TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES FOR QUALITY IMPROVEMENT Check Sheet.

Check sheets provide a systematic means of collecting and analysing data. Check sheets are special types of data collection forms in which the results may be interpreted on the form directly without additional processing. Check sheets facilitate systematic record keeping or data collection. Observations are recorded as they happen, which reveals patterns or trends. Histogram. Histograms display large amounts of data that are difficult to interpret in their raw form. By providing a visual summary of the data, histograms reveal whether the process is centred around a target value, the degree of variation in the data and whether the data meet specifications. Thus, histograms could help in identifying process capability relative to customer requirements. A histogram analyses and graphically displays quantitative data rather than qualitative data. TQM practitioners use histograms to display information about process and activity performance. Histograms are most effective when they display information with some natural order, such as number of defects found. Histograms help managers to achieve deeper insight into the characteristics of data distributions associated with activities. Practitioners of TQM use histograms to summarise data and display patterns. They know that any set of observations must display some variation. Histograms present graphic pictures that quickly summarise this variation. Pattern of histograms capture three critical traits of distribution: (1) Centre of the Distribution. This point usually coincides with the mean of the overall distribution. The theoretical mean should fall at the centre of the histograms graphic picture of the distribution. (2) Width of the Distribution. In statistics, the difference between the highest and lowest value in a distribution is its range. A histogram graphically shows the range as the width of the distribution, which often indicates how predictably the activity that generated the distribution operates. A wider distribution represents a less predictable activity, a narrower distribution indicates a more predictable activity. (3) Sample of the Distribution. The overall shape of the distribution often indicates different problems in the data or influences on the overall distribution. Scatter Diagram (or scatter plots). Scatter diagrams are used to determine whether relationship really exists between two process characteristics and direction of the relationship. A scatter diagram graphically illustrates the relationship between variables, typically based on quantitative data. They reveal bi-variate relationships, that is relationships between pairs of variables, such as number of defects per batch against changes in the speed of production line, or production time per unit against hours of training. Scatter diagrams are the graphical component of regression analysis. They point out important relationships between variables, such as the percentage of an ingredient in an alloy and hardness of the alloy. Typically, the variables in question represent possible causes and effects obtained from Ishikawa diagrams. Statistical correlation analysis is used to interpret scatter diagrams. If the correlation is positive, an increase in a particular variable (say x) is related to an increase in another variable (say y), if the correlation is negative, an increase in x is related to a decrease in y, and if the correlation is close to zero, the variables have no linear relationship. Cause and Effect Diagram (or Ishikawa diagram or Fish-Bone diagram). It was developed by Dr. Karou Ishikawa, a professor of Tokyo University. It is an effective tool for diagnosing a problem. The diagram lists out in a classified and systematic manner, all reasons (cause) that are responsible for the problem (effect). The diagram consists of a main line to represent the actual problem and a few diagonal lines to represent the major causes materials, men, methods, machines and horizontal or slanting arrows to represent sub-causes underlying each main cause. This is a diagram which gives the relationship between quality characteristic and its factors. It is a pictorial presentation in which all possible causes and their effects (problems) are displayed. A problem can be due to a variety of reasons or causes. The solution to the problem becomes simpler and easier if only true causes for the problem can be identified. Variation in process output and other quality problems can occur for a variety of reasons such as materials, machines, method, people and measurement. The goal of problem-solving is to
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identify the causes of problems in order to correct them. The cause-and-effect diagram is an important tool in this task, as it assists the generation of ideas for problem causes and in turn, serves as a basis for solution finding. The cause-and-effect diagram was introduced by Karou Ishikawa of Japan. It is a simple graphical method for presenting a chain of causes and effects and for sorting out causes and organising relationships between variables. Types of cause-and-effect diagrams. Two basic types of cause-and-effect diagrams are dispersion analysis and process classification. Dispersion analysis identifying and classifying possible causes for a specific quality problem. The fish bone provides a chain of logical relationships among potential causes. A process classification cause-and-effect diagram is based on a flowchart of the process. The key factors that influence quality at each step are drawn on the flowchart. Construction of cause-and-effect diagram Cause-and-effect diagrams are constructed in a brainstorming type of atmosphere. Everyone can get involved and feel they are an important part of the problem-solving process. Usually small groups drawn from manufacturing or management work with a trained and experienced facilitator. As a group technique, the cause-and-effect method requires significant interaction between group members. The facilitator who listens carefully to the participants can capture the important ideas. Advantages of cause-and-effect diagrams (i) By constructing cause and effect diagram, the potential causes of a problem become readily apparent. Each of these can be evaluated one by one in order to find the true cause of the problem. (ii) Cause and effect diagrams are frequently constructed by the use of brainstorming that enables to develop a wide variety of possible causes for a problem. (iii) By using cause-and-effect diagrams, it is possible to reduce defects and thus improve quality. (iv) Through cause-and-effect diagram, a clear picture of the process is seen visually. It educates people to improve their skills and helps in understanding the process better. (v) It is an effective tool for the diagnosis of the various causes of the problem and helping to solve the problem. Pareto Chart (or Pareto Analysis or Pareto Diagram). Every problem is the result of few causes and all causes are not equally important. Some causes are more significant than others. Paretos analysis underlines and operates on the simple philosophy of vital few; trivial many. Pareto was an Italian economist, who, after detailed studies concluded in 1906 that 70-80 percent of the income of a nation is in the hands of 20-30 percent of its citizens. Later, Dr. Juran, an American expert on quality control demonstrated the applicability of Paretos law for defect identification and defect prevention by demonstrating that 20-30% of the causes are responsible for 70-80% of the defectives. Pareto analysis is a technique based on the Pareto principle of the vital few and the trivial many. The Pareto principle is also called the 80-20 rule, that is, approximately 20 percent of a group of items, people, inventory, causes and the like account for approximately 80 percent of the work, effort, problems and the like. A Pareto diagram is a bar chart that illustrates the frequency of recurrences or the cost of a set of items. The items are shown in the descending order of importance from left to right. By highlighting the most frequent or most costly items, Pareto diagrams can help a team focus its efforts. Process Diagram. It is both a supplement and substitute of flow charts. It is an aid to visualise the movement of material on an existing floor layout. A single line is drawn to scale on the floor plan to represent the physical movement of material through the entire plant. These show backtracking and excessive movement of materials and helps in relocation of plant activities to reduce travel distance. Statistical Quality Control Statistical quality control is applied by taking samples and drawing conclusions by means of some mathematical analysis. Variation in the quality of the product is an inherent characteristic of s manufacturing system. Irrespective of all possible precautions and quality measures there are always a large number of random disturbances responsible for deviation in the quality of the product from the set standards. The sources of these disturbances are
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known as chance causes, for example, movement of the machine due to passing traffic, sudden changes in temperature, etc. the presence of these causes in the system is due to a multitude of reasons which are difficult to identify and uneconomical to eliminate. There is very little we can do about these. There may be other sources of variations in a system which further cause the product to deviate from set standards. These individual causes can be identified and eliminated economically. The magnitude of variability due to these causes varies with the conditions of the production process, nature of the raw material, behaviour of operations, etc. These causes are known as assignable causes. The reasons for the presence of assignable causes can be (i) differences among workers performance; (ii) differences among machines; (iii) variation in material; and (iv) variation due to the interaction of any two or all the three factors, for example, tool wear, errors in setting, poor machine maintenance, etc. the chance and assignable causes combine together to lower the quality of the product. Any item which is not in accordance with the quality specifications is known as defective item and is liable to be rejected by producer and consumer. The object of quality control is to minimise the proportion of defectives in the given lot. Inspection is the method of locating defective items by examining these against specifications and statistical quality control is to ascertain whether the variation in the quality of the product is due to chance cause or due to assignable causes. If the process is found to be in statistical control then it indicates that the variation in the quality is due to chance causes only; otherwise presence of assignable causes is detected and some corrective action is planned to improve the quality of the product. Control charts are the basis of statistical quality control technique. Benefits of statistical quality control: (1) The use of statistical quality control ensures rapid and efficient inspection at the minimum possible cost. (2) It minimises waste by identifying the causes of excessive variability in the quality of product. (3) Statistical quality control exerts more effective pressure for quality improvement than 100% inspection. Statistical quality control is systematic as compared to guess work of haphazard process in inspection. Application of statistical techniques further minimise bias and judgement errors. Modern techniques of statistical quality control and acceptance sampling have an important part to play in the improvement of quality, creation of consumer confidence, etc. Statistical Process Control Chart. Control charts are important statistical tools for quality control. They display the results of inspection of a continuous process and separate random variations due to real assignable causes from normal variations due to chance causes. They provide a convenient and rapid feedback as to what is happening, suggesting when adjustments, corrections or overhauls may be needed. The concept of control charts and their use in production systems was introduced by Shewart in 1924. Here the whole production line is divided into a number of sub-groups. The basis of selecting these sub-groups is such that variation in the quality of items within each sub-group is attributed due to chance causes whereas the corresponding variation between various subgroups can be due to assignable causes. The basis of sub-group selection is generally the order of production. The following factors should be considered while selecting a sub-group: (i) Each sub-group should be as homogeneous as possible. (ii) Sample should not be taken at exactly equal intervals of time. (iii) There must be a maximum opportunity for variation from one sub-group to another. The variation of quality characteristic within and between the sub-groups is analysed by some method to identify whether the process is in control or not. The method is based on the construction of control charts. Statistical Basis of Control Charts. In statistics it is assumed that various characteristics observed in different areas of study are found to follow any of the Normal, Poisson or

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Binomial distributions. These distributions are characterised by their mean and standard deviation. In the case of production process the quality characteristic Q can be expressed in terms of some dimension namely, life of an electric bulb, diameter of the rod, etc., or some other measure of performance namely, colour, weight, etc. Let the whole process be divided into K sub-groups each containing n items. Now the quality characteristic can be measured for all the items of various sub-groups. The mean and standard deviation of the quality characteristic can be calculated for each sub-group in the usual manner. Now statistical theory assumes that if M and are the mean and standard deviation of the quality characteristic over all sub-groups, then the quality characteristic Q will follow any of the standard distributions (normal, binomial, or poisson) with mean M and standard deviation . Also ,statistical theory states that for sample size to be sufficiently large, every theoretical distribution tends to a normal distribution. In a normal distribution M3 limits contains approximately 99.73% of the observations. Similarly, M1.963 limits contains 95% observations. This fundamental concept of normal distribution becomes the basis of control charts, that is, if all the values of Q lie within M3 limits, then this is an indication that assignable causes are absent and the process is said to be in control. Otherwise the process is said to be out of control, some remedial action is planned. M+3 and M-3 are known as upper and lower control limits, (UCL and LCL) respectively. The fixation of the control limits for a process is based on the assumption that the system is stable and only chance cause are present. In case assignable causes are operative in the system, then quality characteristics will fall outside the two control limits. Interpretation of control chart (i) If all the points in the chart lie within UCL and LCL, then the process is said to be in control indicating presence of chance causes only. (ii) If one or more points lie beyond UCL or LCL, then the process is said to be out of control showing the presence of assignable causes and the necessity of some remedial measures. (iii) If the points lie predominantly on one side of the centre line then it is not safe to derive any conclusion about the process control. Thus, a control chart is a graphical representation of the range of expected variability in a production process. Acceptance Sampling. In a nutshell, acceptance sampling is a system that determines whether an entire lot of goods should be accepted or rejected. In the simplest case of acceptance sampling, we draw a random sample of size n from the total lot N and decide whether or not to accept the entire lot based upon the sample. If the sample signals to reject the lot, it may either be subjected to 100% inspection, sorting out bad parts, or to be returned to the original supplier, which may be a vendor or other department within the organisation. Acceptance sampling techniques available for different situations are: Sampling by Variables: Where we make an actual measurement of some kind which indicates how good or bad a part is. Sampling by attributes: Where we simply classify parts as good or bad; Acceptance sampling attempts to control the quality that passes an inspection point after production. In general, acceptance sampling is appropriate when: Possible losses by passing defective items are not great and the cost of inspection is relatively high. In the limiting situation, this can mean no inspection at all. Inspection requires destruction of the product. Further handling of any kind is likely to induce defects, or when mental or physical fatigue is an important factor in inspection. In either instance, a sampling plan may actually pass fewer defective items than would 100% inspection. But, it costs less. Advantages of acceptance sampling: It is very useful in mass production. It is economical, easy to understand, and easy to conduct. It causes much less fatigue to inspectors. Computation work is simple.

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Disadvantages of acceptance sampling: It does not give definite assurance for confirmation of the specification. Decision of acceptance or rejection is based only on the sample drawn from the batch. Different types of control charts: Control charts can be categorised in two categories: (i) Control charts for variables. (ii) Control charts for attributes. When the quality characteristic is capable of direct quantitative measurement, then the control is exerted by examining the variables and the control chart is known as chart for variables, for example, life of some item, diameter of a screw, etc. Such characteristics usually follow normal distribution. The charts for variables are known as X (Mean) and R (Range) charts. Control Charts 284 bhat Service Quality 640, 428

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