Work-life Balance Literature and Research Review

Executive Summary
Essentially, work-life balance is about helping employees better manage their work and non-work time. The debate on work-life balance must include employers encouraging them to understand and implement more effective work-life balance strategies. The work-life balance agenda is more inclusive than the previous family-friendly agenda which focussed primarily on the needs of working mothers. However, many work-life balance policies still focus on the care of young children and fail to address the needs of carers of older children and adults and also those without care responsibilities. Caring and other domestic responsibilities remains one of the key barriers to economic activity for women. This leads to inequality between women and men both at home and at work. There is a huge disparity between statutory paternity and maternity rights. The policy framework perpetuates the gendered pattern of care and employment. Such disparity reduces parental choice. The UKs framework of rights are still among the lowest in Europe. Rather than rely on legislative stimulus, the UK government worklife balance campaign promotes the business case. The evidence is positive and support for the idea of work-life balance is fairly widespread, yet the adoption of the flexible working practices which employees demand is still fairly low. Within organisations, awareness of policies among managers and staff is poor. Training, and therefore proper understanding of worklife balance strategies, is rare.

their

policies achieving

Atypical working patterns are promoted as pro-work-life balance. However, atypical workers are often the most disadvantaged workers.

Employees in these jobs experience low levels of control over their work and time and have less access to work-life policies. Researchers and policy makers must begin to examine and address this socioeconomic divide. Men are more likely to have control over their working time, due to the nature of many occupations which are mostly held by men. However, many men work long hours and are unlikely to use flexibility to meet non-work responsibilities. If more equitable and efficient workplaces is a key aim of the worklife balance campaign, then those involved in the campaign need to engage more effectively with debates on equality and economic efficiency. The way work is organised and rewarded needs to be fundamentally challenged. To build an informed policy debate on work-life balance issues in Scotland, more Scottish based research is essential.

Contents
Introduction
What is Work-life Balance? UK Policy Context

Drivers Behind Work-life Balance

Demands of Work Demands of Life Employee Demand for Work-life Balance

11

The Business Case

Recruitment and Retention Reducing Absenteeism Enhanced Commitment, Morale and Productivity Wheres the evidence?

19

Work-life Policies in Practice

Introducing Policies Responsibility for Policies Organisational Barriers to an Improved Worklife Balance

23

Conclusions References Further information

32 34 40
5

Acknowledgements
Report prepared by Sarah Wise from the Employment Research Institute, Napier University. Additional materials and support provided by Sue Bond, Napier University and Anne Meikle, Fair Play.

Introduction
Public awareness and understanding of the term work-life balance has grown dramatically in recent years. The high level of interest among employers, consultants, and the media has generated a healthy business in conferences, websites and guides. It is a growth area in academia too, encompassing diverse disciplines including economics, social policy, feminism, sociology, industrial relations, human resource management, health and psychology. This publication brings together material from these diverse sources to provide an overview of recent research, current thinking and future debates on the key work-life policy issues, especially those which affect Scotland.

What is Work-life Balance?

EMPLOYMENT BASED ON EMERGENT NEW VALUES, WHICH DOES NOT DISCRIMINATE AGAINST THOSE WITH CARING OR OTHER NON-WORK RESPONSIBILITIES, AND WHICH PROVIDES AN OPPORTUNITY FOR PEOPLE TO REALISE THEIR FULL POTENTIAL IN WORK AND NON-WORK DOMAINS.

Lewis (1996:1) The Work-Family Challenge: Rethinking Employment

The 1990s saw the emergence of family-friendly policies primarily designed around womens experiences in combining care responsibilities with paid employment. However, family-friendly policies began to attract negative reactions from people without such caring responsibilities. This backlash was probably exaggerated (Hogarth et al. (2000) found that 43% of employers thought work-life balance practices unfair to some staff, yet only 26% of employees thought that they were unfair to people like them) but it did highlight the limitations of the family-friendly agenda. For the idea that employers benefit from helping employees to lead more balanced lives to gain acceptance, it had to become more inclusive.
WORK-LIFE BALANCE ISNT ONLY ABOUT FAMILIES AND CHILDCARE. NOR IS IT ABOUT WORKING LESS. ITS ABOUT WORKING SMART. ABOUT BEING FRESH ENOUGH TO GIVE ALL YOU NEED TO BOTH WORK AND HOME, WITHOUT JEOPARDISING ONE FOR THE OTHER. AND ITS A NECESSITY FOR EVERYONE, AT WHATEVER YOUR STAGE IN LIFE.

DTI & Scotland Office (2001) The Essential Guide to Work-life Balance

Essentially work-life balance is about helping employees better manage their work and non-work time. A number of policies can facilitate this by: reducing hours (e.g. part-time, job-share); changing when hours are worked (e.g. compressed working week, flexitime, term-time working); where hours are worked (e.g. home working); or providing periods of paid or unpaid leave (e.g. compassionate leave, parental leave, study leave, career break). Appropriate balance and the means of getting there depends on individual and business needs.

UK Policy Context
Regulation and Best Practice
European employment policy recognises the need to change the work-home interface.The equal opportunities pillar of the European Employment Strategy prioritises the reconciling of work and family life as a tool for achieving greater gender parity. Several pieces of legislation have been introduced in the UK because of European commitments, including: Equal treatment rights for part-time workers Working Time Directive imposing a maximum working week and minimum rest and leave periods Parental Leave Time off for an emergency involving dependants Extended Maternity Leave Recent developments have seen the introduction of paid paternity leave, the right to request flexible working for parents of children under 6 and extended maternity rights. These legislative changes signal a major shift in UK employment policy. British employers have a long tradition of opposing the regulation of the employment relationship on the basis that it imposes costs which stifle economic growth and reduce flexibility (CBI 1997), an assertion perhaps heavier of rhetoric than reality (see Taylor 2002; Bielenski et al. 2001). While the present legislature is moving away from a policy of low employment protection, the pressure towards minimal regulation remains. Running in parallel with the framework of basic rights is a government sponsored work-life balance campaign which promotes the business case for helping employees reduce work-life conflict. It is hoped that by persuading employers that it is in their best interests to voluntarily adopt the work-life policies which suit the needs of their business and their employees, the need for legislation is reduced.
EMPLOYERS WORLD-WIDE ARE RECOGNISING OF THEIR OWN ACCORD THAT

IT MAKES GOOD BUSINESS SENSE TO PROVIDE OPPORTUNITIES FOR THEIR

WORKFORCE TO ACHIEVE BETTER WORK-LIFE BALANCE WITH A PAY-BACK OF INCREASED MORALE, BETTER EFFECTIVENESS AND PRODUCTIVITY, AND THE ABILITY TO EMBRACE CHANGE.

DTI and Scotland Office (2001) The Essential Guide to Work-life Balance

Comparative Statutory Rights

A recent review of statutory family leave and pay found that the Scandinavian nations, especially Sweden, were still ahead (Deven and Moss 2002). The UK is low compared to other European countries but is more generous than the USA and Australia, who do not have any provision comparable to maternity, paternity or parental leave. The UK gives 2 weeks paid paternity leave, parental leave at threshold levels (13 weeks), very low state support for child care yet, at 52 weeks, has the longest statutory maternity leave in Europe. This package presents some problems. The legal basis of maternity leave is to protect the health and safety of new mothers in the workplace - providing adequate time for rest and recuperation after child birth. In Denmark for example, maternity leave is only 14 weeks while in Germany it is 8 weeks. The governments decision not to enhance parental leave but extend maternity leave reinforces the gendered division of care responsibilities and reduces parental choice. The disparity between mothers and fathers rights may well be tested in the European courts.

Voluntary Employer Provision

A national survey conducted for the Department for Education and Employment (Hogarth et al. 2000) found that the principle of worklife balance had wide-spread support, as long as it did not interfere with business needs:
62% OF EMPLOYERS AND 80% OF EMPLOYEES AGREED WITH THE STATEMENT:EVERYONE SHOULD BE ABLE TO BALANCE THEIR WORK AND HOME LIVES 59% OF EMPLOYERS AND 54% OF EMPLOYEES AGREED THAT EMPLOYEES MUST NOT EXPECT TO BE ABLE TO CHANGE THEIR WORKING PATTERN IF TO DO SO WOULD DISRUPT THE BUSINESS

10

Hogarth et al. (2000) Work-Life Balance 2000: Baseline Study

Yet this support appeared to be more theoretical than practical. Other than part-time hours (offered by 80% of employers), flexible working practices were rare:
22% HAD EMPLOYEES WORKING FROM HOME (MOSTLY ON AN OCCASIONAL BASIS), JUST OVER 10% HAD FLEXITIME COMPRESSED WORKING WEEKS, JOB SHARE AND TERM TIME WORKING WERE EACH OFFERED BY LESS THAN 5% OF EMPLOYERS 20% OFFERED NO FLEXIBLE WORKING AT ALL.

Hogarth et al. (2000) Work-Life Balance 2000: Baseline study

Leave provision was higher with over 90% of employers providing bereavement leave, 45% paternity leave, over half some sort of carers leave, and just under 30% career breaks and study leave. However, practical support with care responsibilities was extremely low. Only 2% of employers had a workplace crche, 1% offered subsidised nurseries and 3% helped financially in other ways (e.g. child care vouchers). Formal policy provision also tends to be segregated in certain types of organisation. An analysis of the 1998 Workplace Employee Relations Survey found that family-friendly or flexible working arrangements were more common in larger organisations and in the public sector and where there were:
RECOGNISED UNIONS HUMAN RESOURCE SPECIALISTS GOOD PERFORMANCE MANAGERIAL TECHNIQUES TO INCREASE EMPLOYEE COMMITMENT MORE INVOLVEMENT OF EMPLOYEES IN DECISION-MAKING EQUAL OPPORTUNITIES POLICIES THAT WERE IMPLEMENTED AND MONITORED LARGER PROPORTIONS OF WOMEN IN THE WORKFORCE A HIGHLY EDUCATED WORKFORCE USING DISCRETION

11

Dex, S. and Smith, C. (2002) The nature and pattern of family-friendly employment policies in Britain

The results of national surveys however, should be treated with caution. They often only cover what is formally available to employees and cannot capture the effect that policies have on employees. They also exclude the informal, ad hoc provision often found in small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs) (Bevan et al. 1999; Dex and Scheibl 2002). Unfortunately there are no disaggregated data for Scottish employers although research conducted in the Scottish financial services industry by Bond et al. (2002) found similar patterns of provision. Coverage of work-life policies was more extensive and formalised in large companies that recognised unions than in those with staff associations or no representative forum. Flexible working practices designed to meet operational and labour market needs, such as part-time working, were better established than those designed to help meet employee work-life demands.

12

Drivers Behind Work-life Balance

One of the major drivers behind the introduction of family-friendly and worklife policies was the increased participation of women in paid employment. In 1999 17% of UK women of working age devoted their time exclusively to looking after home and family, in 2001 this figure was 13% representing 600,000 fewer in just two years (ONS 2002).

13

Demands of Work
Atypical Working
The work-life balance campaign promotes certain types of atypical working to help employees combine care responsibilities with paid employment and employers to meet operational needs. Low state support and the continued gendered division of child care means UK mothers often work part-time to minimise child care costs (Dex, 1999). Of the 25% of Scotlands employees who work part-time, 81% are women (Scottish Executive 2001). Even with new equal treatment rights, part-time work can be less rewarding than fulltime work. For example part-timers have less access to occupational pensions because they are disproportionately concentrated in sectors and workplaces which dont provide such schemes (Fagan 2000)
PART-TIME WORKERS, THE MAJORITY OF WHOM ARE WOMEN, HAVE LESS CONTROL OVER THEIR WORKING TIME AND TEND TO BE OCCUPIED IN UNSKILLED POSITIONS AND RECEIVE LESS TRAINING AND LOWER PAY.

EFILWC (2001)

A Scottish study of lone and partnered mothers working in nonmanagerial/professional jobs found that mothers often took less demanding jobs to balance their working hours with family demands. They accepted the need to make this compromise, but several felt that they were working below their ability or capacity (Backett-Milburn et al. 2001). For some, atypical working patterns are a positive experience. Purcell et al. (1999) found that managerial and clerical workers, especially those with scarce expertise, did benefit from working flexibly. However, for manual and lower skilled workers flexible working meant insecurity and unpredictability rather than better work-life balance. Unpredictable and unstructured flexibility involving incursions into family time is more likely to be experienced by low-skilled, part-time, temporary workers and shift workers. La Valle et al.s (2002) study on the effect of atypical working hours on family life found that working unsociable hours was driven by a

14

need to reduce or eliminate child care costs with parents or other carers taking care responsibilities in shifts. Shift parenting could be a positive experience, sometimes allowing more time with children, but for many it meant a reduction in the amount of family time spent as a group.

Long Working Hours

The UK has the highest proportion of people working long hours in Europe.The European labour force survey shows that almost 30% of full-time employees work in excess of 46 hours per week, compared to an EU average of 12%. In 1984, 2.8 million people were working more than 48 hours a week. By 1998, this had risen to over 4 million people, an increase of over 40% (TUC 2000). The UK also has the greatest dispersion of hours worked by employees in Europe (Fagan 2000). In 1999 the average of total hours worked per person (including part-time workers) was 1720 hours per year. More than, for example, France, Germany and Sweden but less than Spain, Norway, and the US (Evans et al. 2001). Long working hours are more likely to be experienced by men, especially fathers, while part-time hours worked predominantly by women have fallen a strikingly inefficient use of resources. The Working Time Directive 1998 imposed an upper limit of 48 hours a week but exemptions and opt-out clauses have seriously mitigated its impact. All employees whose hours are not or only partly predetermined or measured by their employer are not protected. This removes all salaried workers from the protection of the regulations even though it is these employees, especially managers and professionals, who work the longest hours of all (Hogarth et al. 2000). It is regular additional hours which are problematic for employees (Kodz et al. 1998). Burchell et al. (1999) found that out of 340 employees, half felt that their family life had suffered because of their working hours. The most commonly cited problems were feeling tired and irritable, not seeing enough of partners and children and restricting the social life of the family. La Valle et al. (2002) also found long hours to be associated with lower levels of involvement in childrens activities and the frequent disruption of family life. Scase and Scales (1998) found that 42% of fathers working a standard working week talk to their children most days whereas only 26% of fathers working over 48 hours do the same.

15

The health problems for the individual working long hours are also considerable. As well as being less likely to take regular exercise, people who continue to work long hours have a greater likelihood of health problems. Even if hours are reduced, health prospects do not return to the levels of those who have always worked shorter hours (Scase and Scales 1998).

Work Intensification and Stress

Employees report that the main reason they work long hours is to get the job done (Taylor 2002). Of the employees surveyed by Burchell et al. (1999):
64% THOUGHT THE SPEED OF THEIR WORK HAD INCREASED 80% THOUGHT THE SKILLS REQUIREMENT OF THEIR JOB HAD INCREASED 78% THOUGHT THE VARIETY OF TASKS THEY HAD TO PERFORM HAD INCREASED AND 75% THOUGHT THEIR LEVEL OF RESPONSIBILITY HAD INCREASED

Burchell et al. (1999) Job Insecurity and Work Intensification

A number of factors have contributed to this trend. Technological advances, especially the proliferation of PC use, has increased the volume of work which can be done and thereby raised expectations of what should be done. The down-sizing and restructuring of the 1990s has also increased this pressure and heightened feelings of job insecurity. The intensification and restructuring process may have produced some short-term gains but the long term ill-effects of stress on individuals and society are considerable. Pressures from managers, colleagues, low staffing levels and especially high quantities of work are significantly associated with poor psychological health and tensions at home (Burchell et al. 1999).

Demands of Life
Combining Care of Children and Paid Employment
16
One of the major drivers behind the introduction of family-friendly and work-life policies was the increased participation of women in

paid employment. In 1999 17% of UK women of working age devoted their time exclusively to looking after home and family, in 2001 this figure was 13% representing 600,000 fewer in just two years (ONS 2002). Women have become increasingly involved in paid employment and men have become more involved with the care of the family. Time use studies have found that since the 1970s, the amount of time fathers spend directly interacting with their child has increased overall and risen steeply since 1985 (Gershuny 2001). Qualitative research conducted by Hatten et al. (2002) for the Equal Opportunities Commission found that few of the fathers they interviewed took on equal responsibility for all care-related tasks, but few took a traditional, hands-off approach. The trend is towards men taking a greater role at home but it is worth noting that the amount of time spent on paid work and care is not static. In their study of rural communities in Scotland and the North of England, Mauthner et al. (2001) found that both mothers and fathers increase their commitment to paid work or caring according to the age of the children, their employment situation and the needs of the family. While there is a desire among men, especially younger men, for greater involvement in family life, fathers time still only accounts for one third of all parental contact (Gershuny 2001) and their role as provider is still a powerful source of identity (Warin et al. 1999). Women take the majority of responsibility for the care of children and the home evidenced by the high proportion of mothers working part-time and the long working hours of fathers. An Australian study (a country with a similar profile of maternal employment as the UK) found that motherhood adds more to the overall workload (at home and work) of women than fatherhood adds to the workload of men (Craig 2002).

The Ageing Population

Scotlands population is ageing and is set to decline from 5.11 million to under 5 million within the next twenty years (GROS 2002). As the birth rate falls, the dependency ratio between the elderly and the working age population increases threatening future economic growth across Europe (Duncan 2002).Womens aspirations for social and economic independence are only a contributory factor in

17

declining birth rates. However, the incompatibility of work, or at least well paid, rewarding work, with childbearing has to be addressed if having babies is to be an attractive proposition for future generations of young Scots. This is why work-family reconciliation is prioritised by EU employment policy. The demographic time bomb will also result in increasing proportions of people with adult-care responsibilities. As the capacity of the welfare state is reduced, the burden of care (for elders and the chronically sick or disabled) falls on relatives and friends. Carers Scotland have estimated that Scotland will see a 60% rise in the number of carers needed by 2037, increasing the chances of someone aged 30-54 being a carer for an adult by 88%. Research into the current generation of working carers over 50 found that almost half were combining work with the care of an elderly or disabled relative or friend, a grandchild or their own child. This informal care was undertaken equally by men and women, full and part-timers and at all levels of the organisation but the level of care provided by women tended to be more extensive. Stress, tiredness, ill-health and lack of leisure time affected many of these carers and although they explicitly expressed a desire not to allow their care responsibilities to affect their work, opportunities for career advancement were affected (Mooney et al. 2002). Recent developments in the scrapping of the statutory retirement age and improving the flexibility of both state and occupational pension schemes are to be welcomed. The earnings rule that reduces the amount of state pension paid to people who work after retirement age and final salary schemes prevent part-time working in the lead up to retirement. More flexibility is needed, not only to fight poverty but to help older people manage their care responsibilities.

The Time Squeeze

Part of the motivation for the work-life balance campaign is the notion that people are under increasing pressure of time and have less free time than in the past. However, research charting changes in time use in northern Europe and North America between the 1960s and 1990s found relative stability in leisure time. Sullivan and Gershuny (2001) suggest that the time squeeze may be limited to

18

specific groups, for instance, dual earner couples with dependant children and lone parents. The number of activities engaged in simultaneously has increased and leisure activities involve greater effort and expenditure, perhaps reassuring in a perception of greater time pressure.

Work-life Conflict
Given the competing demands of work and life, it is unsurprising that many employees experience conflict between the two domains.Work-life conflict can affect any employee but people with care responsibilities are more likely to suffer most because of the greater demands on their time. Research has tended to find that mothers, particularly those with young children, are less satisfied with their work-life balance than other groups of workers (Saltztein et al. 2001; Galinsky and Bond 1996). Feelings of work-life conflict have been associated with, inter alia, psychological and physical health problems; marital and family relationship problems, increased sickness absence and decreased life and job satisfaction (Evans and Steptoe 2002; Crouter et al. 2001; Westman 2001; Kossek and Ozeki 1998)

an 2001; Kossek and Oze

Employee Demand for Work-life Balance

Employees are becoming increasingly dissatisfied with the effects of long working hours, work intensification and work-life conflict. A survey of working time preferences across Europe found that over half of employees would prefer to work fewer hours in exchange for lower earnings (EFILWC 2001). Within Britains workplaces, satisfaction with working hours has declined considerably over the last ten years, especially among men. In 1992, 36% of male senior managers/professionals and 34% of male semi and unskilled manual workers were satisfied or completely satisfied with their working hours. By 2000 this had dropped to 16% and 14% respectively (Taylor 2002). Hogarth et al. (2000) found high levels of demand for flexible working practices.

19

When asked about their working time preferences:

47% WANTED FLEXITIME 35% WANTED A COMPRESSED WORKING WEEK 26% WANTED TO WORK PART-TIME 25% WANTED TERM-TIME WORKING 16% WANTED TO JOB-SHARE

Hogarth et al (2000) Work-Life Balance 2000: Baseline study

Organisations have been slow to respond to this demand. Levels of work-life balance provision are low and the type of flexibility available is often not in tune with employee needs. The most popular arrangements among employees, flexitime and compressed working week, entail greater control over working hours but most employers only offered reduced hours: 80% of employers offer part-time working but only 19% have flexitime and less than 5% a compressed working week (Hogarth et al. 2000). So what can be done to persuade employers to close this gap?

20

The Business Case

Recruiting and retaining quality staff is an increasing challenge for organisations. There are skills shortages across sectors and the demand for labour currently outstrips supply, although an economic downturn could change all this. An increasingly dissatisfied and stressed workforce coupled with demographic changes, and the latent demand for worklife policies means employers will have to work harder to keep and attract the skills they need.

21

The Business Case

Central to the work-life balance campaign is persuading employers that responding to employee demand for better work-life balance is good for business. In an effort to overcome employer aversion to regulation, the business case encourages the voluntary introduction of policies. Dex and Smiths (2002) analysis of the nationally representative Workplace Employee Relations Survey found that:
HAVING A FAMILY-FRIENDLY ETHOS WAS POSITIVELY ASSOCIATED WITH MOST ASPECTS OF BUSINESS PERFORMANCE, IN PARTICULAR ABOVE AVERAGE FINANCIAL PERFORMANCE, LABOUR PRODUCTIVITY, QUALITY AND SALES PERFORMANCE.

Dex and Smith (2002) The Nature and Pattern of Family Friendly Employment Policies in Britain

Dex and Smith (2002) also found that 75% of employers thought that there was no or only minimal costs to having work-life policies. An number of qualitative studies have also reported positive effects. The SMEs studied by Bevan et al. (1999) felt they had benefited from having family-friendly employment practices beyond the statutory minimum through reduced absence, improved retention, improved productivity, improved recruitment, improved morale and commitment.

Recruitment and Retention

Recruiting and retaining quality staff is an increasing challenge for organisations. There are skills shortages across sectors and the demand for labour currently outstrips supply, although an economic downturn could change all this. An increasingly dissatisfied and stressed workforce coupled with demographic changes, and the latent demand for work-life policies means employers will have to work harder to keep and attract the skills they need.

22

Improved Retention of Staff

In the Chartered Institute for Personnel and Development 2001 labour turnover survey, a quarter of employers stated they were planning to enhance work-life balance provision to help reduce labour turnover: a sound strategy given that work-life conflict has been found to be strongly associated with intentions to leave (Burke 1988; Good et al. 1988; Netemeyer et al. 1996). Pierce and Newstroms (1982) study of an insurance company and Rothausens (1994) study of retail workers both found that as the level of flexibility offered by employers decreased, employees turnover intentions increased.

Recruitment of Quality Staff

Due to the lack of research and company monitoring, the impact of work-life policies on recruitment rates is not easy to establish. However, Yeandle et al. (2002), Bond et al (2002) and Bevan et al. (1999) found that managers perceived that work-life policies projected a good image to potential new recruits. Because mothers in the UK have tended to use part-time work to combine care responsibilities with paid employment, organisations which provide part-time working opportunities can be more successful at recruiting women (Dex 1999; Wise and Bond 2003).

Reducing Absenteeism
Absence rates and the causes of absence are difficult to capture as reporting within companies is often poor. Many of the managers interviewed by Bevan et al. (1999) thought that certain leave policies reduced employee absences due to the sickness of a dependant. Rather than taking a sick day, emergency leave or informal flexibility could be used so employees were able to be more honest about why they were off. Dalton and Mesch (1990) found that the introduction of flexitime had reduced absenteeism. As with retention, the degree of flexibility seems to be important. Pierce and Newstrom (1983) found that flexible schedules which gave employees more control and did not require line manager authorisation were more effective at reducing absenteeism.

23

Enhanced Commitment, Morale and Productivity

Managers perceptions of the effects of work-life policies on commitment are often positive. Interviews with managers in 83 organisations which had some work-life policies revealed that 68% thought that motivation and/or commitment had increased as result of them (IRS 2000). Dex and Smith (2002) found that work-life policies were found to have a small positive impact on worker commitment and 50% of employers thought they had happier employees because of these policies.

Wheres the evidence?

Best practice case studies are usually relied upon to provide evidence for the business case mainly because quantitative research is thin on the ground (although the US are somewhat ahead in this field).There are few, if any, UK longitudinal (before and after) studies which makes it difficult to isolate the impact of introducing work-life policies.The objective measurement of factors such as performance, effectiveness, morale and motivation (and attributing these effects to work-life policies) is extremely difficult. Further, reporting and monitoring of work-life policies and other workforce data within organisations tends to be poor, limiting the quality of information available to researchers. The Industrial Society (2001) surveyed 516 businesses on their flexible working policies and found that only 10% measured benefits of flexible working policies for all staff. These issues need to be addressed by organisations and researchers for the business case to gain more credibility.

24

Work-life Policies in Practice

Policies have the best chance of success if the people using them, employees and line managers, are fully involved in their design. Lack of consultation can result in policies which do not match individuals needs or can not be used because of operational constraints.

25

Introducing policies
Policies have the best chance of success if the people using them, employees and line managers, are fully involved in their design. Lack of consultation can result in policies which do not match individuals needs or can not be used because of operational constraints. Larger organisations are more likely to have formal work-life provision. These policies are usually developed centrally by HR specialists with input from higher level business managers and employee representatives. Managers and the staff on the ground often feel they have little influence in this process. Staff surveys in four Scottish financial services companies revealed that only 13% of respondents felt they were able to make a difference to the sorts of policies introduced in their organisation (Bond et al. 2002). Yeandle et al.s (2002) research in branches of local government, a supermarket and a retail bank found that although employee opinion on work-life policies was sought, in all but one organisation, this feedback was never actioned. SMEs can be more responsive than larger organisations to individual and business needs as requests are usually dealt with on a case-bycase basis (Dex and Scheibl 2002; Bevan et al. 1999). This can work well when the organisation is supportive of work-life issues. However, if employees believe that they will not be treated sympathetically by their line manager, without the legitimacy which a formal entitlement can give, they will find it difficult to make the request. It also reduces the organisations ability to take a more strategic view of the work-life agenda (Casey et al. 1997).

Responsibility for Policies

Responsibility for implementing work-life policies has increasingly been devolved from HR to line managers. Giving line managers this responsibility means that decisions can be made more quickly and tailored to suit the needs of the individual and the department while HR staff are freed up to take on a more strategic role (Sisson and Storey 2000). However, this approach does require some investment:

26

LINE MANAGERS IN GENERAL WITHOUT SUPPORT FROM PERSONNEL SPECIALISTS ARE UNLIKELY TO ACQUIRE SUFFICIENT COMPETENCE IN PEOPLE MANAGEMENT SKILLS TO IMPROVE ORGANISATIONAL EFFECTIVENESS

Gennard and Kelly (1997)

Several studies report that this investment is not being made. Training is rare, and e-mail and occasional updates to handbooks is relied upon for communicating these sometimes complex policies (Bond and Wise 2003). In Kodz et al.s (2002) research of six organisations considered to be leading work-life balance employers, managers welcomed the power of decision-making but felt they had been abandoned with the policies having been given no training or guidelines in how to operate them. Managers in Yeandle et al.s (2002) study had also not received training nor been consulted before being given the additional responsibility. It is therefore not surprising that line manager and employee awareness of company work-life policies is often patchy. Given that some of these policies are a legal right, this low awareness is concerning. Lack of training coupled with poor policy awareness leads to inconsistencies in application both between and within departments. The tension between being responsive in individual cases and being seen to treat requests equally can cause problems for managers (Kodz et al. 2002; Bond et al. 2002). If an employee feels that their work-life policy request has not been dealt with fairly there is a tendency to compare their treatment unfavourably with that of other employees. While HR often provide post-hoc support, these staff relations problems could be greatly reduced through training. Many work-life policies only become relevant when personal circumstances change and a detailed knowledge of every possible company policy is not a realistic or desirable goal. However, the investment in developing work-life policies is wasted if similar efforts are not made to effectively communicate the policy message and provide accessible information and support.

27

Organisational Barriers to an Improved Work-life Balance

Resources
Employers perceive the main disadvantage of work-life policies to be the cost and disruption of dealing with the employee being absent from the workplace, especially if they have specialist skills (DTI 2000; Forth et al. 1997). Employees doing similar jobs can be easily substituted with another, increasing flexibility. For example, in the supermarket and banks studied by Yeandle et al. (2002), frontline employees, who performed generic work, were able to informally swap shifts without adversely impacting operations. Where employees jobs are specialised this is not always possible. Resource constraints can also reduce flexibility; a problem often experienced by small businesses though not exclusively. Even in large organisations with substitutable employees, where costcutting has led to understaffing, managers can find implementing company work-life policy extremely difficult (Yeandle et al. 2002; Bond et al. 2002; Kodz et al. 2002). In these circumstances work-life policies can have a negative impact on other staff:
DUE TO CUTS WE ARE SHORT STAFFED IF ITS LEAVE FOR EMERGENCY CARE THEN WE JUST HAVE TO COPE SOMEHOW, BUT IT DOES INCREASE THE STRESS ON OTHER MEMBERS OF STAFF.

Council Manager quoted in Yeandle et al. (2002:14) Employed carers and family-friendly employment policies

Job type
The ability to exercise some control over ones environment can make the environment more rewarding or less threatening. This is why working practices which increase employee control can reduce stress and work-life conflict. Galinsky and Stein (1990) found that employees who have the power to solve work problems were likely to suffer lower stress and felt their job caused less interference with their life. Thomas and Ganster (1995) found that schedules which gave a group of nurses more control over their time reduced worklife conflict and symptoms of stress. Absences and intentions to be absent also decrease as control over working time increases.

28

In customer facing jobs (e.g. retail) or where specialist equipment is needed (e.g. factory work), it is difficult to exercise such control. Policies like flexitime or home working can be more difficult to operate in such occupations as this call centre manager explains:
WE HAVE SHIFTS TO FIT OUR OPERATIONAL NEEDS AND, IF SOMEONE IS DUE TO START ON THE PHONES AT 10, WE REALLY NEED THEM TO BE THERE AT 10

Call Centre Manager quoted in Bond et al. (2002: 48) Family-friendly working? Putting policy into practice

Employees in lower status, roles and some part-time workers are more likely to be in low-control jobs, disproportionately disadvantaging women. Dex and Smith (2002) found that employees with a greater amount of discretion (often male professional and managerial staff ) were more likely to be offered flexible working arrangements while female dominated workplaces were less likely to have access to flexitime or home working. La Valle et al.s (2002) study on the effect of unsocial working hours on family life found similar occupational differences. Senior and professional employees were more likely to experience predictability and control over their working hours while those in lower status jobs felt they had no choice in the hours they worked.

The Politics of Time

Intensified workloads and pressures to perform have made time a valuable commodity. How employees use this commodity - the quantity and timing of working hours - is crucial to how they are perceived by the organisation:
THE NOTION THAT TIME REPRESENTS MONEY, AND HENCE SYMBOLISES PRODUCTIVITY, COMMITMENT AND PERSONAL VALUE IS WIDESPREAD.

Lewis (1997:16)

Reduced working patterns are gradually gaining acceptance for lower status jobs but despite evidence of negative consequences and widespread employee dissatisfaction, organisations continue to reward long working hours. Employees less willing or able to give their time freely to work are often not considered suitable for the demands of managerial work.

29

Despite modern management theory, it seems many organisations still reward input rather than output. People working part-time or flexibly, especially in senior roles, often report having to work harder to justify their position: a reduction in hours and therefore pay is rarely matched by a commensurate reduction in workload or expected output. To compound the problems of a long hours culture, managers are rarely given guidance on how to design parttime jobs. Part-time workers often have to employ more sophisticated time management techniques and work harder to complete tasks usually with greater non-work demands on their time. This raises the question: why do people who work long hours get paid more for working less efficiently? (Lewis 2001; Epstein et al. 1999) Long hours are frequently attributed to work intensification but a group of American researchers have been working with organisations to uncover and resolve the inefficient working practices which can result in long hours:
[THE] ATTITUDE THAT THE BEST EMPLOYEE IS THE ONE WHO SPENDS THE MOST TIME AT WORK HAS HELPED FOSTER THE BELIEF THAT WORK OUTPUT IS DIRECTLY, AND LINEARLY, RELATED TO THE AMOUNT OF TIME SPENT ON WORK AN IDEA WHICH REINFORCES THE NORMS SURROUNDING LONG WORK HOURS, AND, IN TURN, REINFORCES THE WORK PRACTICES THAT UNWITTINGLY LEAD TO THE NEED TO SPEND THESE LONG HOURS AT WORK.

Rapoport et al. (2002:49) Beyond Work-Family Balance

Research in several leading US organisations has found that by focussing on the way work is carried out and getting employees to identify the inefficiencies which cause long hours, the culture can be successfully challenged. An example they provide is of a marketing team which operated in a continual state of crisis, working through the night to meet deadlines. The output of this behaviour was praised and rewarded but the costs had gone unnoticed: other staff had to put their work on hold while the team took time off to recover, delaying the next project which set up the need to work all night, reducing the quality of work and extending completion time because of tiredness. The researchers helped the team identify and break this cycle.

30

It is not only in professional and managerial spheres where putting in extra hours is viewed favourably. Dex and Scheibl (2002) found that some smaller firms operated an informal balance sheet. Employees built up credit by working longer when needed and cashing it for flexible hours later. Scottish mothers working in nonmanagerial jobs who did not have access to formal policies felt they had to build a reputation as a reliable employee who did not take time off for sickness or allow family commitments to impinge on working time. This increased their chances of their manager granting time off for a non-work emergency (Backett-Milburn et al. 2001).This give and take between managers and staff has also been found in organisations with formal policies. Line managers are more likely to accommodate requests for flexibility, or use their discretion (for example to grant paid leave) if they feel that employees have or will reciprocate this favour by helping out during busy periods (Bond et al. 2002; Yeandle et al. 2002). This basis for decision-making is potentially problematic because it disadvantages the people who need these benefits most: those with dependants, especially sole and multiple caring responsibilities.

Supportive Culture
Having policies in a staff handbook is not sufficient to promote employee work-life balance. Employees also have to feel that the organisation will be supportive of them adjusting their pattern because of non-work responsibilities. Flexible working patterns are becoming increasingly common but full-time, permanent employment is still the dominant norm mainly because men rarely work flexibly or fully utilise leave policies. The impact of this gendered take up is two-fold. Firstly, people who use flexible working and leave often contradict the time politics of an organisation (see above) and are therefore viewed as marginal (Lewis and Taylor 1996; Hutton Raabe 1996). Secondly, male take-up of work-life policies is perceived as less legitimate. This manager in an investment management firm explains: IF SOMEONE WANTED TO TAKE [PARENTAL LEAVE] THE COMPANY WOULD HAVE TO LET THEM ... BUT I THINK THE MAN WHO DID ASK FOR IT WOULD HAVE TO BE A BRAVE MAN. HE WOULD TAKE QUITE A LOT OF RIBBING. WE DO STILL HAVE DOUBLE STANDARDS.

31

Manager interviewed in Bond et al. (2002) Family-friendly working: Putting policy into practice

Managers in female dominated workplaces have reported frustration at the gendered take-up of work-life policies as it puts pressure on resources which employers of their employees male partners dont have to bear (Bond et al. 2002; Lewis 2001). Unsupportive cultures reflect and perpetuate the broader societal belief that the integration of work and family life is an individual, not a public responsibility (Brannen et al. 1997). In comparative research of Europeans, Lewis et al. (2002) found that the British participants had low expectations of support in their role as carer from either state or employer and thought any support given had to be justified on business case grounds (mirroring the UK policy approach). It is persuasively argued that individuals who feel that demanding support or challenging existing practices is not wholly legitimate, will be over-grateful for any support given and be reluctant to demand further changes (Lewis and Smithson 2002; Lewis 1997). Kodz et al.s (2002) research found that because line managers were always expressing concerns about meeting business needs employees sensed that their request for flexible working would not be treated sympathetically and did not ask. Without this internal pressure for change the status quo perpetuates.

Reasons for Using Work-life Policies

An important feature of the current work-life balance debate is that it should be open to all employees, not just those with child care responsibilities. In practice, this idea has made little headway. Despite demographic changes, the care of young children mainly by women remains the focus for national and company level policy (see 1.2.2).The new right to request flexible working is only available to parents of children under 6 but people with other responsibilities could significantly benefit from this right.Yeandle et al. (2002) found parents struggling to care for teenagers during holidays and after school, as support and services for older children are particularly poor. Phillips et al. (2002) found that carers of older adults are more likely to try to cope with their responsibilities on their own using holidays and lieu days rather than seek formal assistance.

32

Conclusions References Further Information

33

Conclusions
Progress so far
Despite widespread support for the idea of work-life balance, compared to the high level of employee demand, the provision and uptake of work-life policies is still low. The rhetoric is inclusive but policies are still often focussed on meeting the needs of parents of young children.

The Role of Regulation

Given the slow progress of the best practice approach, more legislative stimulus may be needed to give the work-life balance a stronger foothold in British organisational life. Formal policies at both organisational and national level are important for giving legitimacy, reducing the reliance on the relationship between managers and staff. Constructive engagement with and support for SMEs in developing and implementing the policies to meet their needs is essential.

Giving Work-life Policies a Chance

Employers assert that voluntary policies are better than legislation because they allow operational and workforce needs to be taken into account. But evidence suggests that managers and employees are rarely consulted, often resulting in policies that are not needed or cannot be used because of operational constraints. The implementation process is also too frequently left to chance. Awareness of policies among managers and staff is often poor and training can be rare, reducing the chances of work-life policies achieving their objectives.

Women and Men

While atypical working such as part-time working and unsocial hours are promoted as a tool for improving work-life balance, the employee experience is often poor. Low state support for child care and cultural norms have led women into part-time jobs which are designed primarily to meet operational needs.Women are therefore more likely to be in lower paid, lower status jobs with little opportunity for training or advancement however these jobs rarely

34

offer the levels of control and autonomy, essential for operating work-life policies and reducing work-life conflict. Conversely, men are more likely to have control over their working time but are unlikely to use this flexibility to meet non-work responsibilities. UK men work the longest hours in Europe and organisations still reward those who give their time exclusively to work. Womens employment situation cannot be improved while this norm dominates. It is important to directly engage in mens work-life needs and encourage a more equal distribution of paid employment and care responsibilities between the sexes. The regulatory regime therefore needs more careful consideration. The huge disparity between paternity and maternity rights precludes fathers from being involved in the early years, setting up a gendered pattern of care and employment and reducing parental choice.

Future Directions
It was intended that this review provide an overview of Scottishbased work-life balance research. Such data have been used wherever possible but it is clear that more work is needed to build an informed policy debate in Scotland. Research has focussed heavily on the glass ceiling at the expense of the sticky floor. It is employees at the lower levels of organisations who experience the least amount of control over their work and time and have less access to work-life policies. There is evidence that helping employees more effectively manage their work and non-work time is good for business but these win-win solutions are not achieved by offering atypical hours which suit the needs of the business. Similarly, granting requests for flexible working practices without properly designing the new job is unlikely to achieve the best outcome for the individual or the business. Work-life policies cannot be seen as a perk. To challenge rigid and inefficient working practices and reduce rising stress levels, the way work is organised and rewarded has to be fundamentally challenged.

35

References
General and Policy
Bond, S., Hyman, J., Summers, J. and Wise, S. (2002) Family-friendly working? Putting policy into practice. York: York Publishing Service for the Joseph Rowntree Foundation. www.jrf.org.uk Bond, S. and Wise, S. (2003) Family leave policies and devolution to the line Personnel Review, Vol. 32 No. 1., pp.58 - 72 Burke R.J. (1988) Some antecedents and consequences of work-family conflict Journal of Social Behaviour and Personality, Vol. 3, pp. 287 - 302 Deven, F. and Moss, P. (2002) Leave arrangements for parents: overview and future outlook Community, Work and Family, Vol. 5 No. 3, pp 237 - 255 Dex, S. and Smith, C. (2002) The nature and pattern of family-friendly employment policies in Britain. Bristol: The Policy Press for the Joseph Rowntree Foundation. www.jrf.org.uk DTI (Department of Trade and Industry) (2000) Work and Parents: Competitiveness and Choice. London: DTI Green Paper. Forth, J., Lissenburgh, S., Callender, C. and Millward, N. (1997) Family-friendly Working Arrangements in Britain, 1996. London: Department for Education and Employment Gershuny, J. (2001) Changing Times. New York: Oxford University Press GROS (General Register of Scotland)(2002) Population of Scotland 2000based. www.gro-scotland.gov.uk Hogarth, T., Hasluck, C. and Pierre, G. (2000) Work-Life Balance 2000: Baseline Study of Work-Life Balance Practices in Great Britain. London: DfEE IRS (Industrial Relations Services) (2000) Who Cares? IRS Employment Trends. No. 697, pp. 2 - 16 The Industrial Society (2001) Managing Best Practice No. 85: Flexible Working Patterns. London: Industrial Society, now The Work Foundation Kodz, J., Kersley, B., Strebler, M.T. and ORegan, S. (1998) Breaking the Long Hours Culture. Institute for Employment Studies Report 352. Brighton: IES Kodz, J., Harper, H. and Dench, S. (2002) Work-life Balance Beyond the Rhetoric. Institute for Employment Studies Report No. 384. Brighton: IES

36

La Valle, I., Arthur, S., Millward, C., Scott, J. and Clayden, M. (2002) Happy Families? Atypical work and its influence on family life. Bristol: The Policy Press for the Joseph Rowntree Foundation. www.jrf.org.uk Lewis, S., Smithson, J. and das Dores Guerreiro, M. (2002) Into parenthood: Young peoples sense of entitlement to support for the reconciliation of employment and family life in Brannen, J., Lewis, S., Nilsen, A. and Smithson, J. (eds) Young Europeans, Work and Family: Futures in Transition. London: Routledge pp. 140 - 161 Lewis, S. and Taylor, K. (1996) Evaluating the Impact of Family Friendly Employer Policies: A Case Study in Lewis, S. and Lewis, J. (eds) The WorkFamily Challenge: Rethinking Employment. London: Sage Mooney, A., Statham, J. and Simon, A. (2002) The pivot generation: Informal care and work after 50. Bristol: The Policy Press for the Joseph Rowntree Foundation. www.jrf.org.uk Netemeyer, R.G., Boles, J.S., and McMurrrian, R. (1996) Development and validation of work-family conflict and family-work conflict scales Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 77, pp. 400 - 410 Office for National Statistics (ONS) (2002) Social Trends 32. www.statistics.gov.uk Phillips, J., Bernard, M. and Chittenden, M. (2002) Juggling work and care: The experiences of working carers of older adults. Bristol: The Policy Press for the Joseph Rowntree Foundation. www.jrf.org.uk Purcell, K., Hogarth T. and Simm C. (1999) Whose Flexibility? York: York Publishing Service for the Joseph Rowntree Foundation. www.jrf.org.uk Scase, R. and Scales, J. (1998) Work now -pay later? The impact of long work hours on health and family life. ESRC Scottish Executive (2001) Scottish Economic Statistics 2001. Scottish Executive. www.scotland.gov.uk Thomas, L. and Ganster, D. (1995) Impact of Family-Supportive Work Variables on Work-Family Conflict and Strain: A Control Perspective Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 80 No.1, pp. 6 - 15 Wise, S. and Bond, S. (2003) Work-life policy: Does it do exactly what it says on the tin? Women in Management Review, Vol. 18 No1, pp 20 - 31 Yeandle, S., Crompton, R., Wigfiled, A. and Dennett, J. (2002) Employed carers and family-friendly employment policies. Bristol: The Policy Press for the Joseph Rowntree Foundation. www.jrf.org.uk

37

Business Case
Bevan, S., Dench, S., Tamkin,P. and Cummings, J. (1999) Family-friendly Employment: The Business Case. DfEE Research Report RR136 DTI (Department of Trade and Industry) and Scotland Office (2001) The Essential Guide to - Work-life Balance. London: DTI Dalton, D.R. and Mesch D.J. (1990) The impact on flexible scheduling on employee attendance and turnover. Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol.35, pp.270 - 387 Galinsky, E. and Bond, J. T. (1996) The Role of Employers in Addressing the Needs of Employed Parents Journal of Social Issues, Vol. 52 No. 3, pp. 111136 Good, L.K., Sisler, G. and Gentry, J.W. (1988) Antecedents of labour turnover intentions among retail management personnel Journal of Retailing, Vol. 64, pp. 295-314 Kossek, E. and Ozeki, C. (1999) Bridging the work-family policy and productivity gap: A literature review Community, Work and Family, Vol.2 No.1, pp. 7 - 32 Pierce, J. and Newstrom, J. (1983) The design of flexible work schedules and employee responses: Relationships and processes Journal of Occupational Behaviour, Vol. 4, pp. 247 - 262 Pierce, J. and Newstrom, J. (1982) Employee responses to flexible work schedules: An inter-organisational and inter-system Journal of Management, Vol.8, pp. 9 - 25 Rothausen, T. (1994) Job satisfaction and the parent worker: The role of flexibility and rewards Journal of Vocational Behavior, Vol. 44, pp. 317 - 336 Saltzstein, A. L., Ting, Y. and. Saltzstein, G. H (2001) Work-Family Balance and Job Satisfaction: The Impact of Family-Friendly Policies on Attitudes of Federal Government Employees, Public Administration Review, Vol. 61 No. 4, pp. 452 TUC (Trade Unions Congress)(2000) Working Smarter: An End to Burnt-out Britain. London: TUC. www.tuc.org.uk

Europe
Bielenski, H., Bosch G. and Wagner A. (2001) Employment and Working Time in Europe. Dublin: European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions.

38

Duncan, S. (2002) Policy Discourses on Reconciling Work and Life in the EU. Social Policy and Society, Vol. 1 No.4,pp. 305 - 314 EFILWC (European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions) (2001) Working Conditions in Atypical Work. Dublin: European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions. www.eurofound.ie/index.htm EU (European Union) (2002) European Employment Strategy. www.europa.eu.int/comm/employment_social/empl&esf/ees_en.htm

Labour Market
Brannen J., Moss, P., Owen, C. and Wale, C. (1997) Mothers, Fathers and Employment: Parents and the Labour Market 1984 - 1994. Sheffield: Department for Education and Employment Burchell, B., Day, D., Hudson, M., Ladipo, D., Mankelow, R., Nolan, J., Reed, H., Wichert, I., and Wilkinson, F. (1999) Job insecurity and work intensification. York: York Publishing Services for the Joseph Rowntree Foundation. www.jrf.org.uk Casey, B., Metcalf H. and Millward, N. (1997) Employers Use of Flexible Labour. London: Policy Studies Institute CBI (Confederation of British Industry) (1997) Labour market flexibility: getting beyond the slogans. London: CBI CIPD (Chartered Institute Personnel and Development) (2001) Labour Turnover. www.cipd.co.uk Dex, S. (ed.) (1999) Families and the Labour Market. London: Family Policies Studies Centre for the Joseph Rowntree Foundation. Epstein, Fuchs C., Seron, C., Oglensky, B., and Saut, R. (1999) The Part Time Paradox. New York: Routledge Evans, J., Lippoldt, D.C. and Marianna, P. (2001) Trends in Working Hours in OECD countries. OECD, Labour Market and Social Policy Papers, No. 45. www.oecd.org Fagan, C. (2000) Actual and preferred working hours: the UK working paper. www.eurofound.ie/index.htm Lewis, S. (1996) Rethinking Employment: An Organisational Culture Change Framework in Lewis, S. and Lewis, J. (eds) The Work-Family Challenge: Rethinking Employment. London: Sage Taylor, R. (2002) Britains World of Work - Myths and Realities. ESRC Future of Work Programme. www.esrc.ac.uk

39

Fathers
Crouter, A.C., Bumpus, M. F., Head, M. R. and McHale, S. M. (2001) Implications of overwork and overload for the quality of mens family relationships Journal of Marriage and the Family, Vol.63 No. 2, pp. 404 - 416 Hatten, W. Vinter, L. and Williams, R. (2002) Dads on Dads. Needs and expectations at home and at work. EOC Research Discussion Series. www.eoc.org.uk OBrien, M. and Shemilt (2003) Working Fathers. Equal Opportunities Commission Discussion Series. Manchester: EOC Warin, J., Solomon, Y., Lewis, C. and Langford, W. (1999) Fathers, work and family life. London: Family Policy Studies Centre for the JRF

Lone Parents
Backett-Milburn, K., Cunningham-Burley, S. and Kemmer, D. (2001) Caring and Providing: lone partnered working mothers in Scotland. London: Family Policy Studies Centre. www.jrf.org.uk

Small and Medium Sized Enterprises

Dex, S. and Scheibl, F. (2002) SMEs and flexible working arrangements. Bristol: The Policy Press for the Joseph Rowntree Foundation. www.jrf.org.uk

Gender
Evans, O. and Steptoe, A. (2002) The contribution of gender-role orientation, work factors and home stressors to psychological well-being and sickness absence in male- and female-dominated occupational groups Social Science and Medicine, Vol. 54, pp. 481 - 492 Craig, L. (2002) The time cost of parent-hood: an analysis of daily workload Social Policy Research Centre Discussion Paper No. 117. www.sprc.unsw.edu.au/dp/ Rapoport, R., Bailyn, L., Fletcher J., Pruitt, B. (2002) Beyond Work-Family Balance: Advancing Gender Equity and Workplace Performance. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Sullivan, O. and Gershuny J. (2001) Cross-national changes in time-use: some sociological (hi)stories re-examined British Journal of Sociology, Vol. 52 No. , 2, pp. 331 - 347

40

Human Resources Policy

Galinsky, E. and Stein, P. (1990) The Impact of Human Resource Policies on Employees: Balancing Work/Family Life Journal of Family Issues, Vol. 11 No.4, pp.368 - 383 Gennard, J. and Kelly, J. (1997) The unimportance of labels: the diffusion of the personnel/ HRM function Industrial Relations Journal, Vol. 28 No. 1, pp. 27 - 42 Hutton Raabe, P. (1996) Constructing Pluralistic Work and Career Arrangement in Lewis, S. and Lewis, J. (eds) The Work-Family Challenge: Rethinking Employment. London: Sage Kossek, E. and Ozeki, C. (1998) Work-Family Conflict, Policies, and the JobLife Satisfaction Relationship: A Review and Directions for Organizational Behaviour-Human Resources Research Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 83, pp. 139 - 149 Lewis, S. (1997) Family Friendly Employment Policies: A route to changing Organisational Culture or Playing a out at the Margins? Gender, Work and Organisation, Vol. 4 No.1, pp. 13 - 23 Lewis, S. (2001) Restructuring workplace cultures: the ultimate work-family challenge? Women in Management Review, Vol.16 No.1, pp. 21 - 29 Sisson, K. and Storey, J. (2000) The Realities of Human Resource Management. Buckingham: OUP Westman, M. (2001) Stress and strain crossover Human Relations, Vol. 54 No. 6, pp. 717 - 752

Rural
Mauthner, N., McKee, L. and Strell, M. (2001) Work and family life in rural communities. York: York Publishing Service for the Joseph Rowntree Foundation. www.jrf.org.uk

41

42

Further Information
ACAS Helpline: 08457 47 47 47 www.acas.org.uk

Equality Exchange Tel: 0845 601 5901 www.eoc.org.uk Equal Opportunities Commission Tel: 0845 601 5901 www.eoc.org.uk Fair Play Scotland Tel: 0141 245 1850 www.fairplayscotland.com New Ways to Work Tel: 020 7503 3283 www.new-ways.co.uk Opportunity Now Tel: 0870 600 2482 ww.opportunitynow.org.uk Parents at Work Tel: 020 7628 2128/3578 www.parentsatwork.org.uk STUC Tel: 0141 337 8100 www.tuc.org.uk

Carers Scotland Tel: 0141 221 9141 www.carersonline.org.uk Citizens Advice Bureaux Tel: 0141 552 5566 www.adviceguide.org.uk Commission for Racial Equality Tel: 0131 524 2000 www.cre.gov.uk
Department of Trade and Industry Best Practice at Work Team Tel: 020 7215 6249 www.dti.gov.uk/work-lifebalance

Disability Rights Commission Helpline 08457 622 633 www.drc-gb.org Employers for Work Life Balance www.employersforwork-lifebalance.org.uk

Design: Fiona Menzies