F7.1 Use of Food Additives

Serbian Enterprise Development Project: Use of Food Additives
Dr. Lisa Mauer Associate Professor Department of Food Science Purdue University
Overview
Definitions of food additives Regulatory information Classification of food additives Specific categories and uses of food additives Organic Shelf-Life
Introduction
Definitions and functions
Food additive categories Functions of direct food additives Utilization of food additives Functions
Sweeteners Acidulants Thickeners and stabilizers Emulsifiers Flavors Colors Vitamins Preservatives Antioxidants Enzymes
Government regulations Organic
Regulations
Definitions of Additives Regulations for Use of Food Additives

National Academy of Sciences, Subcommittee on Food Protection
A substance or mixture of substances, other than a basic food stuff, which is present in food as a result of any aspect of production, processing, storage, or packaging but not including contaminants that enter foods by chance
United States Food and Drug Administration

Any substance, the intended use of which results or may reasonably be expected to result, directly or indirectly, in its becoming a component or otherwise affecting the characteristics of any food, which is present in food as a result of any aspect of production, processing, storage, or packaging
Regulations
Regulations
Regulatory Status of Food Ingredients

USA
Responsible agency: Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
Others: Food Safety Inspection Service (FSIS), United Stated Department of Agriculture (USDA), National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) FDA approves use of food additives in USA and sets limits on appropriate usage applications and levels
Role of Organizations related to Food Additives

Food Chemicals Codex National academy of sciences directed group that develops identity specifications, purity specifications, and testing methods
FCC
Other countries
FAO/WHO Joint Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA)
Judges safety of food ingredients on a worldwide basis Establishes acceptable daily intakes for specific food additives Many countries contribute to JECFA activities
FEMA GRAS Panel

Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Associations Generally Recognized as Safe Expert Panel FEMA is the industry trade association that sponsors the panel The panel judges the safety of flavors and extracts The panel is composed of toxicologists from universities and independent consulting firms
Each country has its own regulations
Dr. Lisa Mauer, Purdue University, September 2006
Regulations
Regulations
US: Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act

In the US, the major legislation pertaining to foods and food ingredients was passed in 1938 and is called the Food, Drug, & Cosmetic Act. Amendments relating to food additives and color additives were passed later.
Food Additive Amendment (1958)
Approves intentional food chemicals under the following classes:
Generally recognized as safe (GRAS), in CFR title 21 Prior sanction, excluded from food additives definition Food additives petition
US: Delaney Clause, 1958

A provision of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, that governs the setting of pesticide residue tolerances in the approval process of food additives, color additives, or new animal drugs. The Delaney Clause bars the Environmental Protection Agency from granting any tolerance for a pesticide residue that has been found to induce cancer in humans or in animals, if it concentrates during processing. 21 USC: 348, page 280. Section 409 of the Delaney Clause specified: "No additive shall be deemed to be safe if it is found to induce cancer when ingested by man or animal, or if it is found, after tests which are appropriate for the evaluation of the safety of food additives, to induce cancer in man or animals."
Color Additive Amendment (1960)
Regulations
US: Specifications for Food Ingredients
Regulations
FDA CFR Title 21:
Code of Federal Regulations (CFR)

21 CFR Part 172: direct food additives 21 CFR Part 173: secondary direct food additives 21 CFR Part 175-179: indirect food additives 21 CFR Part 182: GRAS 21 CFR Part 184: GRAS 21 CFR Part 70-82: color additives
Food Chemicals Codex: National Academy of Sciences

Specifications for identity Specifications for purity Test methods
Company generated specifications
Regulations
Regulations
Other FDA Regulations

Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) Regulations
21 CFR 110
US: Food Definitions and Standards
Nutritional Quality Guidelines

21 CFR 104
Established by FDA and published in 21 CFR 100-169
Food Labeling
21 CFR 101
Nutritional Labeling Guidelines

Nutritional Labeling and Education Act (NLEA) of 1990
Recall Guidelines
21 CFR 7.40
Fair Packaging and Labeling Act
Standards of Identity Standards of Quality Standards of Fill
Regulations
Regulations
Regulations
Regulations
Regulations
Regulations
Regulations
Regulations
Food/Ingredient Analysis
Association of Official Analytical Chemists
AOAC Official Methods of Analysis www.aoac.org

AOAC Methods
45. Vitamins and Other Nutrients 45.1 Chemical Methods 45.2 Microbiological Methods 45.3 Bioassay Methods 45.4 Nutritionally Related Components 46. Color Additives 46.1 Separation and Identification of Color Additives in Foods, Drugs, and Cosmetics 46.2 Intermediates 46.3 Subsidiary and Lower Sulfonated Dyes 46.4 Metals and Other Elements 46.5 Halogens 46.6 Miscellaneous 47. Food Additives: Direct 47.1 General Methods 47.2 Antioxidants 47.3 Chemical Preservatives 47.4 Emulsifying Agents 47.5 Enzymes 47.6 Miscellaneous 48. Food Additives: Indirect 33. Dairy Products 33.1 Sampling 33.2 Milk 33.3 Cream 33.4 Evaporated and Condensed Milk 33.5 Dried Milk, Nonfat Dry Milk, and Malted Milk 33.6 Butter 33.7 Cheese 33.8 Ice Cream and Frozen Desserts 34. Eggs and Egg Products 35. Fish and Other Marine Products 36. Flavors 36.1 General Methods 36.2 Vanilla Extract and Its Substitutes 36.3 Lemon, Orange, and Lime Extracts, Flavors, and Oils 36.4 Almond Extract 36.5 Cassia, Cinnamon, and Clove Extracts 36.6 Flavor Extracts and Toilet Preparations 37. Fruits and Fruit Products
Regulations
Food Additive Regulations in Europe
Regulations
UK Food Additive Regulations
European Parliament and Council Directive 89/107/EEC of December 21, 1988

All permitted food additives must be assessed by the European Scientific Committee for Food (SCF) for their safety against the criteria that are listed in the Annex of the Directive
Sweeteners: Directive 94/35/EC of June 1994 Food colors: Directive 94/36/EC of June 1994 Food additives other than colors and sweeteners: Directive 95/2/EC of February 1995
Regulations
Regulations
EU: E Numbers
E numbers are codes for food additives and are usually found on food labels throughout the European Union. The numbering scheme follows that of the International Numbering System (INS) as determined by the Codex Alimentarius committee. Only a subset of the INS additives are approved for use in the European Union, giving rise to the 'E' prefix.
Wikipedia.com
EU: E Numbers
In the European common market, E numbers are given to additives as they are approved. E-numbers are numerical designations which have been developed within the European Community (EC) for declaration of foodstuff additives. There are a number of sources for lists of E-numbers on the Internet, including:
http://www.elc-eu.org/approved.htm http://www.fst.rdg.ac.uk/foodlaw/additive.htm http://www.eurunion.org/legislat/Foodstuffs/ENumbers.htm
The UK Food Standards Agency publishes a listing of E numbers split into major additive categories (colours, preservatives, etc.). Copies are available on the Internet in pdf format at: http://www.food.gov.uk/multimedia/pdfs/elist_numbers.pdf The numbering system is being adapted for international use by the Codex Alimentarius Commission who are developing an International Numbering System (INS). This largely uses the same numbers (but without the E).
Wikipedia.com
Regulations
Regulations
E Numbers
E Numbers
Wikipedia.com
Wikipedia.com
Regulations
Regulations
E Numbers
Food Additive Regulations in Japan

The Food Chemistry Division of the Ministry of Health and Welfare (MHW) has jurisdiction over food additives through the Food Sanitation Law that was enacted in January 1948 Kohetisho = the Japanese Codex of Food Additives
Wikipedia.com
Regulations
Regulations
How other countries regulate food additives
www.faia.org.uk (United Kingdom) www.foodlaw.rdg.ac.uk/uk/reg-ni.htm (Northern Ireland) www.foodstandards.gov/uk/scotland/regulations (Scotland) www.foodstandards.gov.au (Australia, New Zealand) www.inspection.gc.ca/english/reg/rege.shtml (Canada) Many others
Classifications
Classification of Additives: US Regulatory Status
1. GRAS ingredients
Classification of Additives
Exempt from regulation because their extensive use has produced no known harmful effects
2. Prior sanctioned substances

Approved by FDA or USDA prior to 1958 Food Additives Amendment
3. Approved food additives

Direct and indirect additives
Classifications
Classifications
Classification of Additives: Direct, Secondary Direct, Indirect

Direct
Substances intentionally added to food to achieve a specific purpose and remain in the food as consumed
Most are direct, aspartame in diet beverages
1.
2.
Secondary direct
Substances added to foods for a specific purpose but which are removed from the final product before consumption
Propellant gases in pressurized foods
3.
Indirect
Become part of the food in trace amounts as the result of packaging, handling, or storage practices. Have no function in the finished product
Packaging migrants, VCM from plastics
FDA website
Classifications
Classification of Additives: By use of food ingredient
Classifications
Classification of Additives: By Technical Effect
1.
To improve or maintain nutritional value

Nutritional additives, fat substitutes
1. Processing Additives
Substances used at the industrial level to facilitate the processing, storage, handling, or packaging of foods, and in general are not functionally active in the final food product, although they may, using good manufacturing practices, remain in the final product at low concentrations. Substances that are intentional constituents of the final food product and generally remain functionally active following processing.
2.
To maintain palatability and wholesomeness

Antimicrobial agents, antioxidants, anti-browning agents
3.
To enhance appeal of foods

Flavors, sweeteners, colorants, texturing agents (emulsifiers, stabilizers, water holding or binding agents, dough conditioners, bulking agents)
4.
To provide leavening or control pH

Leavening agents, acidulants, pH control agents
2. Final Product Additives
5.
To aid in the processing of foods

Enzymes, non-enzymatic catalysts, antifoaming agents, propellants and gases, lubricants, chelating agents, solvents
Classifications
Classifications
Types of Processing Additives

Aerating and foaming agents Antifoam agents Catalysts (including enzymes) Clarifying and flocculating agents Color control agents Freezing and cooling agents Malting and fermenting aids Material handling aids Oxidizing-reducing agents pH control and modification agents Release and antistick agents Sanitizing and fumigating agents Separation and filtration aids Solvents, carriers, and encapsulating agents Washing and surface removal agents
Types of Final Product Additives

Antimicrobial agents Antioxidants Appearance control agents Flavors and flavor modifiers Moisture control agents Nutrient, dietary supplements Acidulants Sequestrants (chelating agents) Surface tension control agents Sweeteners Texture and consistency control agents
Emulsifiers and emulsifier salts Firming agents Leavening agents Masticatory substances Propellants Stabilizers and thickeners Texturizers
Top Ten Most Troublesome Ingredients in Formulation

0
Fa t Re pla cer s/Textur e Enhancers Color s Anti- Oxidants/Pre ser vatives Fla vors (Natur al) Swee teners (Lo w-calo rie) Chee se Veget able Pr ot eins, Dairy P roteins Fats & Oils, Flavors (Art ificial) G ums, Dehydrat ed Fruit s/Veg. Starches
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20
30
33.3 27.2 26.7
40
20 15.6 13.3 12.2 11.7 10.6 10

Pe rcent of re aders surveyed who rate t he following cat egorie s as most t roublesome ing redient s in formulatio n. 1997 FOOD FORMUL AT ING Product De velopm ent Surv ey
Specific Categories and Uses of Final Product Food Additives
Antimicrobial Agents
Definition of Antimicrobial Agents

Physical or chemical agents that can be added directly as a preservative or indirectly (intended for another function) cidal indicates that the compound is capable of killing (bactericidal) static indicates that the compound is capable of preventing growth (fungistatic)
Antimicrobial agents must

Not affect the normal accepted quality of a food (texture, flavor, color) Not interact with other food components and become inactive or otherwise dangerous Work well under the intended storage conditions of the food (pH, aW, RH, temperature) Be stable Be available and economical
Questions to ask about antimicrobials:
Factors that Influence the Effectiveness of Antimicrobials
What is the specificity to act against certain microorganisms Can it be applied to a food and food process application? Does it meet prescribed regulatory requirements?
Safe for human consumption, effective in small concentrations, does not hide any food defects, listed on the label when applicable
Food composition
Moisture content Presence of other inhibitors (salt, sugar, spices) pH
Contamination
Sanitary condition of ingredients and equipment Processing methods (temperature, filtration , radiation) Types of microorganisms present
Handling of the processed product

Packaging Length of storage Storage environment (temperature, humidity, O2/CO2)
Types of Antimicrobials
Organic acids Parabens Hydrophilic compounds Sulfites Nitrites Hydrogen peroxide Bacteriocins Antibiotics Wood smoke Naturally occurring enzymes Others
Organic acids
Organic acids are generally used in foods that have a pH < 5.5.
Usually used against spoilage organisms that grow at low pH (yeast, mold, some bacteria) Can be used against pathogens
Organic acids take advantage of the undissociated form of the acid
Lower pH
Organic Acids
stronger acids have higher K values, lower pK values weaker acids have lower K values, higher pK values pK = pH when the ratio of dissociated ions to undissociated acid is equal to 0.5 pK = pH when half of the acid (50% of it) is dissociated and the other half is undissociated For effective use of organic acids as antimicrobials, want pH of food < pK of acid The undissociated form of the acid is more active and can cross cell membranes
Organic Acids: Mode of Action

Lipophilic compounds Can pass through cell membranes when in undissociated form Inhibit substrate uptake, disrupt intracellular metabolism, inactivate enzymes, coagulate some proteins Use levels usually limited to 0.1 0.2% added to foods
Examples of organic acids

Acetic acid Ascorbic acid Benzoic acid Citric acid Propionates Sorbic acid Lactic acid


Acetic acid Ascorbic acid Benzoic acid Citric acid Propionates Sorbic acid Lactic acid Often potassium or sodium benzoate salt Most effective at pH 2.5-4 Use level restricted to 0.1%
Carbonated drinks 0.03-0.05% Noncarbonated drinks 0.1%
More active against yeast and mold than bacteria Used in fruit juices and drinks, jams and jellies, pie fillings, fresh fruit cocktails, pickles, condiments

Acetic acid Ascorbic acid Benzoic acid Citric acid Propionates Sorbic acid Lactic acid Free acid and potassium salt forms
Potassium sorbate used when high water solubility desired

Acetic acid Ascorbic acid Benzoic acid Citric acid Propionates Sorbic acid Lactic acid Sodium and calcium salts of propionic acid Effective mold inhibitors but no effect against yeast and bacteria Effective up to pH 6 Used in baked products because do not inhibit yeast, used at 0.2 0.4% in fruit products
Retards mold growth on blanched apple slices, figs, cherries, blackberries, dried plums
Broad spectrum of antimicrobial activity but more effective against yeast and mold than bacteria Effective up to pH 6.5 Neutral flavor Frequently used in:
dried fruits (0.02-0.05%), pie fillings (0.05 0.1%), beverage syrups (0.1%), fruit drinks (0.025-0.075%)
Parabens
Functions: broad spectrum antimicrobial agents
Due to high pKa values, they are effective at high pH
Hydrophilic Compounds
Sulfites:
Mechanism unknown but thought to disrupt critical enzyme systems More effective against molds and yeasts than bacteria At low pH (<4.5) and low aW the fungicidal effect is much more pronounced Types: sulfur dioxide, sodium sulfite, sodium bisulfide, sodium metabisulfites Use levels: vary by country, 200-300 ppm in US Used in: soft fruits, fruit juices, lemon juices, beverages, wines, sausages, pickles, fresh shrimp Note: approx. 1% of population is sensitive to these compounds
Types: methyl, ethyl, butyl, propyl Use levels: 10 100 ppm (0.01 0.1%)
Nonalcoholic and alcoholic beverages, fruit fillings, jams/jellies, pickles, convectioneries, salad dressings, spreads, mustards
Hydrophilic Compounds
Nitrites
Both oxidizing and reducing agent Primarily used to control the growth and toxin production of Clostridium botulinum Work best in low pH foods (pH 5-6) and in the presence of reducing agents (ascorbate, erythorbate, cysteine) and with sorbate Used mostly for heat processed meat, poultry, and fish that has been vacuum packaged
Hydrogen Peroxide
Used to facilitate the destruction of foodborne pathogens alone or with other means of preservation (heat). Solutions of 0.05 0.1% are recommended Natural catalase in foods will detract from effectiveness Used in cheese and liquid egg processing Also used as sanitizing agent on equipment and packages
Bacteriocins
Byproducts that bacteria produce to attack other microorganisms
Peptides, proteins, or protein complexes Inhibitory to closely related bacteria
Antibiotics
Secondary metabolites synthesized by many types of microbes Inhibitory to a wide range of microbes Antibiotic resistance is a concern
Nisin is the only commercial bacteriocin approved for food use in US (for processed cheese, effective against Listeria monocytogenes)
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Wood Smoke
Usually used to impart desirable flavor for meat products and to improve texture and color attributes
Can be applied as liquid smoke or by burning hardwoods Production of formaldehyde and other inhibitory compounds leads to antimicrobial properties
Naturally occurring enzymes

Conalbumin (egg white) binds iron Avidin (egg white) binds biotin Lysozyme (egg white) degrades G(+) cells Lactoferrin (milk) binds iron Lactoperoxidase (milk) damages membranes
Temperature and time of heating, degree of surface drying (aW), concentrations of chemicals produced all impact bactericidal and bacteriostatic properties Used for smoked meat, fish, cheeses
Other antimicrobials
Antioxidants (BHA, BHT) Flavoring agents (spices, essential oils) Emulsifiers (fatty acids and esters) Ethylene oxide gase (surface sterilents)
Antioxidants
http://www.althealth.co.uk/services/info/misc/antioxidants1.php
Antioxidants
Antioxidants
Definition of Antioxidants
General:
All substances that inhibit oxidation reactions

Food Antioxidants
Oil-Soluble
BHA BHT TBHQ Propyl gallate Tocopherols Thiodipropionic acid Dilauryl thiodipropionate Ascorbyl palmitate Ethoxyquin
Water-Soluble
Ascorbic acid Erythorbic acid Glucose oxidate/catalase Gum guaiac Sulfites
Compounds that interrupt the free radical chain reaction involved in lipid oxidation Compounds that scavenge singlet oxygen
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Antioxidants
Commonly Used Antioxidants

BHA BHT TBHQ Propyl Gallate (PG) Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C) Erythorbic Acid Tocopherols Sulfites Gum Guaiac Spice Extracts
Often used at low concentrations (0.01% of the fat content)
Japan Standards for Use
In US must be < 0.02%
Antioxidants
BHA
Butylated hydroxyanisol Often used in edible frying fats and oils, salad oils, shortenings, nut meats, orangeflavored fruit drinks, processed fruits containing carotene pigments Often used in combination with other antioxidants
Antioxidants
Antioxidants
BHT
Butylated hydroxytoluene Often used as antioxidant for waxes used in packages and wrappers
TBHQ
Often the best synthetic antioxidant Widely used in oils
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Antioxidants
Antioxidants
Propyl Gallate
Often used as a synergist in combination with BHA and BHT
Ascorbic Acid/Sodium Ascorbate

Prevention of browning in: Frozen fruit 300-1000 mg/kg Max. 2000 mg/kg
Fruit juices 120-200 mg/kg Max. 200 mg/kg Nectars 300-500 mg/kg Max. 500 mg/kg Canned fruit 1000-3000 mg/kg Max. 2000 mg/kg Prevention of discoloration in: Olives 100-500 mg/kg Flavor protection in: Citrus beverages 150-200 mg/l Wine 25-100 mg/l Max. 200 mg/kg Max. 200 mg/kg
Antioxidants
Antioxidants
Erythorbic acid/sodium erythorbate

Primarily used as antioxidants in cured meats but also in canned and frozen fruits, fruit juices and nectars, olives, refrigerated guacamole to retard discoloration and off-flavor development Comparable antioxidant activity to ascorbic acid use 1.23 kg of sodium erythorbate to replace 1 kg of ascorbic acid in frozen or canned fruit products Often less expensive than ascorbic acid
Tocopherols
Best antioxidant activity = 80% gamma and 20% delta mixture of natural tocopherols Nutritional vitamin E = alpha tocopherol Possible replacement for synthetic antioxidants
Antioxidants
Antioxidants
Sulfites
Sulfur dioside, sodium sulfite, sodium bisulfite, potassium bisulfite, sodium metabisulfite, potassium metabisulfite Retard enzymatic browning and reduce destruction of carotene and ascorbic acid
SO2 solutions 0.2-0.5%
Sulfites (cont.)
FDA limits for residual sulfur dioxide equivalent levels in foods
Jams and jellies: 30 ppm Nut products: 25 ppm Dried fruits: 2000 ppm Fruit juice concentrates: 1000 ppm Single-strength fruit juice: 200 ppm Maraschino cherries: 150 ppm Wine: 275 ppm Vinegar: 75 ppm
Some people are very sensitive to sulfites Possible replacements: EDTA, blend of erythorbic and citric acids
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Antioxidants
Antioxidants
Gum Guaiac
Resin containing complex phenolic compounds More effective in animal fats than vegetable oils Approved antioxidant for natural flavoring substances used in conjunction with fruit flavors
Spice Extracts
Spice extracts do not have specific FDA approval for use as antioxidants and thus cannot be promoted as such However,
Rosemary-based extracts have high antioxidant capacities
Used in processed meat and poultry
Antioxidants
Antioxidant Capacity of Select Foods
Appearance Control Agents

Colors
Colors
Colors
Color Psychology
. a lasting color impression is made within 90 seconds and accounts for 60 percent of the acceptance or rejection of an object.
Definition of a Color Additive

A color additive is any dye, pigment, or other substance made or obtained from a vegetable, animal, mineral or other source capable of coloring a food, drug, or cosmetic or any part of the human body.
Dr. Morton Walker, The Power of Choice
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Colors
Why Do We Use Food Colors?

Aesthetic Value Identification Judgement of Quality
Food Colors may be added to foods for the following reasons:

To restore original appearance of food when natural colors have been damaged by heat processing Te ensure uniformity of color due to natural variation in color intensity (seasonal, etc.) To intensify colors naturally occurring in foods where color is weaker than that which consumer associates with the product To help protect flavor and light-sensitive vitamins during storage by sunscreen effect To give attractive appearance to foods that would otherwise look unappetizing (colorless gelatin jelly) To help preserve the identity or character by which foods are recognized To serve as visual indication of quality
Colors
Types of FDA Regulated Colorants

Colors Exempt from Certification Colors typically referred to as Natural Colors by the food industry. They are obtained from vegetable, animal, and mineral sources, or are synthetic duplicates of naturally existing colorants.
Colors
Certified Colorants
Dyes Colorants that function by dissolution Pigments Insoluble colorants that function by dispersion Both dyes and lakes must have every batch certified by the FDA in the US
Certified Colors Compounds of known structure, produced by chemical synthesis and conforming to high purity specifications established by the FDA.
FD&C Certified Dye and Lake Colors Approved for use in the US
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Synthetic Colors Approved for use in Japan
Major Western European Synthetic Dyes for Food Use
Colors
Colors
How Dyes Function

Dyes selectively absorb some wavelengths of light. They allow the balance of the wavelengths to be transmitted without scattering. Dyes always make the product appear darker since they reduce the amount of light which reaches the eye.
FDA Approved Certified Food Dyes

FD&C Blue #1 (sky blue; turquoise) FD&C Blue #2 (royal blue) FD&C Green #3 (sea green) FD&C Yellow #5 (lemon yellow) FD&C Yellow #6 (orange) FD&C Red #40 (orange red) FD&C Red #3 (pink)
White Light
Colors
Colors
Typical Uses of Dyes

Any application in which there is enough water (or some other solvent) to dissolve the color Very stronga little goes a long way
Beverages Dessert Mixes Confections Dairy Products Pet Foods Cereals Baked Goods
Potential Issues with Dyes

Dull effects pH stability Precipitation Fading Powder appearance Flashing Solubility
Strong Light Metal Ions Micro-Organisms Excessive Heating Oxidizing and Reducing Agents
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Colors
Colors
Certified Lakes
Lakes Extensions of the water soluble dyes on a substratum of alumina hydrate Color by dispersion Common carriers: water, propylene glycol, glycerine, sugar syrup, oil
How Pigments Function

Pigment particles are dispersed throughout the product, not dissolved. The pigment selectively absorbs some wavelengths of light and reflects others.
Pigments contribute to the opacity and can lighten or darken the product being colored. Lakes are one type of pigment.
te hi
t gh Li
Colors
Typical Uses of Lakes
Colors
Potential Problems with Lakes

Incomplete Dispersion Settling Haze Shade/Strength Variation pH Stability
Any application in which they can be suitably and uniformly dispersed Lakes are also used in products where color migration or bleed is not desired.
Icings & Frostings Compound Coatings Dry mix products Semi moist pet food Pharmaceuticals Cosmetics Plastics Inks
Colors
How Dyes and Lakes Differ

Characteristics Solubility Lakes Insoluble Dyes Soluble in water, propylene glycol, glycerine Dissolution ~90% (Primary colors) 0.001% to 0.03% (10 300 ppm)
Colors
Market Forms
Dyes Primary Powder Primary Granules Powder Blends Powder Monoblends Cut Colors and Blends Liquid Colors Lakes Primary powders Powder blends Dispersions
Method of coloring Pure dye content Rate of use
Dispersion Generally 10-40% 0.1% to 0.3% (1000 3000 ppm)
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Colors
Types of FDA Regulated Colorants

Certified Colors Compounds of known structure, produced by chemical synthesis and conforming to high purity specifications established by the FDA. Colors Exempt from Certification Colors typically referred to as Natural Colors by the food industry. They are obtained from vegetable, animal, and mineral sources, or are synthetic duplicates of naturally existing colorants.
Colors
21 CFR Part 73 (exempt)

26 Permitted for Foods Many Restrictions Tagetes Meal Grape Skin Extract 28 Permitted for Drugs 28 Permitted for Cosmetics 5 Permitted for Use Across the Board
Food Color Additives Exempt from Certification
Colors
Natural Color Additives in Japan
Common Exempt Colorants

Turmeric Oleoresin Annatto Extract Paprika Oleoresin Beta Carotene Cochineal Extract/Carmine
Vegetable/Fruit Juice Anthocyanins Red Beet Juice Concentrate Caramel Color Titanium Dioxide
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Colors
Turmeric Oleoresin Applications

Ice Cream Pickles
Salad Dressings Dry Mix Soup Baked Goods
Colors
Yogurt Seasonings Mustard Cereals Dairy Candy/Confection Applications Salad Dressings Chewing Gum
Beverages Ice Cream Frozen Novelties Cereal Yogurt Salad Dressing Fruit Preparations Baked Goods Confections Ice-cream Cones Sausage Casings Cheese Eggnog
Annatto Extract Applications
Colors
Paprika Oleoresin Applications

Salad Dressings Popcorn Products Snack Foods Processed Cheeses Coatings Breadings
Breadings Sweet Goods Gravies Marinades Crackers Cookies
Colors
Beta Carotene Applications

Butter Dairy Products Popcorn Oil Margarine Snack Foods Soups Salad Dressings Confections Baked Goods Cheeses Beverages
Colors
Colors
Carmine Applications
Beverages Dairy Products Yogurt Ice Cream Tomato Extenders Confections Surimi Cosmetics Pharmaceuticals
Anthocyanins
Yellow-Red Black Currant Elderberry Hibiscus Blue-Red Red Cabbage Grape Skin Extract Grape Juice Conc. Black Carrot
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Colors
Colors
Anthocyanin Properties
Alcohol Soluble Change shade with change in pH Varying shades of red Most stable at pH less than 3.8
Anthocyanin Applications
Beverages Fruit Preps Confections
pHs <3.8 (best stability)
pHs 3.8-7.9 (stability decreases)
pH 8.0 (unstable)
pH 11.0 (not stable)
Colors
Colors
Red Beet Applications

Ice Cream Yogurt Fruit Preps Frozen Novelties Confections Tomato Extenders Dry Mix Beverages
Caramel Color Applications

Baked Goods Beverages Gravies Sauces Syrups Seasonings Pet Foods Candy Alcoholic Beverages Dry Mixes
Colors
Titanium Dioxide Applications
Colors
Exempt Colorants
Exempt Shades Easy to Obtain Yellow Orange Red Exempt Shades Difficult to Obtain Blue Green
Opacifier Pastel Candies Pet Foods Dairy Products Mozzarella Cheese Cottage Cheese Cream Cheese Low fat / No fat (replaces opacity) Salad Dressings
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Colors
Typical Usage Levels

Annatto Extract 0.04-0.08% Beta Carotene 0.05-0.10% Cochineal Extract 0.05-0.15% Carmine Liq. Color 0.05-0.10% Vegetable Juice Conc.. 0.03-0.20% Fruit Juice Conc.. 0.05-0.15% Caramel Colors 0.10-0.30%
Colors
Labeling of Certified Colors 21 CFR Section 101.22

May 1993 - NLEA removed prior labeling exemption Must declare individually by name Prefix FD&C and No. not required
FD&C Blue No. 1 Blue No. 1
Use of Lake suffix is mandatory

Blue No. 1 Lake
Colors
Labeling of Exempt Colorants Cannot use the term natural Several Options Artificial Color (Added) Color Added Colored with name of color Colorant name (color) Do not need to declare titanium dioxide by name
Flavors and Flavor Modifiers

Flavoring agents Flavor potentiators
Flavor Definition
Legal Definition
Flavors are mixtures of ingredients whose exact composition is usually known only to their supplier and which are sold in bulk to food and beverage manufacturers. They are labeled as FLAVORS according to definitions found in the code of federal regulations title 21, part 101. The composition of flavors are considered trade secrets
Flavor: Definition
Sensation: The sum of those characteristics of any material taken in the mouth, perceived principally by the senses of taste and smell and also by the general tactile and pain receptors in the mouth as received and interpreted by the brain (Hall, 1968) A substance which may be a single chemical entity, or a blend of chemicals of natural or synthetic origin whose primary purpose is to provide all or part of the particular flavor effect to any food or other product taken in the mouth (Society of Flavor Chemists)
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Flavors
Flavor: Definition
A composite of chemosensations: taste, olfaction, and trigeminal (nerve) sensations
Without olfaction/ability to smell, food no longer has as much flavor (noticed by anosmics or you when you have a cold)
Definition of Flavoring Agent

In the US, natural fruit flavors represent over 1/3 of the flavor market In the US, natural + synthetic fruit flavors = 48% of the sales value of flavor industry Largest user of fruit flavors = fruit beverages (including alcoholic beverages)
Flavor results from compounds divided into two broad classes:

Those responsible for taste Those responsible for odors (aroma substances) Note: there are compounds that do both
Flavors
Reasons for adding flavors to food products
Flavors
21CFR 101.22
To create a totally new taste To enhance, extend, round out, or increase the potency of flavors already present To supplement or replace flavors to compensate for losses during processing To simulate other more expensive flavors or replace unavailable flavors To mask less desirable flavors (NOT hide spoilage)
Flavors
Flavors
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Flavors
Flavors
Flavors
Flavors
Chemical Flavor Classification

Natural Natural Type Natural WONF BATF (0.1% artificial top note, 40ppm vanillin, 250ppm maltol) Artificial N/A
Natural and Artificial
Nature Identical
Flavors
Regulatory Labeling
Kosher (Parve, Dairy) Non-Kosher (contains meat, grape skin, etc.) Halal (contains no alcohol) GMO free Allergens (Peanut, Soy, egg, etc.)
Beverage New Product Positioning Claims
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Flavor Trends in Juice Products

Flavor Houses
Bell www.bellff.com Degussa www.degussa.com Dragoco www.dragoco.com Firmenich
www.firmenich.com www.givaudan.com
McCormick
www.mccormick.com
FONA (Flavors of North America)

www.fonaflavors.com
Givaudan IFF www.iff.com Mane www.vmf-mane.com
Sensient www.sensienttech.com
Takasago
www.takasago.com
Wild www.WILDflavors.com
Moisture Control Agents
Definition of Flavor Enhancer

Enhance flavors at levels below their independent detection thresholds and contribute umami taste to foods when used in excess of detection threshold
Enhance flavors of vegetables, dairy products, meats, poultry, fish, seafoods
Nutrient, Dietary Supplements
Examples:
5ribonucleotides (5 inosine monophosphate) Glutamate (monosodium glutamate) Yeast extracts and vegetable hydrolysates Maltol and ethyl maltol used to enhance flavors for sweet goods and fruits used at 50 ppm
Nutrient, Dietary Supplement
Definition of Nutrient, Dietary Supplement
21 CFR
Nutrient:
A chemical compound (such as protein, fat, carbohydrate, vitamins, or minerals) that make up foods.
A dietary supplement is a product (other than tobacco) that:

is intended to supplement the diet; contains one or more dietary ingredients (including vitamins; minerals; herbs or other botanicals; amino acids; and other substances) or their constituents; is intended to be taken by mouth as a pill, capsule, tablet, or liquid; and is labeled on the front panel as being a dietary supplement.
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Vitamin Definition
Organic compounds, usually of low molecular weight, that are essential nutrients for normal body growth and functions The human cannot synthesize vitamins
Except vitamin D with exposure to sunlight Therefore vitamin sources must be external (food and/or dietary supplements)
Vitamins
There are 13 recognized vitamins Classified as fat soluble or water soluble Each has unique chemistry and RDI Each must be considered in food processing and formulation
Concentration and bioavailability will influence food quality
100% Daily Value

Vitamin A Vitamin C Thiamin Riboflavin Niacin Vitamin D Vitamin E Vitamin B6 Folic acid Vitamin B12 Biotin Pantothenic acid 5000 IU 60 mg 1.5 mg 1.7 mg 20 mg 400 IU 30 IU 2 mg 0.4 mg 6 g 0.3 mg 10 mg
Types of Fortification
Restoration
Restore losses due to processing and handling
Standardization
Enrich to meet current food standards
Fortification
Enrich to meet a specific nutritional profile
Replacement
A modified or new product replacing a standard product (reduced, low, non-, light, etc.)
Why Fortify?
Processing can reduce vitamin content or bioavailability
Heat sensitive vitamins
D, E, thiamin, riboflavin, pyridoxine, pantothenic acid, folic acid
Why Fortify?
Variation of vitamins in plants
Growth conditions, genetic variation, postharvest practices Soil conditions (moisture, fertilizer) Washing, blanching, cooking will decrease vitamin content Vitamin C content dramatically decreases after harvest and with maturity of plant Milling of cereals reduces vitamin content
Flours usually fortified with B vitamins (thiamin, riboflavin, niacin)
Oxygen sensitive vitamins

Fat soluble (ADEK), C, thiamin, biotin, pantothenic acid, folic acid Can add antioxidants to reduce lipid oxidation and oxidative rancidity to slow damage to carotenoids and ACE
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Classes of Vitamins
Fat soluble
A (retinol) D (cholecalciferol, D3) E (tocopherol) K (phytonadione, K1)
Vitamin A as a Food Ingredient

Soluble in oil but dry vitamin A can be dispersed in water Isomerizes in acid (< pH 6), stable at pH > 7 Sensitive to air oxidation (catalyzed by Fe and Cu) Palmitate more stable than acetate in solution Inactivated by UV light Sensitive to heat and humidity Stabilized by reducing agents
Water soluble
B vitamins
Thiamine (B1), riboflavin (B2), niacin/niacinamide (B3), pyridoxine (B6), cyanocobalamin (B12), folic acid, pantothenic acid, biotin
C (ascorbic acid)
Vitamin D as a Food Ingredient

Soluble in oil but dry vitamin D is dispersible in water pH stable Similar but slightly more stability than vitamin A (sensitive to oxygen and light) Analysis difficult at food occurrence levels
Vitamin E as a Food Ingredient

Unesterified forms used in foods Soluble in oil but dry vitamin E is dispersible in water Free tocopherol sensitive to air oxidation (especially at pH>7) Free tocopherol oxidation catalyzed by metals (Fe, Cu) Acetate ester very stable Tocopherol used as an antioxidant (in many oils, e.g. safflower, etc.)
Vitamin K as a Food Ingredient

Soluble in oil but dry vitamin K is dispersible in water Stable to air Stable in acid Unstable in strong bases Decomposed by sunlight
Water Soluble Vitamins

B vitamins C
26
B Vitamins
Thiamin (B1) Riboflavin (B2) Niacin/niacinamide/nicotinamide (B3) Pyridoxine/pyridoxal (B6) Cyanobalamin (B12) Folic acid Pantothenic acid Biotin
Thiamin (B1) as a Food Ingredient

Water soluble (HCl 1g/1ml, mono 1g/35ml) Is the most unstable B vitamin
Increasingly unstable as pH rises to neutral and greater Completely degraded in chocolate cake (pH = 8.0)
Sensitive to oxidizing and reducing agents Split by sulfite Off flavor and aroma potential Good stability in crystal form
Riboflavin (B2) as a Food Ingredient

water soluble (120mg/L, B2-5phosphate 11.2g/100ml) Light sensitive especially at pH>7 Stable in acid solution, unstable in basic/alkaline solution Moderately heat stable in neutral solutions Sensitive to reducing agents Orange color
Niacin (B3) as a Food Ingredient

Water soluble
Niacin = 1g/60 ml Niacinamide = 1g/1ml
Very stable not sensitive to heat, light, air, alkali Best to use niacinamide in foods since niacin is a vasodilator
Pyridoxine (B6) as a Food Ingredient

water soluble (1g/5ml) Most stable of 6 vitamin structures Relatively stable and heat resistant Dilute solutions are sensitive to light and alkali Activity = pyridoxine * 1.21 = pyridoxine HCl
Cyanocobalamin (B12) as a Food Ingredient

Water soluble Hygroscopic crystal Moderate/good heat stability at pH 4-5 Destroyed rapidly when retorted at high pH Decomposed by reducing agents (Fe) Assay sensitive to light in dilute solution Red in color
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Folic Acid as a Food Ingredient

Water soluble Unstable at pH<5 Stable to heat in neutral and alkaline solutions Sensitive to light Stabilized by ascorbic acid Destruction catalyzed by copper Light yellow in color
Pantothenic Acid as a Food Ingredient

water soluble (1g/3ml) Heat stable at pH=5-7 Increasingly unstable as pH drops below 5 Decomposed by hydrolysis (rate influenced by pH)
Biotin as a Food Ingredient

water soluble (1g/5000ml) Good stability to heat, dilute acids, alkali, oxygen, and light Inactivated by avidin in raw egg whites
Vitamin C as a Food Ingredient

Water soluble (1g/3ml) Usually loss of vitamin C in foods exceeds that of B and fat soluble vitamins Stable in crystal form In solution is readily oxidized by atmospheric oxygen and oxidizing agents (catalyzed by Cu, Fe) Most stable in pH 4-6
More sensitive to base than acid
Vitamin C as a Food Ingredient

Sensitive to heat and light Can decolorize azo and triphenylmethane colors Anthocyanins are unstable in presence of oxygen and ascorbic acid Will stabilize carotenoids (-carotene)
Mineral Definition
An inorganic substance Something neither animal nor vegetable A solid homogeneous crystalline chemical element or compound that results from the inorganic processes of nature (or synthetic substance with same chemical composition and crystalline form)
28
Primary Functions of Minerals

Nutrients Biological functions Minor structural functions
Functional Properties of Minerals in Foods

Bleaching pH control Buffering Antioxidant Chelating or sequestering Oxidation or reducing agents
Transition metals will catalyze lipid oxidation
Preservation by lowering aW Leavening Coloring
Types of Minerals
Elements Salts
Most minerals added to foods are salts
Elements
30 elements are required or beneficial to humans 7 are macronutrients 7 are micronutrients 18 added to foods for nutritional purposes 12 added to foods for nutrition and functional properties
Added to foods as salt forms
Complexes Ash
Minerals are the constituents in foods that remain as ash after incineration
Elements
MAIN ELEMENTS Calcium Phosphorus Potassium Chlorine Sodium Magnesium TRACE ELEMENTS Iron Fluorine Zinc Silicon Copper Boron Vanadium Arsenic selenium Manganese Iodine Nickel Molybdenum Chromium Cobalt
12 Elements Added to Foods for Functional Properties

Sodium Magnesium Aluminum Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Potassium Calcium Titanium Bromine Tin
Examples for each are contained in the following slides
29
Sodium
Sodium is the anion in the salts of many inorganic and organic compounds (improves solubility) Seasoning/flavor Preservative (lowers aW) Can use to salt in proteins
Magnesium
Solubility properties White color (milk of magnesia) Part of hard water
Desired for brewing because dissolved magnesium (and calcium) salts increase acidity of the wort
Aluminum
Sodium aluminum phosphate
Provides acid in baking powders Hydrated Al3+ reacts with bicarbonate (HCO3-) to release CO2
Silicon
Silicon dioxide = anticaking or freeflow agent
Flours, powdered soups, powdered coffee whiteners, baking powder, dried eggs
Aluminum salts firm pickles Colloidal calcium phosphate

White opaque color of milk
Aluminum calcium silicate anticaking agent Aluminum hydroxide used to bind water soluble dyes to form lakes
Silicones with methyl groups used as anti-spattering agents in cooking oils
Phosphorus
Buffering pH stabilization Acidification or alkalization Sequestering of metals Chelation of metals Water-binding in protein foods Emulsification Anticaking Antimicrobial preservation Leavening
Sulfur
In foods, use oxo-species of sulfur
Bisulfite, sulfite, sulfurous acid, metabisulfite, sulfur dioxide
Sulfur dioxide
Preserving dried fruits and vegetables (color) Retard growth of unwanted organisms in wine Antioxidant properties
Preserve color (bleaches or oxidizes products that discolor the food)
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Chlorine
Chlorine and chlorine dioxide gases used to bleach flour Improves solubility of salts in water
Potassium
Anion of many salts good solubility Potassium ion used to help gel carrageenan Potassium hydroxide used to peel fruit
Calcium
Calcium chloride used as firming agent for canned foods
Tomatoes, potatoes, apple slices
Titanium
Titanium dioxide used as white color (levels up to 1% finished weight allowed)
Confectionary panned goods (jelly beans), icings, sugar syrups
Calcium ion active ingredient in leavening agents (monocalcium phosphate) = fast acting leavening agent Monocalcium phosphate acidulant
Bromine
Calcium and potassium bromate used as bleaching agents and dough conditioners (improve strength, grain, texture, water absorption, crumb resiliency) Being phased out of use because is possible carcinogen
Tin
Not widely used Stannous chloride used as food preservative Tin salt retains color in asparagus
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Acidulants
Definition of Acidulants Acidulants

Acids that occur naturally in fruits and vegetables or are used as additives in food processing Functions:
Acidifier pH regulator Preservative and curing agent Flavoring agent Chelating agent Buffer Gelling/coagulating agent Antioxidant synergist
Acidulants
Types of Acidulants
Acetic acid Adipic acid Citric acid Fumaric acid Lactic acid Malic acid Phosphoric acid Tartaric acid
Japan Standards for Use
Acidulants
Typical usage of acidulants in fruit processing (table 13.4)
Acidulants
Tartness comparisons
At equal concentrations, acidulants vary in their ability to depress pH and the level of acidic taste or tartness intensity
Acid Citric, anhydrous Fumaric Tartaric Malic Adipic Phosphoric (85% soln.) % to replace anhydrous citric acid 100 67-72 80-85 78-83 110-115 55-60
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Acidulants
Acidulants
Citric Acid
The most versatile and widely-used food acidulant Characteristics:
excellent solubility, extremely low toxicity, chelating ability, pleasantly sour taste
Citric Acid: Functions

Lower pH, buffer
Widest use in beverages
FDA designates citric acid and its sodium, potassium, and calcium salts as GRAS for general purpose uses
Preservative, sequestrant Flavor enhancer Antioxidant synergist with ascorbic or erythorbic acid Prevent crystallization of honey
Acidulants
Acidulants
Malic Acid
Second major acid next to citric Strongly associated with apples Used in fruit-flavored sodas (apple or berry flavors), may mask high-intensity sweetener off-tastes in sugar-free drinks (synergism with aspartame) Blends of citric and malic acid may exhibit some better taste characteristics
Phosphoric Acid
Not recognized as an acidulant in Japan The only inorganic acid extensively used as a food acidulant, least costly of the food acidulants, gives the lowest attainable pH Has a characteristic flavor and tartness and is almost entirely used in cola-flavored carbonated beverages Sometimes used as buffering agent in jams and jellies to adjust acidity for maximum gel formation Food-grade phosphoric acid mostly supplied as 75% aqueous solution
Acidulants
Acidulants
Fumaric Acid
Use in mixtures with 0.3% dioctyl sodium sulfosuccinate (DOSS) and 0.5% calcium carbonate to speed solubility Used as modified acid for use in dry beverage powders, frozen fruit concentrates Increases strength of gelatin gels and acts as a calcium liberator incorporated in alginate preparations Stabilize suspended matter in in flashpasteurized and frozen juice concentrates and inhibits development of off-odors and darkening
Adipic Acid
Often used in dry food products (it is nonhygroscopic and may extent shelf-life in humid conditions) Adds supplementary flavor to grapeflavored products
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Acidulants
Acidulants
Lactic Acid
Has a mild taste relative to other food acids Often sold as 50% and 80% solutions that are colorless and odorless Used in frozen desserts, jams, jellies to add slight tartness without masking natural fruit Used as gelling agent for demethylated pectins (dietetic/sugar-free jams/jellies)
Tartaric Acid
EC regulations indicate this should not be used in sparkling waters Widely used in cranberry and grape flavored foods and beverages Used in candies with citric acid to produce tart and sour flavors
Acidulants
Vinegar
Cider vinegar (US), wine vinegar (EU), malt vinegar (UK) 4-8% solution of acetic acid has similar taste to cider vinegar Vinegar powder used in dry seasonong blends
Sequestrants (Chelating Agents)
Sequestrant
Sequestrant
Definition of Sequestrant
To sequester = to withdraw from use Ingredients added to form complexes with metal ions and thereby stabilize foods
Any molecule with an unshared electron pair can form complexes with metal ions in a favorable physical environment

Types of Sequestrants
EDTA Polycarboxylic acids
Citric acid Malic acid Tartaric acid Oxalic acid Succinic acid
Calcium, sodium, and potassium salts of these increase solubility
Polyphosphoric acids
Adenosine triphosphate phyrophosphate
Act synergistically with antioxidants
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Sequestrant
EDTA
The EDTA molecule can bind to metal ions by forming six bonds to it - two from nitrogen atoms in amino groups and four from oxygen atoms in carboxyl groups.
Sweeteners
Nutritive Nonnutritive
Sweeteners
Definition of Sweeteners
Nutritive:
Ingredients that are metabolized and provide calories May also function as flavor, body, bulk, texturizing, aW lowering, and viscosity agents and lower the freezing point
Sweetness
Sucrose is the standard against which sweeteners are measured in terms of quality taste and taste profile
Nonnutritive:
Ingredients that are non-caloric Many high-intensity sweeteners fall in this category (>30 times sweeter than sucrose)
Sweeteners
Sweeteners
Types of nutritive sweeteners

Sugars
Sucrose Glucose Fructose Galactose Mannose Maltose Xylose Lactose
Types of nonnutritive sweeteners

Acesulfame K Alitame Aspartame Cyclamate Glycyrrhizin Monelin Neohesperitin dihydrochalcone Saccharin Stevioside Sucralose Thaumatin
Polyols
Mannitol Lactitol Isomalt Xylitol Sorbitol Maltitol Hydrogenated corn syrup
May be ingredients not additives
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Sweeteners
Table of Sweeteners and Regulatory Status
Sweeteners
Questions to ask about nonnutritive sweeteners
Table 13.3
Regulations on use Price Safety Taste Solubility Stability in your product
Economics of Sweeteners
Sweeteners
Alitame
2000x sweeter than sucrose Approved for use in foods, beverages, and as table top sweeteners in Australia, New Zealand, Chile, Colombia, China, Indonesia, and Mexico. Approval is pending in USA, Brazil, Canada
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Sweeteners
Sweeteners
Cyclamate
30 x sweeter than sucrose Banned in some countries (including US), reapproved in over 50 countries Enhance fruit flavors, even in low concentrations, and can mask some natural tartness of citrus fruits Has lower specific gravity and osmotic pressure than sucrose syrups, therefore do not draw water out of canned fruits
Glycyrrhizin
US FDA GRAS status to ammoniated glycyrrhizin for use as flavor enhancer and natural flavoring agent Japan used as a sweetener
Sweeteners
Nonhesperidin DC
2000x sweeter than sucrose Currently used in Belgium, Holland, Germany Often coupled with other sweeteners (aspartame and aceK) Recommended for fruit juices and nectars
Sweeteners
Stevioside
300x sweeter than sucrose Approved for sweetening use in Japan, Republic of Korea, Brazil
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Sweeteners
Sweeteners
Thaumatin
3000x sweeter than sucrose Used primarily as a flavor enhancer Approved in US, EU, Japan, others
Tagatose
0.9x as sweet as sucrose Has the bulk of sucrose, is almost as sweet, but provides only 1.5 kcal/g Declared GRAS by manuracturers selfdetermination process
Production of Polyols
Use of Polyols
Polyol Functionality
Polyols are derived from sugars, but they are not processed by the body like sugars. Polyols have many advantages such as reduced calories as compared to sugar, reduced insulin response, ability to be labeled "sugar-free" and "no sugar added", do not promote tooth decay, and do not brown in bakery applications (i.e. no Maillard reaction). Polyols are used mostly in confectionery, food, oral care, pharmaceutical, and industrial applications. Some characteristics of polyols are fewer calories, pleasant sweetness, ability to hold moisture, and improved processing. Polyols serve as humectants, bulking agents, and freeze point depressants.
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Polyol Functionality
Sweet Cool Not fully digested in body Non-cariogenic Beneficial to colon health Laxative effects
Spipolyols.com refer to for many applications
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Texture and Consistency Control Agents

Emulsifiers and emulsifier salts Firming agents Leavening agents Masticatory substances Propellants Stabilizers and thickeners Texturizers
Emulsifiers and Emulsifier Salts
Emulsifiers
Emulsifiers
What Are Emulsifiers

Chemical agents which reduce surface tension between two normally immiscible agents (water and oil) and allow then to mix together. Agitation is typically required. Produces either an oil in water (o/w) or water in oil (w/o) emulsion. Results in small droplets being dispersed within a continuous phase. Droplets are held interspersed by the emulsifiers employed.
Emulsion Examples
Water in oil examples: margarine and butter water is the dispersed phase and oil the continuous phase Oil in water examples: milk, ice cream, mayonnaise oil is dispersed phase and water the continuous phase
Emulsifiers
Emulsifiers
Emulsifier Chemistry
H RCOO RCOO H C C C H Amphoteric - lecithin H H O O P O OH
+
ORCH2O S OH Anionic lauryl sulfate H H C C C H OOCR OH OH H H O
Emulsifier Structure/Function Mechanisms

1. Electrostatic - phospholipids & proteins
Shear surfactant molecule polar nonpolar surfactant micelle repulsion dispersed phase
N(CH3)3
stearic
Stearic acid [R = -(CH2)16CH3]
Hydrophobic & Hydrophilic Domains
Brownian motion fragmentation to meta stable colloids
Nonionic 1-monoglyceride
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Emulsifiers
Emulsifiers
Emulsifier Structure/Function Mechanisms

1. Electrostatic
2.
How Emulsifiers Work

Electrostatic - charged emulsifiers like lecithins and proteins; alternate charges attracted to polar headgroup creates ion clouds to repel like droplets. Steric - non-ionic emulsifiers like MG and polysorbates; in o/w emulsions, hydrophilic group holds a layer of water and repels like hydrophilic micelles. Adsorbtion - small particles held on the surface of emulsion droplets that protrude into the preferred liquid.
2. Steric hindrance 3. Particle adsorption
Water
Oil
3.
3.
Emulsifiers
Emulsifiers
How To Select Emulsifiers

In theory, selection is based upon HLB values
hydrophilic/lipophilic balance values of between 1 and 20; 1-8 lipophilic and 9-20 hydrophilic HLB is a calculated value based upon the chemical groups present in the compound
Selecting Emulsifiers
Product design involves determining:
the problem knowing what the emulsifier can & cannot do on basis of food system functionality, will an emulsifier solve that problem? select the appropriate emulsifier/s optimize usage levels
In reality, historical uses and experience help with proper selection

some situations require only one emulsifier most use a blend of emulsifiers stabilizers are often used to tie up available continuous phase
Emulsifiers
Selecting emulsifiers
Emulsifiers
Common Emulsifiers
Lecithins (phospholipids); baked goods, chocolates, cooking sprays, confections, instantized foods Mono and diglycerides; bakery, frozen desserts, icings, toppings, peanut butter Sucrose esters; wide range of HLB dependent on ester number Sorbitans (Spans 60); toppings and cake mixes Polysorbates
Tween 60- cake mixes and icing; Tween 65- ice cream, custards; Tween 80- oils in diet foods, vitamin-mineral preps, fat-soluble vitamins
Functionality Cost $
Plastics vs. powders
Low Fat
Flavor impact problems
Regulations
MG & DG not regulated, polysorbates more highly regulated (U.S.)
Synergism
Work best in combination with each other
Stearoyl lactates; baked goods Proteins (milk proteins)
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Emulsifiers
Emulsifiers
Rheological & Textural - Emulsifiers

Fats in food systems interact with other components, usually at an interface: liquidliquid airliquid solid-liquid Emulsifiers: ingredient component (e.g., egg yolk) additive (e.g., monoglyceride)

Emulsifiers:
decrease surface tension of dispersed phase surface active agents solubilizing agents dispersants wetting agents whipping agents foaming agents defoaming agents viscosity modifiers
Emulsifiers
Emulsifiers

H Amphoteric lecithin RCOO RCOO H C C C H H H O O P O OH H Stearic acid [R = -(CH2)16CH3] Hydrophobic & Hydrophilic Domains H H
+

Emulsion: homogeneous mixture of two fluids that are normally immiscible Dispersion of fine droplets in a continuous/bulk phase
Shear surfactant molecule polar nonpolar Dispersed phase
ORCH2O S OH O
N(CH3)3
Anionic lauryl sulfate H C C C H OOCR OH OH
surfactant micelle
Brownian motion fragmentation to meta stable colloids
Nonionic 1-monoglyceride
Emulsifiers
Emulsifiers

Physical State: Functionality Affected:
Melting & Solidification Snap & Appearance Viscosity
oil
Phospholipids
Lecithin:
important emulsifier in the food industry by-product of processing crude soybean oil complex of phospholipids, glycolipids, TAGs, small quantities FAs, sphingolipids fractionation new products of variable functionality Hydrophilic-Lipophilic Balance (HLB) = High or Low Food technologists calculate:
HLB values = (hydrophilic values) - (lipophilic values) + 7
Bulk
lipid phase
Oil-in-water emulsion
H2O
Melting & Solidification Stability Whipping Qualities Viscosity & De-emulsification Melting & Solidification
H2O
Water-in-oil emulsion
Stability Plasticity & Consistency Spreadability & Viscosity
Lipid
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Emulsifiers
Emulsifiers
Phospholipids
HLB of 2-6: good W/O emulsifier, retards wetting HLB of 7-9: good wetting agent HLB of 10-18: good O/W emulsifier, wetting of fat powders Wetting:
High surface tension
H2O
Lecithin
fatty acid part
Market products are paste lecithin & powdered lecithin of high purity.
Either of choline, ethanolamine, inositol, serine
P
phospholipid
Uses: viscosity control & wetting, anti-spattering & anti-staling, also used in chocolate
Reduced surface tension
Enzyme-digested or enzyme-treated lecithin is improved through strengthening the hydrophilicity by a treatment with phospholipase Enzyme-digested Lecithin
fatty acid part
Enzyme-Digested Lecithin
fatty acid part Hydroxyl group
( < 90)
H2O
( > 90)
P
phospholipid
Either of choline, ethanolamine, inositol, serine
P
phospholipid
Emulsifiers
Emulsifiers
Monoglycerides (MG)
fatty acid part hydroxy group hydroxy group
Lactylated Monoglycerate (LMG)

fatty acid part hydroxy group acetyl group
Glycerine + plant/animal oil/fat produced by interesterification Uses: emulsifier W/O, foaming agent, starch modifying agent, anti-foam, anti-tack, antibacterial, anti-staling, & softening A very stable oil, peroxide value not increased at 97 C for 1,000 h. Stable -crystals Uses: added to hydrogenated fats (margarines), coatings, plasticizer, solvent, & powdered foaming agent
Foaming ability > emulsifier ability Uses: in shortenings for cakes, desserts, & foam aeration for cream, by itself or with MGs, & gloss enhancement
Diglycerides
fatty acid parts
hydroxy group
Acetylated Monoglyceride (AMG)

fatty acid part hydroxy group acetyl group
Citric Acid Esters of Monoglycerides Highly hydrophilic emulsifier, stable fatty acid part crystal structure
hydroxy group citric acid
Uses: margarine, dairy products (in coffee whitener & cream), an emulsion stabilizer for mayonnaise & dressings because of strong acid-resistance
Emulsifiers
Emulsifiers
Succinic Acid Esters of Monoglyceride (SMG)

fatty acid part hydroxy group succinic acid
Polyglyceride Esters of Fatty Acids (PGE)

fatty acid part hydroxy group
Insoluble in cold water, dispersible in hot water, soluble in hot alcohol, fats & oils. SMG complexes with starch & reacts with protein Uses: dough modifying agent, emulsifier for shortening
Dispersible in water, soluble in oil Hydrophilicity & lipophilicity greatly change with degree of polymerization and the type of fatty acid, HLB range 3-13 Uses: various (i.e., in many types of food as an O/W & W/O emulsifier for milk products containing acid & salt, and a modifier to control fat crystallization
( )n
fatty acid part hydroxy group
n
n = ~ 2-10
Diacetyl Tartaric Acid Esters of Monoglycerides (DATEM)

fatty acid part hydroxy group tartaryl groups acetyl group
Dispersible in cold & hot water, soluble in fats/oils, hydrophilic emulsifier, acid resistant Uses: emulsification & foaming of margarine, mayonnaise & dressing, acts on starch & protein, & a dough modifier
Polyglycerol Polyricinate (PGPR)

Strong lipophilic W/O emulsifier, a highly-viscous liquid, insoluble in water & ethanol, and soluble in fats & oils Uses: a viscosity-reducing agent for chocolate
n
n = ~ 2-10
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Emulsifiers
Emulsifiers
Sucrose ester
fatty acid part
Wide HLB range 1 - 16 & multi functional

o o
Sorbitol Monoester Many types of sorbitan esters, each with different kinds of fatty acids & fatty acid part various degrees of esterification
hydroxy group
hydroxyl group
Uses: emulsifying & dispersing agent for cream & bacteriocidal agents for canned coffee
Emulsifiers
Emulsifiers
Emulsion Destabilization
Creaming - density differences; droplet size critical Flocculation - droplet aggregation; interaction of adsorbed macromolecules between droplets, pH and ionic strength play a role as well Coalescence - droplet collision that breaks interfacial film; pH, salts, temperature, emulsion volume all involved Oswald Ripening - droplet collision that produces smaller and smaller particles that eventually dissolve and float above the aqueous layer; frozen foods
Emulsifier Applications
Baked Goods
largest use of emulsifiers (over 55%) Dough Conditioning (SSL, polysorb, DATEM,
ethoxylates and succinylated mono and diglycerides
improve binding of gluten strands by increasing binding sites
Crumb Softening (monoglycerides, SSL, DATEM)

complex with amylose to inhibit staling
Emulsifiers
Emulsifiers
Foaming/Aeration (monoglycerides, PGME,
polysorbates)
Confectionary and Coatings
prevention of fat bloom sorbitan tristearate, lactylated monoglyceerides lecithins in chocolate (scavenges free water) monoglycerides often used to enhance fat dispersion and improve eating in caramels and toffees
batter systems; helps gas bubbles to form
Emulsification (mono and diglycerides, PGME)

shortening and oil dispersion
Crumb Softening (PGME acetylated and lactylated

monoglycerides, polysorbates)
moisture retention, higher volume, tender crumb
Uses: as a dough modifier for flour foods like bread
OR
Calcium Stearoyl-2-Lactate (CSL) stearic acid lactic acid Unreacted stearic acid & salt, nCa partially neutralized with calcium, an m anionic emulsifier with a strong Usually m = 2, n = 1/2 ability to bind protein
Uses: by itself limited to emulsifying applications mainly for cream, widely used as a major emulsifier in combination with other emulsifiers with different functions
o
Sorbide Monoester
Sorbitan Monoester
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Emulsifiers
Emulsifiers
Dairy and Aerated Foods foam promotion with stability arising from proteins in system; emulsifier promotes fat crystal agglomeration to form matrix propylene glycol esters, acetylated and lactylated monoglycerides used coffee whiteners use emulsifiers for dispersion and rapid hydration ice cream usually used additional gums (CMC, guar, locust bean, and carrageenan) to stabilize
Fat Reduction
better fat dispersion and smaller droplets for better mouthfeel even at reduced fat levels emulsifiers used in full fat will require modification in reduced fat systems combinations of emulsifiers work better
Emulsifiers
Emulsifiers
Emulsifier Regulations
In USA:
GRAS:
Lecithin, mono and di-glycerides, DATEM, triethylcitrate
Emulsifier Regulations
In Japan:
On positive list of food additives:
Glycerin fatty acid esters Sorbitan fatty acid esters Propylene glycol fatty acid esters Sucrose fatty acid esters Lecithin
All others governed by multipurpose additive regulations stating use in specific products at set levels
In Europe:
Classified under EEC Council Directive reference numbers
e.g. mono and diglycerides: E471 Western Europe no food use of sorbitan esters Germany no propylene glycol esters
Leavening agents
Definition of Leavening Agents

From the latin levare - to lift a substance used in doughs and batters that causes them to rise. - the holes left by the gas bubbles give breads, cakes, and other baked goods their soft, sponge-like textures.
1. Air
Types of leavening agents

Beating of a batter or egg whites, creaming of butter and sugar, incorporates and hold air inside when the product is heated, the gases of air expand to take up greater volume Large bubbles - coarse texture Fine, well distributed air bubbles are necessary for soft texture Overbeating will often cause the air to be lost. Smaller bubbles in contact with large bubbles will merge into the larger over time Major leavening agent in pound cakes and angel food cakes.
2. Water Vapor (Steam)

When water is heated, water molecules turn to gas and take up a greater volume than when the water is liquid. Expansion of air bubbles by increasing vapor pressure Main leavening agent in popovers, eclairs, cream puffs, some cookies, and crackers.
45
Leavening agents
Leavening agents
Types of leavening agents

3. Carbon Dioxide
- either chemically or biologically generated important leavening agent for most baked products. Like air, carbon dioxide is a gas that expands when heated. It is generated from within the product rather than being incorporated into the product. Sources:
Baking soda Baking powder Yeast Sourdough Ammonium bicarbonate Potassium bicarbonate
Baking soda
Sodium bicarbonate, soluble white chemical compound with a slight alkaline taste Above 60 C, 2NaHCO3 When exposed to an acid NaHCO3 + HX
Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O
CO2 + H2O + NaX
Leavening agents
Leavening agents
Baking soda
Cream of Tartar (potassium acid tartrate) (1835) -> development of the first baking soda gas release: 70/0/30 (relative percentages of gas release at mixing/bench/cooking) Sodium Aluminum Sulfate (SAS) (1885) 0/0/100 Sodium Acid Pyrophosphate (SAPP) (1900s) several grades based on particle size: 40/8/52, 36/8/56, 32/8/60, 28/8/64, 22/11/67 Other modern leavening agents: - monocalcium phosphate monohydrate (60/0/40) - coated monocalcium phophate (15/35/50) - sodium aluminum phosphate (22/9/69) - dicalcium phosphate dihydrate (0/0/100)
Baking Powder
Baking soda (about 30%) + acidulants + starch (25-40%) Home use: Phosphate (monocalcium phosphate) or SAS Commercial: Variable; mainly SAPP + monocalcium phosphate Double acting: two kinds of acidulants (room temp + high temp) Single acting: contain only room-temp acidulants Can substitute baking powder for baking soda One year shelf-life and lose activity over time
Leavening agents
Leavening agents
Ammonium bicarbonate
Bakers ammonia Slight ammonia odor and soluble in water -> alkaline soln. The aqueous solution of this salt liberates carbon dioxide and ammonia on heating NH4HCO3 NH3 + H2O + CO2 used in food industry before the introduction of baking soda
Yeast
Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeast cells convert carbohydrates into carbon dioxide and alcohol. More yeast needed in sweet breads because excess sugar will have negative osmotic effect on the cells Compressed fresh yeast (70% H2O) Granulated dry yeast (8% H2O)
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Functions of Intermediate Molecular Weight Carbohydrates

Texture
Fat replacers/mimetics Viscosity
Maltodextrins as Fat Mimetics

Maltodextrins with DE < 5, modified starches, dextrins Stabilize large amount of water into a gel-like structure Lubricant and flow properties similar to fat Give smooth and stable texture
aW control Bulking agent Energy source 1 4 kcal/g
Polydextrose
Polymer of D-glucose (dextrose) containing bound sorbitol and citric acid with MW 22,000 Daltons Soluble in water aW profile similar to sucrose used to lower aW in foods Depresses freezing point Energy 1 kcal/g Bulking and fat sparing agent
Functions of Polysaccharides
Interactions with water
Texture Thickener Gel formation
Digestibility
Dietary fiber
Processing aid Binder Adhesive Gel or film former Stabilizer
Starch
Starch
Function of Starches in Foods

Thicken Bind Adhere Suspend Carry Improve Appearance Extend Shelf-Life Add Bulk Encapsulate Gel Agglomerate Coat Stabilize Provide Body Extend Ingredients
Basic Starch Structure

Amylose
Starch Granule Enlargement
Amylopectin
47
Starch
Starch
Corn Starch
Maize, Waxy Maize and High Amylose 5-35 Micrometer Granules Waxy Maize: 0% Amylose Maize: 27% Amylose High Amylose: 55-95% Amylose
Tapioca Starch
5-35 Micrometer Granules Truncated Spheres Bell Shaped 17% Amylose
Starch
Starch
Potato Starch
20-100 Micrometer Granules Large Lenticular Granules 20% Amylose
Wheat Starch
Bi-Modal Granule Distribution 2-10 micrometer 20-35 micrometer Large Lenticular and Small Spherical Granules 27% Amylose
Starch
Native Starches: The Functionality of Amylose

Waxy Corn Tapioca
0% Amylose NonGelling Clear 17% Amylose Soft Gel
Starch
Uses for Native Starches

Candy Moulding Moisture Control Sugar Grinding Dusting
Potato
20% Amylose Salve Consistency Clear
Dent Corn
27% Amylose Firm Gel
Wheat
27 % Amylose Soft Gel
Clear
Slightly Opaque
Slightly Opaque
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Starch
Starch
Chemical Modification Improves:

Freeze/Thaw Stability Heat, Acid and Shear Stability Texture and Mouthfeel Process Control Shelf-life Stability Product Handling
Starch Modifications
Native Starch Chemical Modification
Dextrinization Oxidation Thinning Crosslinking Substitution
Physical Modification
Instantize Agglomerate
Starch
Starch
Thinning/Thin-Boiling
Increases:
Paste Clarity Gel Strength
Thin-Boiling
Confection Jellies Bakery Fillings Gelled Products Meats Salad Dressings Baked Goods Meats Dairy Coatings
Decreases:
Hot Paste Viscosity
(Thin-Boiling)
Starch
Starch
Crosslinking
Increases:
Temperature Stability Acid Stability Shear Stability
Crosslinking
High Acid
Tomato based sauces, salad dressings
Hot Fill
Pie fillings, bakery glazes
Decreases:
Viscosity Rate of Hydration
Aseptic
Puddings, cheese sauces
Retorted
Soups, gravies, sauces
49
Starch
Starch
Substitution
Increases:
Freeze/Thaw Stability Water Holding Capacity Peak Viscosity Clarity
Substitution
Substituting Agents
Propylene Oxide Acetic Anhydride Octenyl Succinic Acid
Starch Terms
Hydroxypropyl (HP Starch) Acetylated Starch OS Starch
Decreases:
Retrogradation Pasting Temperature
Starch
Starch
Acetylated Starch
1st Generation in Substituted Starches Better Moisture Control over Unmodified Starches Increased Clarity
Hydroxypropylated Starch
Provides Exceptional Freeze/Thaw Stability Improved Paste Clarity Increased Moisture Control Better Control of Retrogradation
Starch
Starch
Octenylsuccinate Starch
Lipophilic Characteristics Helps Control Fat Provides Moisture Barrier Excellent Encapsulation Properties
Combined Modifications
Crosslinking
+
Substitution
Benefits of Both
Process Stability AND Moisture Management

Diversification of Properties Product and Process Specific
50
Starch
Starch
Combined Modifications
Frozen Foods Processed Foods Neutral and Acidic Systems Aseptic and Retorted Foods Meats Dairy
Starch Modifications
Native Starch Chemical Modification Physical Modification
Instantize Agglomerate
Starch
Starch
Instant Starches
Dry an d ook -c Pre
Cold Water Swelling Starches
Pre-Gelatinized Starch Pre-
Preswel l and
Dry
Un-cooked Starch Un-
Cold Water Swelling Starch
Pre-Gel Pre-
Granular
Starch
Starch
Advantage of Intact Granules: Quality Attributes
Instant Starches
Pregelatinized
Rapid Hydration Pre-Cooked Few Intact Granules Grainy Appearance
Granular/CWS
Rapid Hydration Pre-Swollen Intact Granules Cook-up Quality without Heat
Smooth Texture Superior Surface Gloss
Pre-gelatinized
Granular/CWS
Both types require a diluent for lump-free dispersion
51
Starch
Agglomerated Starches
Agglomeration
Starch
Agglomerated Starches
No Need for Diluent Ideal for Hot Water Dispersion Cook-up Quality Versatile for Processing
Instant Starch
Agglomerated Instant Starch
Gums
Functions of Gums Gums/Hydrocolloids

Thickening/ increasing viscosity Stabilizing aqueous dispersions, suspensions, and emulsions Formation of gels See table 5-8 in book, page 75
Gums
Gums
Plant Seed Gums: Function

Guar gum
Highest viscosity per unit concentration of any gum Bread staling inhibitor, sausage, salad dressings Does not form a gel (no junction zones)
Plant Exudate Gums: Function

Gum arabic
Flavor encapsulation
Spray-dried citrus drink mixes
Most water soluble up to 50% w/w

Newtonian flow up to 40%
Locust bean gum

Synergistic activity with carrageenan to improve viscosity Added to cottage cheese to improve yield and speed curd formation
Acts as an emulsifier
Gum tragacanth
Stable to heat and acid
Used in salad dressings and sauces Clarity and brilliance in frozen pie fillings
Both used in ice creams for binding water, decreasing ice crystal size, stabilizer, texture
52
Gums
Gums
Seaweed Gums: Function

Agar
Remain stable at temp > initial gelation point High gel strength Reduces syneresis in frozen desserts Stability and texture in process cheese and cream cheese
Bacterial Gums: Functions

Soluble in hot and cold water Pseudoplastic suspensions Temperature and pH stable
Suspending and stabilizing agent in canned foods
Xanthan gum
Carrageenan
Interacts with locust bean gum and milk proteins Chocolate milk -> stabilize chocolate suspension Chemically set gels with potassium ion
Gellan
Requires monovalent or divalent cations to form a gel High gel strength and low syneresis
Alginates
Form gels at room temp. in presence of calcium ion Icing on donuts texture, gel, and stickiness
Gums
Gums
Cellulose Gums: Functions

Microcrystalline cellulose (MCC)
Forms thixotropic dispersions (water insoluble) Body agent, foam stabilizer, suspension aid
Pectin Functions
Commercial pectin obtained from:
Citrus peel (lemon and lime) and apple pomace
Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC)

Nondigestible bulk and body agent in diet foods Protective colloid in emulsions and prevents precipitation of soy proteins or caseinates at their pIs
Extracted with acid

Hydrolysis of methyl ester groups occurs
Methylcellulose
Thermogelation (gels when heated, melts when cooled)
Grease barrier in fried foods
Soluble in cold not hot water
Pectin with > 50% carboxyl groups in methyl ester form are high-methoxyl (HM) pectins Pectins with < 50% carboxyl groups in methyl ester form are low-methoxyl (LM) pectins
Gums
Gums
Pectin
Virtually impossible to dissolve without high shear and or high temperature Food uses:
Jelly Fruit on the bottom yogurt
Pectin Functions
HM pectin
Solutions gel when sufficient acid and sugar are present Lower pH convert charged carboxylate groups to uncharged and these can form junction zones High concentrations of sugar (at least 55%, often 65%) competes for water of hydration and assists junction zone formation
53
Gums
Pectin Functions
LM pectin
Gel only in the presence of divalent cations (only calcium used in food industry) Divalent cations provide cross-bridges (form junction zones) Increasing concentration of calcium increases gelling temperature and gel strength Gel formation does not require sugar can be used for diet formulations
Regulations for Hydrocolloids

In USA:
Food additives
CFR 21 172.580 172.874
GRAS
CFR 182.1480 184.1724
Humectants Humectants
Additives which are used to keep food moist. Humectants are hygroscopic, i.e. they absorb moisture from the atmosphere, and thus are able to counteract the normal drying effects caused by evaporation. Typical foods kept moist by humectants include cake icings, confectionery, shredded coconut and dried fruit. Common humectants include GLYCEROL, MANNITOL, SORBITOL, CALCIUM LACTATE and POTASSIUM LACTATE, and PROPYLENE GLYCOL.
Enzymes
Enzymes: Definitions Other Functions of Additives For Fruits

Enzymes Biological catalysts that make possible or greatly speed up chemical reactions
54
Enzymes
Enzymes
Enzyme Functions
Speed up reactions Reduce viscosity Improve extractions Carry out bioconversions Enhance separations Develop functionality Create/intensify flavor Synthesize chemicals
1.
Groups of Enzymes
Oxidoreductases
Catalyze oxidations or reductions
2.
Transferases
Catalyze a shift of a chemical group from a donor to an acceptor substrate
3.
Hydrolases
Catalyze hydrolytic splitting of substrates
4.
Lyases
Catalyze removal or addition of chemical groups to substrates (excluding hydrolysis)
5.
Isomerases
Catalyze intramolecular rearrangements
6.
Ligases (synthetases)
Catalyze combinations of substrate molecules
Enzymes
Enzymes
Enzymes Important to Food Industry

Most are hydrolases
Add one water molecule for each bond split Carbohydrases, proteases (proteinase), esterases, lipases mostly unwanted and not added ( exception: protease in cheese)
Functions and Importance of Enzymes

Ripening of cheese Conversion of milk to cheese Conversion of corn starch to high fructose corn syrup
Enzyme activity can be:

Wanted
Some are oxidoreductases

Substrate loses hydrogen or gains oxygen
Unwanted
Lipid hydrolysis producing hydrolytic rancidity in lipid containing foods Thinning of tomato paste Browning of fruits
One is an isomerase
Intramolecular rearrangement Glucose isomerase
Enzymes
Enzymes
Factors that Affect Enzyme Reactions

Enzyme Concentration Substrate Concentration Combined Effect of Enzyme and Substrate Concentration Time Temperature pH Inhibitors
Enzyme Inactivation and Control

Inhibitors pH Temperature Denaturation
Shear force Very high pressure Irradiation Interfacial inactivation Solvent
Chemical modification of active site groups Removal of substrate or cofactor
55
Enzymes
Enzymes
Enzyme activity in foods

Desirable (often additive added as processing aid)
Control with enzyme type Control with time Control with temperature Control with pH Control with substrate concentration Control with enzyme concentration
Enzyme activity in foods

Undesirable (often endogenous enzyme) To slow down or inactivate enzyme activity
Control with temperature Control with pH Control with aw Control with inhibitor
To optimize enzyme activity
Enzymes
Enzymes
Pectinases and juice

Pectinase is added to clarify the product by hydrolysis of pectinaceous materials.
May also increase yield
Pectinases and juice

Temperature
Optimum temperature is 30-40C
Control :
Enzyme Type
Most commercial pectinase is produced by Aspergillus niger (mold) Often combination of pectin methylesterases and polygalacturonases
pH
Want maximum activity
Limited denaturation with maximum conversion of reactant to product
Time
Depends on the dosage of the enzyme and variety of fruit (15 min 2 hours) The more the enzyme, the less time is needed
The optimum is pH 4.8-5.0 Juice manufactures usually use pH 3.5
Amylases
Used to hydrolyze starch to sugar Remove starch from:
Fruit juices and extracts Flavoring extracts Prepare starch-free pectin (important that this contains no pectinases)
Glucose Oxidase and Catalase

Keep oxygen out of products by catalyzing reaction of glucose to gluconic acid and absorbing oxygen in the process
Catalase needed to provide oxygen for the reaction
By removing oxygen:
Prevent off flavors in citrus concentrates and drinks Prevent enzymatic browning of fresh frozen fruits Prevent iron pickup in canned fruit drinks
56
Enzymes
Bromelain, Ficin, and Papain

Proteases extracted from pineapple, figs, and papaya, respectively Hydrolyze plant and animal proteins to peptides and amino acids Used as meat tenderizers
Undesirable Enzyme Activity
Enzymes
Proteases in milk
Proteases in milk degrade proteins and significantly affect flavor and protein stability Control
Enzyme Type
General protease Native to milk (e.g. plasmin) Produced by psychrotrophic microbes
Temperature
Very high temperature is needed to inactivate the enzymes Pasteurization and other milk processings are not inactivate all the enzymes, some still remain active
Enzymes
Enzymes
Pectinases in tomato paste

Pectinases clarify tomato paste. However, cloudiness is desired. Control
Enzyme Type
Native to commodity
Polyphenoloxidase (PPO) in fruits

PPO is responsible for undesirable discoloration (brown) of fruits. Control
Enzyme Type
Native to fruits
Temperature
Not recommended to heat
Temperature
Inactivated by denaturation (> 50C)
pH
Lower pH to reduce activity using organic acid
57
Enzymes
Enzymes
Polyphenoloxidase (PPO) in fruits

aw
Lower aw to reduce activity (reduce mobility of substrates and enzymes) by drying
Gelatin and raw pineapples

Bromelain (protease) in raw pineapples will prevent gelation of gelatin. Control
Temperature
Inactivated by denaturation (> 71C) No bromelain activity in canned pineapples
Inhibitor
Sulfite
Substrate removal
Remove O2 using vacuum package, MAP, CAP Remove copper
Radiation
D37 = 30-70 kGy
pH
Inactivated at pH < 3 and > 9.5
Enzymes
Lipoxygenases and soybean

Lipoxygenases in soybean produce beany flavour. Control
Temperature
Heat to inactivate (>70C)
Serbian Enterprise Development Project: Use of Food Additives

Dr. Lisa Mauer Associate Professor Department of Food Science Purdue University
Choose variety of soybean with nonlipoxygenase to avoid beany flavor
58

F7.1 Use of Food Additives

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F7.1 Use of Food Additives

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Serbian Enterprise Development Project: Use of Food Additives

Government regulations Organic

Definitions of Additives Regulations for Use of Food Additives

United States Food and Drug Administration

Regulatory Status of Food Ingredients

Role of Organizations related to Food Additives

FEMA GRAS Panel

Each country has its own regulations

Dr. Lisa Mauer, Purdue University, September 2006

US: Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act

US: Delaney Clause, 1958

Color Additive Amendment (1960)

US: Specifications for Food Ingredients

FDA CFR Title 21:

Code of Federal Regulations (CFR)

Food Chemicals Codex: National Academy of Sciences

Company generated specifications

Other FDA Regulations

US: Food Definitions and Standards

Nutritional Quality Guidelines

Established by FDA and published in 21 CFR 100-169

Nutritional Labeling Guidelines

Fair Packaging and Labeling Act

Standards of Identity Standards of Quality Standards of Fill

Dr. Lisa Mauer, Purdue University, September 2006

Dr. Lisa Mauer, Purdue University, September 2006

Food Additive Regulations in Europe

UK Food Additive Regulations

European Parliament and Council Directive 89/107/EEC of December 21, 1988

Dr. Lisa Mauer, Purdue University, September 2006

Food Additive Regulations in Japan

How other countries regulate food additives

Dr. Lisa Mauer, Purdue University, September 2006

Classification of Additives: US Regulatory Status

2. Prior sanctioned substances

3. Approved food additives

Classification of Additives: Direct, Secondary Direct, Indirect

Classification of Additives: By use of food ingredient

Classification of Additives: By Technical Effect

To improve or maintain nutritional value

To maintain palatability and wholesomeness

To enhance appeal of foods

To provide leavening or control pH

2. Final Product Additives

To aid in the processing of foods

Dr. Lisa Mauer, Purdue University, September 2006

Types of Processing Additives

Types of Final Product Additives

Top Ten Most Troublesome Ingredients in Formulation

20 15.6 13.3 12.2 11.7 10.6 10

Specific Categories and Uses of Final Product Food Additives

Dr. Lisa Mauer, Purdue University, September 2006

Definition of Antimicrobial Agents

Antimicrobial agents must

Questions to ask about antimicrobials:

Factors that Influence the Effectiveness of Antimicrobials

Handling of the processed product

Organic acids take advantage of the undissociated form of the acid

Dr. Lisa Mauer, Purdue University, September 2006

Organic Acids: Mode of Action

Examples of organic acids

Examples of organic acids

Examples of organic acids