one of the several
beams to enhance
receive signals.
Beam 2 is selected
here for the desired
signal
36
Switched beam systems offer numerous advantages of more elaborate smart antenna
systems at a fraction of the complexity and expense. Nevertheless, there are some
limitations to switched beam array, which comprise of the inability to provide any
protection from multipath components that arrive with Directions-of-Arrival (DOAs)
near that of the desire components, and also the inability to take advantage of path
diversity by combining coherent multipath components. Lastly, due to scalloping, the
received power from a user may fluctuate when he moves around the base station.
Scalloping is the roll-off of the antenna pattern as a function of angles as the DOA
varies from the boresight of each beam produced by the beamforming network [8].

In spite of the drawbacks, SBA systems are widespread for various reasons. They
provide some range extension benefits and offer reduction in delay spread in certain
propagation environments. In addition, the engineering costs to implement this low
technology approach are lesser than those associated with more complicated systems.

4.3.2 Adaptive Array

It is possible to achieve greater performance improvements than that obtained using the
SBA system. This can be accomplished by increasing the complexity of the array signal
processing to form the Adaptive Antenna Systems, which is considered to be the most
advance smart antenna approach to date.

The adaptive antenna systems approach communication between a user and the base
station in a different way, in effect adding a dimension in space. By adapting to the RF
environment as it changes, adaptive antenna technology can dynamically modify the
signal patterns to near infinity to optimize the performance of the wireless system.

Adaptive arrays continuously differentiate between the desired signals, multipath, and
interfering signals as well as calculate their directions of arrival by utilizing
sophisticated signal-processing algorithms. The technique constantly updates its
transmitting approach based on changes in both the desired and interfering signal
locations. It ensures that signal links are maximized by tracking and providing users
37
with main lobes and interferers with nulls, because there are neither microsectors nor
predefined patterns.

Although both systems seek to increase gain with respect to the location of the users,
however, only the adaptive system is able to contribute optimal gain while
simultaneously identifying, tracking, and minimizing interfering signals. This can be
seen from Figure 4.3c that only the main lobe is directed towards the user while a null
being directed at a cochannel interferer. Illustrated in Figure 4.3d is the network
structure of an adaptive array.

Figure 4.3c An adaptive antenna can adjust
its antenna pattern to enhance the
desired signal, null or reduce
interference, and collect correlated
multipath power
Figure 4.3d Network structure of an adaptive array
structure
38
4.4 Beam Forming

A single output of the array is formed when signals induced on different elements of the
array are combined. A plot of the array response as a function of angle is usually
specified as the array pattern or beam pattern. It can also be known as power pattern
when the power response is plotted.

This method of combining the signals from several elements is understood as beam
forming. The direction in which the array has maximum response is said to be the beam
pointing direction, and thus this is the bearing where the array has the utmost gain.

Conventional beam pointing or beam forming can be achieved by adjusting only the
phase of the signals from different elements. In other words, pointing a beam in the
desired direction. However, the shape of the antenna pattern in this case is fixed, that is,
the side lobes with respect to the main do not change when the main beam is pointed in
different directions by adjusting various phases. Nevertheless, this can be overcome by
adjusting the gain and phase of each signal to shape the pattern as required and the
degree of change will depend upon the number of elements in the array.

For example, signals can also be coupled together without any gain or phase shift in a
linear array, and it is known as broadside to the array, which is, perpendicular to the row
joining all the elements of the array. The array pattern formed thus falls to a low value
on either side of the beam pointing direction and the region of the low value is known as
a null. In this case, it must be noted that the null is actually a position where the array
response is zero and the term should not be misused to denote the low value of the
pattern.

Lastly, it is very convenient to make use of vector notation while working with array
antennas. Thus the term weight vector (w) is introduced. It is important because the
weight vector will have significant impact on the array output.

39
4.4.1 Null Beam Forming

The flexibility of array weighting to being adjusted to specify the array pattern is an
important property. This may be exploited to cancel directional sources operating at the
same frequency as that of the desired source, provided these are not in the direction of
the desired source [10].

In circumstances where the directions of these interferences are identified, cancellation
is feasible by positioning the nulls in the pattern corresponding to these directions and
concurrently steering the main beam in the direction of the desired signal. This approach
of beam forming by placing nulls in the directions of interferences is commonly referred
to as null beam forming or null steering.

4.4.2 Steering Vector

The steering vector contains the response of all elements of the array to a narrow-band
source of unit power. As the response of the array is different in different directions, a
steering vector is associated with each directional source. The uniqueness of this
association depends upon the array geometry [10].

Every component of this vector has unit magnitude for an array of identical elements.
The phase of its ith component is similar to the phase difference between signals
induced on the ith element and the reference element due to the source associated with
the steering vector.

This vector is also known as the space vector because each component of the vector
represents the phase delay that is resulted from the spatial position of the corresponding
element of the array. In addition, it can also be referred to as the array response vector
for it measures the response of the array due to the source under consideration.

40
4.5 Recursive Least Squares Algorithm

For an adaptive array network as shown in Figure 4.3d, it is essential that the weight
vector to be updated or adapted periodically because the environment (e.g. mobile
environment) is time-variable. Generally, the weight vector computed differs by a small
but significant amount at different cycles.

In addition, because the necessary data to estimate the optimal solution is noisy, it is
beneficial to use an update technique, which uses previous solutions for the weight
vector to smooth the estimate of the optimal response. Thus, an adaptive algorithm is
exploited for updating the weight vector periodically.

There are many types of adaptive algorithms and the majorities are iterative. They
utilized the past information to minimize the computations required at each update
cycle. In iterative algorithms, the current weight vector, w(n), is modified by an
incremental value to form a new weight vector, w(n+1) at each iteration n.

In the later development of adaptive algorithm, the Least Mean Square (LMS) algorithm
and Recursive Least Squares (RLS) algorithm are viewed to be more efficient. However,
in this chapter, we will be only looking at the RLS algorithm as it is regarded to have a
faster convergence speed (the speed for the initial weight vector to reach the optimum
weight vector) compared to LMS. Nevertheless, it is a result of greater computation
complexity. Figure 4.5a illustrated the block diagram representation and signal flow
graph of the RLS algorithm.

41

The RLS algorithm can be summarized as follow [14]:

Initialization

P(0) =
-1
I (4.1)
w(0) = 0 (4.2)

Weight Update

k(n) =
-1
P(n-1)u(n) / 1+
-1
u
H
(n)P(n-1)u(n) (4.3)
(n) = d(n) w
H
(n-1)u(n) (4.4)
w(n) = w(n-1) + k(n) *(n) (4.5)
(i)
(ii)
Figure 4.5a Representation of RLS algorithm: (i) block diagram
(ii) signal-flow graph
42
P(n) =
-1
P(n-1) -
-1
k(n)u
H
(n)P(n-1) (4.6)

Convergence Coefficient

0 < <1
where,

is a small positive number,
I is the M X M identity matrix,
is the forgetting factor
k(n) is the gain vector,
(n) is the innovation,
w(n) is the weight vector,
P(n) is the inverse of the correlation matrix (n),
u(n) is the input vector and
d(n) is the desired response.

In the RLS method, the desired signal must be supplied using either a training sequence
or decision direction. For the training sequence approach, a brief data sequence is
transmitted which is known by the receiver. The receiver uses the adaptive algorithm to
approximate the weight vector in the training duration, then retains the weights constant
while information is being transmitted. This technique requires that the environment be
stationary from one training period to the next, and it reduces channel throughput by
requiring the use of channel symbols for training. However, in the decision approach,
the receiver uses recreated modulated symbols based on symbol decisions, which are
used as the desired signal to adapt the weight vector [8].
Smart Antenna for Wireless Applications Chapter 5: Multiple Access Schemes
43

Chapter 5
Multiple Access Schemes

5.1 Introduction

Due to the recent development of wireless communication systems, the range of
frequencies available for wireless communication technologies can be utilized in
various ways/schemes, and this is referred to as multiple access schemes. These
techniques are adopted to allow numerous users to share simultaneously a finite amount
of signal spectrum.

The distribution of spectrum is required to achieve this high system capacity by
simultaneously allocating the available bandwidth (or available amount of channels) to
multiple users. This must be accomplished without severe degradation in the
performance of the system in order to achieve high quality communications.

Conventionally, there are three major access schemes used to share the available
bandwidth in a wireless communication. Nonetheless, they are known as the frequency
division multiple access (FDMA), time division multiple access (TDMA), and the code
division multiple access (CDMA).

As a result, there is a lot to debate about which schemes is better. However, the answer
to this depends on the combined techniques, such as the modulation scheme, anti-fading
techniques, forward error correction, and so on, as well as the requirements of services,
such as the coverage area, capacity, traffic, and types of information [11].

44
5.2 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

Frequency division multiple access (FDMA) is the most widespread multiple-access
scheme for land mobile communication system due to its ability to discriminate
channels effortlessly by filters in the frequency domain. In FDMA, every subscriber is
allocated to an individual unique frequency band or channel.

Figure 5.2a shows the spectrum of a FDMA system. The allocated system bandwidth is
divided into bands with bandwidth of W
ch
and guard space between adjacent channels to
prevent spectrum overlapping that may be resulted from carrier frequency instability.
When a user sends a call request, the system will assign one of the available channels to
the user, in which, the channel is used exclusively by that user during a call. However,
the system will reassign this channel to a different user when the previous call is
terminated.

One of the most important advantages in FDMA system is there isnt any need for
synchronization or timing control and therefore, the hardware is simple. In addition,
there is only a need for flat fading consideration as for anti-fading technique because the
bandwidth of each channel in the FDMA is sufficiently narrow.

Figure 5.2a Spectrum of FDMA systems
45
However, there are also various problems associated with FDMA systems and they are:

Intermodulation interference increases with the number of carriers .
Variable rate transmission is difficult because such a terminal has to prepare a lot of
modems. For the same reason, composite transmission of voice and non-voice data
is also difficult.
High Q-value for the transmitter and receiver filters is required to guarantee high
channel selectivity [11].

5.3 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

In the basic time division multiple access (TDMA) protocol, the transmission time axis
is divided into frames of equal duration, and each frame is divided into the same
number of time slots having equal duration. Each slot position within a frame is
allocated to a different user and this allocation stays the same over the sequence of
frames [12]. This means that a particular user may transmit during one particular slot in
every frame and thus, it has the entire channel bandwidth at its disposal during this slot.

Figure 5.3a illustrated the allocation in a basic TDMA frame with four time slots per
frame with the shaded areas representing the guard times in each slot in which
transmission is prohibited in this region. It is essential to have the guard times as it
prevents transmissions of different (spatially distributed) users from overlapping due to
transmission delay differences.

Figure 5.3a Frame and slot structure with basic TDMA
46
5.4 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

In code division multiple access (CDMA) systems, the signal is multiplied by a very
large bandwidth signal called the spreading signal. The spreading signal is a pseudo-
noise code sequence that as a chip rate which is in orders of magnitudes greater than the
data rate of message [8].

Having its own pseudorandom codeword, all subscribers in a CDMA system use the
same carrier frequency and may transmit simultaneously. Figure 5.4a(i) displays the
spectrum of a CDMA system. The most distinct feature of CDMA system is that all the
terminals share the whole bandwidth, and each terminal signal is discriminated by the
code.

When each user sends a call request to the base station, the base station assigns on of
the spreading codes to the user. When five users initial and hold the calls as shown in
Figure 5.4(ii), time and frequency are occupied as shown in Figure 5.4(iii) [13].
Therefore, CDMA requires a larger bandwidth as compared to FDMA and TDMA.
Furthermore, there is also a need for code synchronization in CDMA system.

47

5.5 Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA)

In addition to these techniques, smart antennas provide a new method of multiple access
to the users, which is known as the space division multiple access (SDMA). The SDMA
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
Figure 5.4a Concept of a CDMA system:
(i) spectrum of a CDMA system
(ii) a call initiation and holding model for five-user case
(iii) channel allocation to each user
48
scheme, which is commonly referred to space diversity, uses smart antenna to provide
control of space by providing virtual channels in an angle domain. With the use of this
approach, simultaneous calls in various different cells can be established at the same
carrier frequency.

The SDMA scheme is based upon the fact that a signal arriving from a distant source
reaches different antennas in an array at different times due to their spatial distribution,
and this delay is utilized to differentiate one or more users in one area from those in
another area [10].

This technique enables an effective transmission to take place in one cell without
affecting the transmission in another cell. Without the use of an array, this can be
accomplished by having a separate base station for each cell and keeping cell size
permanent, while the use of space diversity enables dynamic changes of cell shapes to
reflect the user movement.

Thus, an array of antennas constitutes to an extra dimension in this system by providing
dynamic control in space and needless to say, it leads to improved capacity and better
system performance.

Smart Antenna for Wireless Applications Chapter 6: Analysis of Array Antennas
49

Chapter 6
Analysis of Array Antennas

6.1 Aim and Procedures

Previous chapters had provided basic concept on antennas and smart antenna systems.
Thus, this will greatly contribute to further understanding the operation of smart antenna
systems. As a result, it would be appropriate to study the basic of antenna arrays, its
radiation pattern and performance.

This chapter will be covering the analysis of linear and planar arrays of microstrip patch
antennas. The design of microstrip patch antennas was studied and implemented before
carrying out simulations using software programs known as the Personal Computer
Antenna Aided Design (PCAAD) and MATLAB.

Various parameters were altered to study the effects that would be reflected on antenna
arrays. The simulated results achieved were tabulated. In addition, polar plots were also
generated to cater for a better visualization and analysis. Last but not least, the chapter
will conclude with some discussions on the results achieved.

6.2 Microstrip Patch Antenna Design

The microstrip rectangular patch antenna is by far the most widely used configuration.
Therefore, we will be designing the rectangular patch for the linear and planar array
simulations. Several factors contribute to the design of a microstrip rectangular patch
antenna. Figure 2.2b(i) shows some of the parameters constrain for the design, which
50
include the length and width of the antenna patch, the type of substrate used and the
substrate thickness.

In addition, the center/resonant frequency must also be determined. A resonant
frequency of 2GHz is chosen because in 1992, the World Administrative Radio
Commission (WARC) of the International Telecommunications Union (ITU)
formulated a plan to implement a global frequency band in the 2000 MHz range that
would be common to all countries for the universal wireless communication systems
[8].

The dimensions of a rectangular patch antenna can be determined using the following
equations:

Width, W =
2
2 / 1
2
) 1 (
]
]
]
+ r
(6.1)

Length, L = l
e

]
]
]
]
2
) * 2 (
(6.2)
where the effective dielectric constant, e and l are given by:

Effective dielectric constant, e =
2 / 1
12
1
2
1
2
1
,
`
.
|
+
,
`
.
|
+
+
W
t r r
(6.3)
where t is the thickness of the substrate.
l = (0.412t)
( )
( )
]
]
]
]
]
]
,
`
.
|
+
,
`
.
|
+ +
8 . 0 258 . 0
264 . 0 3 . 0
t
W
e
t
W
e
(6.4)

Patch size calculation:

Assuming a rectangular line-fed configuration.
51
Assuming resonant frequency, f = 2GHz
Assuming typical substrate of dielectric constant,
r
= 2.2
Assuming substrate thickness, t = 0.5 cm

Wavelength, = C/f
= (3*10
8
)/2GHz
= 0.15m
where C is the free space velocity of light.

Width, W =
2
2 / 1
2
) 1 (
]
]
]
+ r

=
2 / 1
2
) 1 2 . 2 (
2
15 . 0
]
]
]
+

= 0.0593 m
= 5.93 cm
Effective dielectric constant, e =
2 / 1
12
1
2
1
2
1
,
`
.
|
+
,
`
.
|
+
+
W
t r r

=
2 / 1
93 . 5
5 . 0 * 12
1
2
1 2 . 2
2
1 2 . 2
,
`
.
|
+
,
`
.
|
+
+

= 2.02300444384

l = (0.412t)
( )
( )
]
]
]
]
]
]
,
`
.
|
+
,
`
.
|
+ +
8 . 0 258 . 0
264 . 0 3 . 0
t
W
e
t
W
e

= (0.412*0.5)
]
]
]
]
]
]
,
`
.
|
+
,
`
.
|
+ +
8 . 0
5 . 0
93 . 5
) 258 . 0 02 . 2 (
264 . 0
5 . 0
93 . 5
) 3 . 0 02 . 2 (

= 0.2597

52
Length, L = l
e

]
]
]
]
2
) * 2 (

= ) 2597 . 0 * 2 (
02 . 2 * 2 (
100 * 15 . 0
]
]
]

= 4.75 cm

Nevertheless, after much testing, it was observed from PCAAD simulations that a
length of 4.75 cm (Figure 6.2a) does not produce a minimum voltage standing wave
ratio (VSWR)* compared to a length of 4.706 cm (Figure 6.2b) at 2GHz. Hence, the
new dimension of Length = 4.706 cm and Width = 5.93 cm is selected for applications
to the simulations.

*Note: The reflected waves from the interface between the source and the antenna
create, along with the travelling waves from the source towards the antenna,
constructive and destructive patterns, referred to as standing waves. Thus, when the
impedance of the antenna (load) to the characteristic impedance of the transmission line
matched, a desired minimum VSWR is achieved.

Figure 6.2a VSWR plot for length of 4.75 cm
VSWR 4.6
53

Figure 6.2c illustrated the radiation pattern of the single microstrip patch antenna with
simulated results of:

Bandwidth = 3.9%
Efficiency = 97.6%
Directivity = 7.2

Figure 6.2b VSWR plot for length of 4.706 cm
VSWR 4.4
Figure 6.2c Radiation pattern for single microstrip patch antenna
-30 -20 - 10 0
Note that the values here will be the same
for all polar plots unless otherwise stated
54
6.3 Simulation on Linear Array Antenna

Linear array is the simplest and commonly used configuration. Therefore, it is essential
to investigate its performance. There are four basic factors influencing the performance
of the linear array antenna and this section will be examining a linear array of microstrip
patch antennas. The four influencing factors, which consists of the inter-element
spacing, number of elements in an array, the amplitude distribution and the phase
excitation, will be varied, and all observation will be monitored. The subsequent
simulations on linear array will be performed using the PCAAD program with the
following predefined parameters:

Microstrip antenna patch length, L = 4.706 cm
Microstrip antenna patch width, W = 5.93 cm
Substrate thickness, t = 0.5 cm
Dielectric constant = 2.2
Center frequency, f = 2GHz
Wavelength, = 15 cm

Assuming the element polarization is in the X-direction.

6.3.1 Effect of Varying Inter-element Spacing, d

The following assumptions are made:
Phase shift = zero degree
Amplitude distribution = uniform
Number of elements in the array = 8

PCAAD simulations were carried out and the results were tabulated in Table 6.1. Figure
6.3a illustrated the radiation pattern for an inter-element spacing of wavelength and
Figure 6.3b displayed the pattern for an inter-element spacing of one wavelength.

55
Inter-element
Spacing (cm)
Directivity 3 dB Beamwidth
(degree)
Remarks
/8 = 1.875 10.2 46.5 1 main lobe
/4 = 3.75 12.9 24.9 2 sidelobes (SLL = -15.1dB)
3/8 = 5.625 14.5 16.8 4 sidelobes (SLL = -13.8dB)
/2 = 7.5 15.7 12.6 6 sidelobes (SLL = -13.4dB)
3/4 = 11.25 17.3 8.4 10 sidelobes (SLL = -13.1dB)
= 15 16.3 6.3 14 sidelobes (SLL = -13.0dB)
and 2 grating lobes

Table 6.1
Figure 6.3a Radiation pattern of inter-element spacing
Figure 6.3b Radiation pattern of inter-element spacing
56
6.3.2 Effect of Varying Number of Elements, N

Inter-element spacing =
2
= 7.5 cm

6.3c illustrated the radiation pattern for a 4-elemeents linear array while Figure 6.3d
displayed the radiation pattern for a 10-elemeents linear array.

Number of element
(N)
Directivity 3 dB Beamwidth
(degree)
Remarks
2 9.9 51.3 1 main lobe
3 11.5 34.0 2 sidelobes < 20 dB
4 12.7 25.4 2 sidelobes < 20 dB
6 14.4 16.9 4 sidelobes < 20 dB
8 15.7 12.6 6 sidelobes < 20 dB
10 16.6 10.1 8 sidelobes > 20 dB
20 19.6 4.9 18 sidelobes > 20 dB

Figure 6.3c Radiation pattern of a 4-elements linear array
Table 6.2
57

6.3.3 Effect of Varying Amplitude Distribution

Number of elements = 8
2
= 7.5 cm

PCAAD simulations were carried out and the results were tabulated in Table 6.3.
Figure 6.3e illustrated the radiation pattern for an array with uniform distribution.
Figure 6.3f illustrated the radiation pattern for an array with Chebyshev distribution.
Figure 6.3g illustrated the radiation pattern for an array with Taylor distribution.

Amplitude Distribution Directivity 3 dB Beamwidth
(degree)
Remarks
Uniform 15.7 12.6 6 sidelobes (SLL = -13.4dB)
Chebyshev
(SLL = 20 dB)
15.4 14.1 6 sidelobes (SLL = -20.7dB)
Taylor
(SLL = 20 dB)
14.9 16.1 6 sidelobes (SLL = -10.0dB)

Figure 6.3d Radiation pattern of a 10-elements linear array
Table 6.3
58

Figure 6.3e Radiation pattern of uniform distribution array
Figure 6.3f Radiation pattern of Chebyshev distribution array
Figure 6.3g Radiation pattern of Taylor distribution array

59
6.3.4 Effect of varying phase excitation,

Amplitude distribution = Taylor (SLL = 60 dB)
2
= 7.4 cm

PCAAD simulations were carried out and the results were tabulated in Table 6.4.
Figure 6.3h illustrated the radiation pattern for an array with phase excitation of 0.
Figure 6.3i illustrated the radiation pattern for an array with phase excitation of 45.
Figure 6.3j illustrated the radiation pattern for an array with phase excitation of 90.

(degree) Directivity 3 dB Beamwidth
(degree)
Main beam angle
(degree)
45 18.5 7.0 -15.0
90 18.1 7.8 -30.0
135 17.1 10.4 -49.0
180 15.9 - -
225 17.1 10.4 49.0
270 18.1 7.8 30.0
315 18.5 7.0 15.0
360 18.6 6.7 0

Table 6.4
60

Figure 6.3h Radiation pattern with phase excitation 0
Figure 6.3j Radiation pattern with phase excitation 90
Figure 6.3i Radiation pattern with phase excitation 45
61
6.4 Simulation on Planar Array Antenna

A planar array provides more variables for controlling and modeling of beam patterns as
compared to the linear array. They are more flexible and can provide more symmetrical
patterns with lower sidelobes. In addition, they can be used to scan the main beam of
the antenna toward any point in space.

Therefore, this section will be exploring the radiation patterns of a planar array by
varying various parameters. The parameters include the inter-element spacing, number
of elements in the array and the amplitude distribution. The effect on beam steering of
the planar array will also be investigated. The subsequent simulations on planar array
will be performed using the PCAAD and MATLAB with the following predetermined
parameters:

Microstrip antenna patch length, L = 4.706 cm
Microstrip antenna patch width, W = 5.93 cm
Substrate thickness, t = 0.5 cm
Dielectric constant = 2.2
Center frequency, f = 2GHz
Wavelength, = 15 cm

Assuming the element polarization is in the X-direction.


Number of elements = 5 x 5

62
6.4a illustrated the radiation pattern for a planar array with wavelength inter-element
spacing in both X and Y directions while Figure 6.4b illustrated the radiation pattern for
a planar array with wavelength inter-element spacing in both X and Y directions.
Lastly, Figure 6.4c displayed the radiation pattern for a planar array with full
wavelength inter-element spacing in both X and Y directions.

X (cm) Y (cm) Directivity 3 dB Beamwidth
(degree)
Comments
14.1 38.8 2 sidelobes (SLL = -19.1dB)
16.6 38.8 2 sidelobes (SLL = -19.1dB)
18.2 38.8 2 sidelobes (SLL = -19.1dB)
18.7 38.8 2 sidelobes (SLL = -19.1dB)
16.7 20.3 4 sidelobes (SLL = -13.5dB)
19.2 20.3 4 sidelobes (SLL = -13.5dB)
20.8 20.3 4 sidelobes (SLL = -13.5dB)
21.2 20.3 4 sidelobes (SLL = -13.5dB)
18.1 13.6 6 side lobes (SLL = -12.7dB)
20.6 13.6 6 side lobes (SLL = -12.7dB)
22.2 13.6 6 side lobes (SLL = -12.7dB)
22.7 13.6 6 side lobes (SLL = -12.7dB)
16.4 10.2 6 side lobes (SLL = -12.4dB) and
2 grating lobes which beamwidth is greater
than main lobe beamwidth

Table 6.5
63

Figure 6.4a Radiation pattern for inter-element spacing of:
in X-direction & in Y-direction
Figure 6.4b Radiation pattern for inter-element spacing of:
Figure 6.4c Radiation pattern for inter-element spacing of:
64

From the previous simulated results, the inter-element spacing of in both X-
direction and Y-direction is chosen for this simulation.


6.4d illustrated the radiation pattern for a 3x3 planar array while Figure 6.4e presented
the radiation pattern for a 5x5 planar array. The radiation pattern for an 8x8 planar array
is shown in Figure 6.4f.

Number of
Element (X*Y)
Directivity 3 dB Beamwidth Comments
2 * 2 11.8 51.3 1 main lobe
2 * 3 13.4 51.3 1 main lobe
2 * 4 14.5 51.3 1 main lobe
2* 5 15.4 51.3 1 main lobe
3 * 2 13.4 34.0 2 side lobes > -20 dB
3 * 3 15.0 34.0 2 side lobes > -20 dB
3 * 4 16.1 34.0 2 side lobes > -20 dB
3 * 5 17.0 34.0 2 side lobes > -20 dB
4 * 2 14.7 25.4 2 side lobes > -20 dB
4 * 3 16.3 25.4 2 side lobes > -20 dB
4 * 4 17.4 25.4 2 side lobes > -20 dB
4* 5 18.3 25.4 2 side lobes > -20 dB
5 * 2 15.6 20.3 4 side lobes > -20 dB
5 * 3 17.2 20.3 4 side lobes > -20 dB
5 * 4 18.3 20.3 4 side lobes > -20 dB
5* 5 19.2 20.3 4 side lobes > -20 dB
6 * 6 20.8 16.9 4 side lobes > -20 dB
7 * 7 22.1 14.5 6 side lobes
8 * 8 23.2 12.6 6 side lobes

Table 6.6
65

Figure 6.4d Polar plot for a 3x3 planar array
Figure 6.4f Polar plot for a 8x8 planar array
Figure 6.4e Polar plot for a 5x5 planar array
66
6.4.3 Effect of Varying Amplitude Distribution

The simulations will be using the inter-element spacing of in both X-direction and
Y-direction with the following assumptions:


PCAAD simulations were performance and the results achieved were tabulated in
Table 6.7.

Figure 6.4g and Figure 6.4h illustrated the radiation patterns for planar arrays with
uniform amplitude distribution and Chebyshev amplitude distribution respectively
whereas Figure 6.4i presented the radiation pattern for a planar array with Taylor
amplitude distribution.

Amplitude Distribution Directivity 3 dB Beamwidth
(degree)
Remarks
Uniform
19.2 20.3 4 sidelobes (SLL = -13.5dB)
Chebyshev
(SLL = 20 dB)
18.6 23.0 4 sidelobes (SLL = -21.8dB)
Taylor
(SLL = 20 dB)
18.7 22.7 4 sidelobes (SLL = -21.2dB)

Table 6.7
67

Figure 6.4g Radiation pattern of uniform distribution array
Figure 6.4h Radiation pattern of Chebyshev distribution array
Figure 6.4i Radiation pattern of Taylor distribution array
68
6.4.4 Effect of Varying Phase Excitations, x and y

Radiation performance of a planar array will be examined by performing various
simulations. Changes will be monitored as the phase excitations, x and y, are varied.
The overall pattern, which is formed by combining the radiation pattern of a single
microstrip patch antenna and the array factor of the planar array, will be analyzed.

The overall pattern will be plotted and studied using the E-plane (x-z plane) and the H-
plane (y-z plane). The following assumptions are made for the simulations:

Inter-element spacing = 8.3 cm in x-direction; 9 cm in y-direction
(The inter-element spacing were found to produce the best beam pattern after some
testing)
Elements amplitude excitation = 1

MATLAB simulations were performance and the results achieved were tabulated in
Table 6.8.

Figure 6.4j and Figure 6.4k illustrated the radiation patterns for planar arrays with
different phase excitations using the E-plane ( = 0) and H-plane ( = 90).

Appendix A provides the MATLAB code for this simulation.

69
x
(degree)
y
(degree)
Amplitude of main beam
(decibels)
Sidelobe level
(decibels)
Main beam angle
(degree)
E-plane ( = 0 )
0 0 12.04 -20.72 0
0 45 11.36 -20.73 0
0 90 9.03 -20.73 0
0 135 3.70 -20.77 0
0 180 Amplitude values are too small
45 45 11.19 -10.48 -10
90 45 10.69 -6.27 -20
135 45 9.83 -2.98 -30
H-plane ( = 90 )
0 0 12.04 -25.39 0
0 45 11.15 -14.70 -9
0 90 11.23 -8.61 -17
0 135 10.14 -4.01 -25
45 45 11.15 -14.70 -9
90 45 8.83 -14.70 -9
135 45 3.49 -14.70 -9
180 45 Amplitude values are too small

Table 6.8
70
Radiation plots in E-plane ( = 0):

Figure 6.4j Radiation plots of an planar array in E-plane
(i) x = 0; y = 0 (ii) x = 0; y = 45
(iii) x = 45; y = 45 (iv) x = 135; y = 45
71
Polar plots in H-plane ( = 90):

Figure 6.4k Radiation plots of a planar array in H-plane
(i) x = 0; y = 0 (ii) x = 0; y = 45
(iii) x = 45; y = 45 (iv) x = 90; y = 45
72
6.5 Discussion

After the dimension of microstrip patch antenna was determined, it was employed in the
linear and planar arrays for our simulations.

(i) Linear Array

It was observed that an increase in inter-element spacing in a linear array would result
in higher directivity and a smaller 3dB beamwidth. Although this is a favorable
condition, but it was found that the number of undesirable sidelobes also increases with
increasing inter-element spading. It was also proven that an inter-element spacing of full
wavelength would cause the radiation pattern to have grating lobes and this could be
seen from Figure 6.3b.

Simulations results obtained had also proved that an increase in the number of elements
in a linear array would result in higher directivity and a smaller 3dB beamwidth, but
more sidelobes. However, on the other hand, non-uniform amplitude distribution
(Chebyshev and Taylor) linear array had shown expected results of lower sidelobes
level and a bigger 3dB beamwidth with lower directivity compared to uniform
amplitude distribution array. Lastly, the main beam was found to have the steering
capability as the phase excitation was varied with a suitable amplitude distribution and
inter-element spacing. This could be seen form Figure 6.3h, 6.3i, and 6.3j that the beam
rotated in the anti-clockwise direction as the phase excitation increases.

(ii) Planar Array

The element polarization was assumed to be in x-direction and it was found from the
simulation results that an increase of inter-element spacing in the x-direction would
produce a more focus main beam, but more sidelobes were generated. On the other
hand, it was found that the inter-element spacing in ydirection was directly
proportional to the directivity. Decreasing the inter-element spacing in the y-direction
would thus, cause a drop in directivity.
73

PCAAD simulations also showed that an increase in the number of elements in a planar
array would contribute to a more concentrated main beam with higher directivity, but at
the expense of generating more sidelobes. Therefore, there is always a compromise
between directivity and antenna size. Non-uniform amplitude distributions planar array
had confirmed that they would have a lower sidelobes level compare to uniform
amplitude array. Similar results were yield for linear array.

Finally, the overall radiation pattern, which is formed by combining the radiation
pattern of a single microstrip patch antenna and the array factor of the planar array, was
found to have the capability of beam steering when the phase excitation of
x
was
varied in E-plane. This was due to the fact that it was in the x-z plane (E-plane). There
were only slight changes in the main beam amplitude but a significant change in
sidelobes level when
x
changes. Variation in
y
was found only to have effect on the
amplitude of the main beam.

However, when the patterns were plotted in H-plane, all conditions were found to have
an inverse effect.
y
was in control of the main beam steering and would also caused
changes in the sidelobes level. Thus, variation in
x
was discovered having the ability to
change the amplitude of the pattern as expected.

Smart Antenna for Wireless Applications Chapter 7: Antenna Synthesis Investigation
74

Chapter 7
Antenna Synthesis Investigation


Chapter 2 had covered the theory on antenna synthesis. In addition, it is important to
analyze the radiation patterns by using different systematic methods that may arrive at
an antenna configuration which will produce an acceptable approximates desired
pattern.

The two techniques, Woodward-Lawson Sampling Method and Dolph-Chebyshev
Method, which had been previously discussed, will be investigated in this chapter.
Firstly, the chapter will be covering on the Woodward-Lawson method. Simulations
will be carried out by varying the number of elements for synthesis on a sectored pattern
of a linear array. Following that, we will look into the area whereby the inter-element
spacing is varied for an 8 and 16 element linear array synthesizing.

The next section will be examining on the Dolph-Chebyshev method where all
observation is analyzed, in the event of changes in the number of elements or sidelobes
level for a linear array. Further investigation is performed by varying the inter-element
spacing for an 8 and 16 elements linear array. Finally, the chapter will conclude with
some discussions on the results achieved.

75
7.2 Woodward-Lawson Synthesis

This section explores the Woodward-Lawson method on linear array. The first part will
be analyzing the performance caused by variation in number of elements for synthesis
of a sectored pattern of a linear array while the next part will the analysis of varying
inter-element spacing for synthesizing an 8 and 20 element linear array.


The sector pattern will be defined as a 0dB between the angle of -30 and 30 with
60dB elsewhere.


Frequency = 2GHz
Inter-element spacing = 0.5

Syntheses were carried out using PCAAD and the results achieved were tabulated in
Table 7.1.

Figure 7.2a illustrated the radiation patterns for 8 elements linear array.

A MATLAB code was also written to design a radiation pattern for 10 elements
uniform linear array for inter-element spacing of wavelength. Refer to Appendix B
for the MATLAB code. Figure 7.2b illustrated the radiation pattern for this design.

76
Number of
elements
3dB Beamwidth
(degree)
Sidelobe level
(decibels)
Ripple, R
(decibels)
Transition width, T
(degree)
4 41.77 No sidelobes No ripple 46.8
8 50.17 -28.4 0.2 22.0
12 53.31 -29.6 0.3 14.8
16 54.93 -29.8 0.3 10.9
20 55.96 -30.0 0.3 8.7
40 57.96 -30.3 0.2 5.4
80 58.75 -45.5 0.2 2.4
160 59.04 -56.3 0.2 1.4

Table 7.1
Figure 7.2a Radiation pattern for 8 elements linear array

Figure 7.2b Radiation pattern
for 10 element uniform linear
array of wavelength inter-
element spacing
77

The inter-element spacing will be varied for synthesizing the 8 elements and 16
elements linear array. The radiation will be defined as 0dB at the angle of 0 for the
desired main beam and 60dB elsewhere. The frequency used will be 2GHz and the
wavelength is 15cm, which are the same for all other simulations that had been
performed.

Syntheses were carried out using PCAAD and the results achieved were tabulated in
Table 7.2.

Number of
elements
Inter-element spacing
(cm)
Sidelobe level
(decibels)
3dB Beamwidth
(degree)
Remarks
8
0.125
No Sidelobe 52.9 -
8
0.25
-12.8 25.73 2 sidelobes
8
0.375
-12.9 17.04 4 sidelobes
8
0.5
-12.8 12.74 6 sidelobes
8
0.625
-12.9 10.2 8 sidelobes
8
0.75
-12.9 8.46 10 sidelobes
8
0.875
-12.9 7.21 12 sidelobes
8

- - Grating lobes occurs at
90 and -90
16
0.125
-13.2 25.59 2 sidelobes
16
0.25
-13.2 12.68 6 sidelobes
16
0.375
-13.2 8.42 10 sidelobes
16
0.5
-13.3 6.29 14 sidelobes
16
0.625
-13.3 4.95 18 sidelobes
16
0.75
-13.2 4.17 22 sidelobes
16
0.875
-13.2 3.5 26 sidelobes
16

-13.3 2.96 Grating lobes occurs at
90 and -90

Table 7.2
78
Figure 7.2c and Figure 7.2d illustrated the radiation patterns of an 8 elements linear
array for an inter-element spacing of 0.25 and 0.75 respectively.

Figure 7.2c Radiation patterns of an 8 elements
linear array for an inter-element
spacing of 0.25
Figure 7.2d Radiation patterns of an 8 elements
linear array for an inter-element
spacing of 0.75
79
Figure 7.2e and Figure 7.2f displayed the radiation patterns of a 16 elements linear array
for an inter-element spacing of 0.25 and 0.75 respectively.

Figure 7.2f Radiation patterns of an 16
elements linear array for an inter-
element spacing of 0.75
Figure 7.2e Radiation patterns of an 16
elements linear array for an inter-
element spacing of 0.25
80
7.3 Dolph-Chebyshev Synthesis

This section studies the Dolph-Chebyshev method on linear array. Investigations are
carried out by varying the number of elements in the array and the sidelobe level of an 8
element linear array. Further observations are monitored by varying the inter-element
spacing of an 8 and 16 elements linear array.


The following assumptions are made for the investigation:

Normalized inter-element spacing = 0.5
Sidelobe level = 20dB

Syntheses were carried out using the MATLAB program. Appendix C provides the
MATLAB code for synthesis of N element linear array (2 N 10) using the Dolph-
Chebyshev method. All results achieved were tabulated in Table 7.3. In addition, the
results obtained were compared with the Ensemble 5.1 program, which yields similar
details.

Number of
elements
3 dB Beamwidth
(degree)
Remarks
2 59.9
Main beam with no sidelobe
4 30.0 2 sidelobes appear

Table 7.3
81
Using the Dolph-Chebyshev method, Figure 7.3a was generated and displayed the
radiation patterns for the 10 elements linear array. Figure 7.3a(i) illustrated the plot
generated from MATLAB while Figure 7.3a(ii) displayed one that was from Ensemble.
Both yielded the same results.

Figure 7.3a
150 100 50 0
0
-20
-30
-10
-40
(i) Radiation pattern for 10 elements array using MATLAB
(ii) Radiation pattern for 10 elements array using Ensemble
82
7.3.2 Effect of Varying Sidelobe Level

The following assumptions are made for the synthesis:

Normalized inter-element spacing = 0.5

In this section, syntheses were also carried out using the MATLAB program and all
results achieved were compared with the Ensemble program. Likewise, both programs
generated similar results and the data obtained was tabulated in Table 7.4.

Sidelobe level
(dB)
3 dB Beamwidth
(degree)
Remarks

Figure 7.3b was generated and displayed the radiation patterns for the 8 elements linear
array with a 25dB sidelobe level. Figure 7.3b(i) illustrated the plot generated from
MATLAB while Figure 7.3b(ii) displayed the radiation pattern generated by Ensemble.

Table 7.4
83

150 100 50 0
0
-20
-30
-10
-40
Figure 7.3b
(ii) Radiation pattern for 8 elements array with 25dB
sidelobe level using Ensemble
(i) Radiation pattern for 8 elements array with 25dB
sidelobe level using MATLAB
84

This section will be analyzing on the radiation pattern for various inter-element spacing
for 8 and 16 elements linear array.

First and foremost, the following assumption is made:

Sidelobe level = 20dB

In addition to using the MATLAB program for all syntheses, Ensemble was also used to
verify the results achieved. Correspondingly, both programs produced comparable
results and the data obtained was tabulated in Table 7.5.

Number of
elements
Inter-element spacing
(Normalized)
3 dB Beamwidth
(degree)
Remarks
8 0.125 60.0
Main beam with no sidelobe
8 0.25 29.0 4 sidelobes appear
8 1 7.0 2 grating lobes and
12 sidelobes appear
16 1 3.2 2 grating lobes and
28 sidelobes appear

Table 7.5
85
Figure 7.3c illustrated the radiation patterns for an 8 elements linear array with a
normalized inter-element spacing of 0.5. Figure 7.3c (i) displayed the linear plot
generated by MATLAB while Figure7.3c (ii) displayed the plot that was produced using
Ensemble.

150 100 50 0
0
-20
-30
-10
-40
(i) Radiation pattern for 8 element linear array with
normalized inter-element spacing of 0.5 using MATLAB
(ii) Radiation pattern for 8 element linear array with
normalized inter-element spacing of 0.5 using Ensemble
Figure 7.3c
86
Figure 7.3d illustrated the radiation patterns for 16 elements linear array with a
normalized inter-element spacing of 0.5. Figure 7.3d (i) displayed the linear plot
generated by MATLAB while Figure7.3d (ii) displayed the plot that was produced
using Ensemble.

150 100 50 0
0
-20
-30
-10
-40
(i) Radiation pattern for 16 element linear array with
normalized inter-element spacing of 0.5 using MATLAB
(ii) Radiation pattern for 16 element linear array with
normalized inter-element spacing of 0.5 using Ensemble
Figure 7.3d
87
7.4 Discussion

(i) Woodward-Lawson Method

Synthesis results proved that the ripple rate would be higher if there was an increase in
the number of elements in the linear array. It was also observed that the Woodward-
Lawson method had low sidelobes level, which is a positive sign for designers.
Although it could be seen that a very good transition width was achieved as the number
of elements in the array increases, but low beam ripple could also be obtained at some
sacrifice in transition width.

Furthermore, the investigated results illustrated that increment in the inter-element
spacing resulted in a desired smaller 3dB beamwidth but more sidelobes were
generated. However, the sidelobes level remained the same. Thus, this synthesis method
presented is most useful for shaping main beam of an antenna pattern as the sidelobe
level is at a satisfactory level.

(ii) Dolph-Chebyshev Method

The Dolph-Chebyshev method implemented showed that for a given sidelobe level, a
narrow 3dB beamwidth could be achieved by increasing the number of elements in the
array. Although the number of sidelobes increases with an increase in number of
elements, but the sidelobe level remained the same.

In addition, for a fix number of elements and inter-element spacing, it was found that
the 3dB beamwidth increases when the sidelobe level decreases but the number of
sidelobes did not change. Examining the tabulated results also illustrated that the 3dB
beamwidth decreases with an increasing inter-element spacing. However, the number of
sidelobes multiples. Grating lobes were also generated when an inter-element spacing
was equal to the wavelength. Last but not least, the result shows that this synthesis
technique can be applied for achieving a narrow beamwidth accompanied by low
sidelobes level.
Smart Antenna for Wireless Applications Chapter 8: Recursive Least Squares Algorithm Analysis
88

Chapter 8
Recursive Least Squares Algorithm
Analysis


After covering the basic concept of Recursive Least Squares algorithm in Chapter 4, the
objective of this chapter will be analyzing the radiation pattern of a uniform linear array
using the RLS approach. The MATLAB code for the RLS algorithm was formulated
and thus, compiling the codes on the computer will carry out the all the desired
simulations.

Refer to Appendix D for the MATLAB code.

8.2 Simulated Results

The following assumption are made for the simulations:

Frequency = 2GHz
Wavelength = 15cm
Inter-element spacing = 7.5cm
Forgetting factor = 0.95
No noise in received data
89
The radiation patterns were presented in both linear and polar plots. Figure 8.2a
illustrated the patterns of a 4 element linear array at 0 and Figure 8.2b illustrated the
radiation pattern of a 4 element linear array at 45.

Figure 8.2a Radiation pattern for 4 elements linear array at 0
(ii) Polar plot
(i) Linear plot
90

Figure 8.2b Radiation pattern for 4 element linear array at 45
(ii) Polar plot
(i) Linear plot
91
8.3 Discussion

Compiling the MATLAB code on Recursive Least Squares algorithm, the radiation
patterns of a 4 element linear array plotted were the consequences of the optimal weight
vector at the steady state multiply with the steering vector from the range of -90 to 90.
Regardless of numerous signal sources, only the optimal weight vector obtained
provided the maximal radiation pattern for each individual desired signal source at the
desired angle.

Nevertheless, the simulations performed were based on a known steering direction
whereby an angle for the signal source was designated. The radiation patterns plotted
were at 0 and 45. However, it must be noted that there may be some mismatch in the
time-variable signal environment as it requires to track the direction of the signal
source. Nevertheless, although the RLS algorithm was found to have a faster
convergence speed, but there is a greater computation complexity as shown in the
MATLAB code provided in Appendix D.

Smart Antenna for Wireless Applications Chapter 9: Conclusion and Future Developments
92

Chapter 9
Conclusion and Future Developments

9.1 Conclusion

This thesis had provided an introduction to basic antenna theory and a sound description
on the types of antennas that we would be using. Although the aim of thesis is the study
on smart antenna system, but the fundament antenna concept and the parameters of
antenna were examined. Thus, this had led to a better understanding on antennas.

Upon having a valuable knowledge on antenna, a detailed description on smart antenna
system was presented. That includes the benefits of smart antenna system, the
switching-beam array and adaptive array approaches, beam forming and the recursive
least squares algorithm.

In addition, the range of frequencies available for wireless communication technologies
can be utilized in various ways/schemes. Thus, the multiple access schemes, which
consist of the FDMA, TDMA, CDMA and SDMA, were introduced. It was also
discussed how channel capacity in wireless communication could be increased through
SDMA.

We had also investigated on the radiation pattern and performance of array antennas.
From the results of the simulations, it was seen that radiation patterns were related to
the number of elements in the array, the inter-element spacing, amplitude distribution
and the phase excitation. Thus, there is always a compromise between the influencing
parameters.
Smart Antenna for Wireless Applications Chapter 9: Conclusion and Future Developments
93
The next section had examined on antenna synthesis where investigations were carried
out using the Woodward-Lawson and Dolph-Chebyshev method. It was concluded that
different synthesis methods would have to be applied in order to yield different desired
radiation pattern. However, it was also possible for different methods to be integrated
together, thus forming an optimal desired pattern. Last but not least, an adaptive
algorithm known as the Recursive Least Squares algorithm was analyzed and had
shown that a smooth estimation optimal response could be obtained.

In conclusion, this thesis had met the objective of studying and analyzing on the
performance of the smart antenna system. It had also provided a sense of achievement
as significant amount of work had been accomplished. However, there are still other
important areas that require further work and they will be illustrated in the last section.

9.2 Future Developments

Although this thesis had provided significant study on the smart antenna system for the
wireless communication environment, but there are still other equally important areas
that require our attention. They include analysis on circular array in addition to an in-
depth investigation on planar array.

Further research can also be done on different methods of antenna synthesis as this
thesis had covered only the Woodward-Lawson and Dolph-Chebyshev methods. The
other techniques include the Schelkunoff Polynomial Method, Fourier Transform
Method and Taylor Line-Source (One-Parameter).

The implementation of the complex smart antenna system requires adaptive algorithms
for estimation of the optimal response and reducing the effects of noise in the time-
variable environment. Although recent evolution had made it feasible, there is always a
challenge to improve these algorithms for faster and more complex processing as the
world enters into the future of a wireless dimension.

References

1. K.F. Lee: Principles of Antenna Theory, John Wiley & Sons, New York,
1984.

2. G.T. Okamato: Smart Antenna Systems and Wireless LANs, Kluwer
Academic, Massachusettes, 1999.

3. C.A. Balanis: Antenna Theory, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1997.

4. W.S. Strutzman and G.A. Thiele: Antenna Theory and Design, John Wiley &
Sons, New York, 1981.

5. M.T. Ma: Theory and Application of Antenna Arrays, John wiley & Sons,
New York, 1974.

6. T. Macnamara: Handbook of Antennas for EMC, Artech House, London,
1995.

7. P.H. Lehne and M. Pettersen, An Overview of Smart Antenna Technology for
Mobil Communications System, Surveys,
http://www.comsoc.org/pubs/surveys/4q99issue/lehne.html

8. J.C. Liberti Jr. and T.S. Rappaport: Smart Antennas for Wireless
Communications: IS-95 and Third Generation CDMA Applications, Prentice
Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, 1999.

9. I.E. Sutherland et al., Experimental Evaluation of Smart Antenna System
Performance for Wireless Communications, IEEE Transactions on Antennas
and Propagation, Vol. 46, No. 6, Jun. 1998, pp. 794-757.

10. L.C. Godara, Applications of Antenna Arrays to Mobile Communication, Part
I: Performance, Improvement, Feasibility and Systems Considerations,
Proceedings of the IEEE, Vol. 85, No. 7, Jul. 1997, pp. 1029-1060.

11. S. Sampei: Applications of Digital Wireless Technologies to Global Wireless
Communications, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, 1997.

12. R. Prasad: CDMA for Wireless Personal Communications, Artech House,
Boston, 1996.

13. T.S. Rappaport: Wireless Communications: Principles & Practice, Prentice
Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, 1996.

14. S.Haykin: Adaptive Filter Theory, Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 1991.

Appendix A

% Planar Array

teta = -90:1:90;
theta = teta*pi/180;

ph = 0; % E-plane, phi = 90 for H-plane
phi = ph*pi/180; % Convert to radian

bx = 0; % Phase shift in x-direction
by = 0; % Phase shift in y-direction

beta_x = (bx/180)*pi; % Convert to radian
beta_y = (by/180)*pi; % Convert to radian

x = 8.3; % Inter-element spacing in x-direction
y = 9; % Inter-element spacing in y-direction

k = (2*pi)/(3e10/2e9); % Wave number

% Progreesive phase value in x-direction
phix = k*x*sin(theta).*cos(phi) + beta_x;

% Progreesive phase value in y-direction
phiy = k*y*sin(theta).*sin(phi) + beta_y;

ix1 = 1; % Excitation of each element
ix2 = 1;
iy1 = 1;
iy2 = 1;

% Array factor of array in the x-direction
Sx = ix1+ix2*exp(j*phix);

% Array factor of array in the y-direction
Sy = iy1+iy2*exp(j*phiy);

load A:\eplane.dat % load data of single element
Edb = eplane(:,2);
E = 10.^(Edb/20); % Covert to ratio
subplot(2,2,1); % Define plot area

% Plot radiation pattern of a Single microstrip element
h = polar(theta',abs(E));
set(h,'color','red');
h = ylabel('Single Element');
set(h,'color','red');

AF = abs(Sx.*Sy); % Array factor of planar array

% Plot radiation pattern of array factor of planar array
h1 = polar(theta,AF);
set(h1,'color','magenta');
h1 = ylabel('Array Factor');
set(h1,'color','magenta');

overall = abs(AF'.*E); % Pattern multiplication

% Plot overall radiation pattern of planar array
h2 = polar(theta',overall); set(h2,'color','blue');
h2 = ylabel('Overall pattern');
set(h2,'color','blue');

range_x = pi*(90/pi);
range_x1 = -pi*(90/pi);
theta = linspace(range_x1,range_x,181);
h3 = plot(theta',overall); % Plot in rectangular pattern

% Initialize y-axis for linear plot
x_axis = pi*(90/pi);
% Initialize y-axis for linear plot

x_axis1 = -pi*(90/pi);
axis([x_axis1 x_axis exp(-4) 5]); % Plot linear pattern
set(h3,'color','green');
h3 = ylabel('Linear Plot');
set(h3,'color','green');
grid;

Appendix B

%This program uses the Woodward-Lawson synthesis, to design
a %radiation pattern for a 10 elements uniform linear
%array with an element spacing of one half the wavelength.

t = 0:1:180;
theta = t*pi/180;
p5m = 1; n5m = -1; %cos(theta-m)
p4m = 0.8; n4m = -0.8;
p3m = 0.6; n3m = -0.6;
p2m = 0.4; n2m = -0.4;
p1m = 0.2; n1m = -0.2;
p0m = 0;

b5m = 0; nb5m = 0; %Excitation at the sample
points
b4m = 0; nb4m = 0;
b3m = 1; nb3m = 1;
b2m = 1; nb2m = 1;
b1m = 1; nb1m = 1;
b0m = 1;

a5 = cos(theta) - p5m;

%Pattern of each composing function
AF5 = ((sin(5.*pi.*a5))./(sin((pi.*a5)./2)).*b5m)./10;






an1 = cos(theta) - n1m;
AFn1 = ((sin(5.*pi.*an1))./(sin((pi.*an1)./2)).*nb1m)./10;





%Summation of composing functions
total = AF5 + AF4 + AF3 + AF2 + AF1 + AF0 + AFn1 + AFn2 +
AFn3 + AFn4 + AFn5;
tot = abs(total);

polar(theta,tot);%Plot polar pattern
pause
plot(t,tot); %Plot linear pattern
xlabel('Theta (Degrees)');
ylabel('Normalized Magnitude');
grid;

Appendix C

clc; % Clear screen
clear; % Clear all variables

% Prompt user for number of elements in an array.
disp(' ')
disp('Please enter the number of elements in the array.')
disp(' ')
disp('Assuming that the array has at least 2 elements')
disp('but not more than 10 elements.')
disp(' ')
N = input(['Number of elements in the array = ']);

% Prompt user for the required Side Lobe Level.
clc;
disp(' ')
disp('Please enter the required side lobe level in
decibels.')
disp(' ')
SLL = input(['Side lobe level(dB) = ']);
R = 10^(SLL/20); % Convert to ratio
Zo = cosh((1/(N-1))*acosh(R)); % Determine Zo

% Prompt user for the Normalised Inter-element Spacing.
clc;
disp(' ')
disp('Please enter one of the following inter-element
spacing (Normalised).')
disp(' ')
disp('Press "a" for 1/4 wavelength.')
disp('Press "b" for 1/2 wavelength.')
disp('Press "c" for 3/4 wavelength.')
disp('Press "d" for full wavelength.')
disp(' ')

a=0.25;
b=0.5;
c=0.75;
d=1;
spacing = input(['Inter-element spacing (Normalised) = ']);
t = 0:1:179;
theta = t*pi/180; % Convert to radian
u = pi*spacing*cos(theta);

clc;
disp(' ')
disp(['Number of elements = ' num2str(N)])
disp(['Side lobe level = ' num2str(SLL) ' dB'])
disp(['Inter-element spacing (Normalised) = '
num2str(spacing)])

if N<=10

if N == 2;

AFp = [1]; % Polynomial of excitation coefficient

AFc = [1*Zo]; % Chebyshev polynomial

X = AFp\AFc; % Determine the excitation coefficient

Xo = X/X(1,1); % Normalized with respect to the amplitude
% of the elements at the edge

AF = abs(Xo(1,1)*cos(u)); % Determine the array factor

subplot(2,2,1);
polar(theta,AF); % Generate polar plot

AF1=20*log10(AF); % Convert to decibels
max=max(AF1); % Setting maximum value of the
% array factor to "max"
AF2=AF1-max; % Set values of array factor
% with respect to maximum value
theta1=(180/pi)*theta;
subplot(2,2,2);
plot(theta1,AF2); % Generate linear plot
axis([0 180 -40 0]); % Set maximum and minimum
%values for X and Y scales
grid % Turn grid on

elseif N == 3;

AFp = [0,2;
1,-1]; % Polynomial of excitation coefficient

AFc = [2*Zo^2; % Chebyshev polynomial
-1];


Xo = X/X(2,1); % Normalized with respect to the amplitude
% of the elements at the edge

% Determine the array factor
AF = abs(Xo(1,1)+Xo(2,1)*cos(2*u));

subplot(2,2,1);

subplot(2,2,2);
% values for X and Y scales
grid % Turn grid on

elseif N==4;

AFp = [0,4;
1,-3]; % Polynomial of excitation coefficient

AFc = [4*Zo^3;
-3*Zo]; % Chebyshev polynomial

Xo = X/X(2,1); % Normalized with respect to the
% amplitude of the elements at the edge

AF = abs(Xo(1,1)*cos(u)+Xo(2,1)*cos(3*u));
subplot(2,2,1);

subplot(2,2,2);
grid % Turn grid on

elseif N == 5;

AFp = [0,0,8;
0,2,-8;
1,-1,1]; % Polynomial of excitation coefficient

AFc = [8*Zo^4;
-8*Zo^2;
1]; % Chebyshev polynomial


AF = abs(Xo(1,1)+Xo(2,1)*cos(2*u)+Xo(3,1)*cos(4*u));
subplot(2,2,1);

subplot(2,2,2);
grid % Turn grid on

elseif N==6;

AFp = [0,0,16;
0,4,-20;
1,-3,5,]; % Polynomial of excitation coefficient

AFc = [16*Zo^5;
-20*Zo^3;
5*Zo]; % Chebyshev polynomial



AF = abs(Xo(1,1)*cos(u)+Xo(2,1)*cos(3*u)+Xo(3,1)*cos(5*u));
subplot(2,2,1);

subplot(2,2,2);
grid % Turn grid on

elseif N == 7;

AFp = [0,0,0,32;
0,0,8,-48;
0,2,-8,18
1,-1,1,-1]; % Polynomial of excitation coefficient

AFc = [32*Zo^6;
-48*Zo^4;
18*Zo^2;
-1]; % Chebyshev polynomial



AF =
abs(Xo(1,1)+Xo(2,1)*cos(2*u)+Xo(3,1)*cos(4*u)+Xo(4,1)*cos(6
*u));

subplot(2,2,1);

max=max(AF1); %Setting maximum value of the
subplot(2,2,2);
grid % Turn grid on

elseif N==8;

AFp = [0,0,0,64;
0,0,16,-112;
0,4,-20,56;
1,-3,5,-7,]; % Polynomial of excitation coefficient

AFc = [64*Zo^7;
-112*Zo^5;
56*Zo^3;
-7*Zo]; % Chebyshev polynomial



AF =
abs(Xo(1,1)*cos(u)+Xo(2,1)*cos(3*u)+Xo(3,1)*cos(5*u)+Xo(4,1
)*cos(7*u));
subplot(2,2,1);

subplot(2,2,2);
grid % Turn grid on

elseif N == 9;

AFp = [0,0,0,0,128;
0,0,0,32,-256;
0,0,8,-48,160;
0,2,-8,18,-32;
1,-1,1,-1,1]; % Polynomial of excitation coefficient

AFc = [128*Zo^8;
-256*Zo^6;
160*Zo^4;
-32*Zo^2;
1]; % Chebyshev polynomial



AF =
abs(Xo(1,1)+Xo(2,1)*cos(2*u)+Xo(3,1)*cos(4*u)+Xo(4,1)*cos(6
*u)+Xo(5,1)*cos(8*u));

subplot(2,2,1);

subplot(2,2,2);
grid % Turn grid on

elseif N==10;

AFp = [0,0,0,0,256;
0,0,0,64,-576;
0,0,16,-112,432;
0,4,-20,56,-120;
1,-3,5,-7,9]; % Polynomial of excitation coefficient

AFc = [256*Zo^9;
-576*Zo^7;
432*Zo^5;
-120*Zo^3;
9*Zo]; % Chebyshev polynomial



AF =
abs(Xo(1,1)*cos(u)+Xo(2,1)*cos(3*u)+Xo(3,1)*cos(5*u)+Xo(4,1
)*cos(7*u)+Xo(5,1)*cos(9*u));
subplot(2,2,1);


subplot(2,2,2);
axis([0 180 -40 0]); % Set maximum and minimum values
%for X and Y scales
grid % Turn grid on

end
else
disp(' ')
disp(' ')
disp(' ')
disp(' ')
disp(' ')
disp(' ')
disp(' ')
disp(' ')
disp(' ')
disp(' ')
disp('Invalid value !!!')
disp(' ')
disp('Press any key to exit........')
pause
end

Appendix D

%Number of element
M = input(['Number of elements in array : ']);

%Direction of desired signal
a = input(['Steering angle in degrees : ']);

x = a*pi/180; %Convert to radian

% initializing the algorithm
I = eye(M); %M X M identity matrix
delta = 1e-6; %Small positive constant
P0 = inv(delta)*I; %Initialize the algorithm
w0 = (linspace(0,0,M))'; %Initial weight vector

for n = 1:100 %Number of iterations
B = steeringv(M,x); %Steering vector
X = B'*n;
wq = B';
dn = conj(wq)'*X; %Desired response vector
un = X; %Input data vector
forget = 0.95; %Forgetting factor

pin = un'*P0; %Calculate pi(n)
kn = forget + (pin*un); %Calculate k(n)
Kn = (P0*un)/(kn); %Calculate K(n)
an = dn - (conj(w0)'*un); %Calculate alpha(n)
wn = w0 + (Kn*conj(an)); %Calculate w(n)
Pn = (1/forget)*[P0 - [P0*un*un'*P0]/kn];%Calculate P(n)

P0 = Pn;
w0 = wn;
end

for ang = -90:1:90 %linear plot
n = 91 + ang;
angl(n) = ang;
x = ang*pi/180;
A = steeringv(M,x);
out = (w0'*A'); %Multiply with steering vector
output(n) = abs(out);
output1 = output/max(output); %Normalize to unity
xlabel('Angle in degree');
ylabel('Normalize array gain')
plot(angl,output1); %Plot linear pattern
axis tight;
xlabel('Angle (Degrees)');
ylabel('Normalized Array Gain (Ratio)');
grid;
end

pause
ang = -90:1:90;
y = ang*pi/180;
polar(y,output1); %polar plot

function S = steeringv(M,x); %define steering vector

%free space wavelength of 15cm at resonant freq of 2GHz
lamda = 0.15;

d = lamda/2; %inter-element spacing
K = 1:M;

%x is DOA of the received signal
S = exp((-2*pi*j*(K-1)*d*sin(x))/lamda);

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