Plant Pool: A Case Study For Analysing Wellbeing Through Sustainable Urban Agriculture

University College London Development Planning Unit Field Trip 2011 to Accra: Plant Pool Group
London, 10th June 2011
A CASE STUDY FOR ANALYZING WELLBEING THROUGH SUSTAINABLE URBAN AGRICULTURE

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
If Accra is ever to place its urban development on a sustainable path, it needs to encourage the active recognition and participation of its vibrant citizenry. Currently, planning processes across scales have failed to lead to the implementation of meaningful, sustainable urban planning policies that can help Accras citizens advance their wellbeing and aspirations and lift themselves out of poverty. This is evident in our analysis of the impacts of planning processes on the lives of 36 urban farmers working at the Plant Pool site in Accra. Taking the promotion of sustainable urban agriculture as the basis of our analytical framework, our research revealed that planning processes across different scales of governance can provide opportunities and constraints to the advancement of citizens wellbeing and aspirations. At the macro level, we have identified the discourse of economic liberalization, ingrained in the countrys structural adjustment programs, as a source of significant constraints. On the other hand, we found that Ghanas decentralization policy has recognized the need to devolve power to the local level and provides opportunities for civil society to have a recognised role in improving the effectiveness of policy formulation and implementation. Overall we found that the economic liberalization discourses influence on planning processes has constrained Plant Pool farmers efforts to advance their collective wellbeing and aspirations in three key areas:
Planning processes across different scales of governance can provide opportunities and constraints to the advancement of citizens wellbeing and aspirations
1. Use of privately provided inputs such as hybrid seeds, fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides, to increase short-term crop yield has caused environmental degradation and locked farmers in a cycle of dependency of unsustainable inputs and practices. 2. Entrepreneurial training from external organizations has inhibited internal dynamics such as solidarity, reciprocity and co-operation within Plant Pool farmers association. This reduces farmers ability to self-organize and gain a greater voice to influence planning processes affecting their capabilities. 3. Rapid urbanisation of Accra has placed increasing pressure and value on land. For Plant Pool farmers this translates into insecure land tenure, which has been exacerbated by land grabbing, pitting the farmers against poor shopkeepers. These findings, combined with the opportunities for civil society recognition encompassed in the decentralisation policy, provided the basis for four strategies to address such constraints. Two relate to structural problems concerning weak levels of collaboration and reciprocity within the farmer associations:
1. Farming by the book Plant Pool farmers formulate a constitution for their association; 2. Act together, grow together Increase overall unity by bolstering social interactions at FA meetings. Two address further issues of the cycle of dependency and land encroachment: 3. Nothing goes to waste - Farmers work in partnership with a thirdparty scheme to produce compost at an agreed site; 4. Protecting Plant Pool By monitoring encroachments, farmers can take a step towards gaining recognition through coproductive practices with local level institutions. These strategies lay the foundations for farmers to advance their wellbeing and aspirations, and may also provide inspiration for wider mobilization efforts of the urban poor. These efforts could help advance wellbeing and reduce poverty on a broader, sustainable basis for Accras citizens, and promote a greater awareness especially within government that citizens, and the myriad of cultures, knowledge, experiences, traditions and aspirations they represent, have a role to play in placing Accras development on a truly sustainable path.
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Report Executive Summary Table of Contents Research Objectives Background Methodology and Limitations Framework and Hypotheses Key Findings Strategies Conclusion Further research Acknowledgements Appendices 1: List of Abbreviations 2: Research Methodology 3: Stakeholder Map and Analysis 4: Objectives of Focus Groups 5: Field Trip Schedule 6: Agricultural Value Chain 7: Criteria for SUA 8: Collective Action and Coproduction 9: Strategy Implementation 10: Policy Analysis List of References 31 32 34 44 46 49 50 51 52 54 2 4 5 6 8 9 14 22 28 29 30
TABLE OF CONTENTS
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This project is aimed at building upon the research on sustainable urban agriculture in Accra conducted by DPU students during 2009/2010 academic years. By focusing on planning, land and value chain, our study is aimed at: Highlighting how urban planning has created conditions that may impair peoples wellbeing; Exploring how urban agriculture can be a vehicle for analyzing these conditions, specifically in the case of the Plant Pool site; Develop potential strategic interventions in order to create more favourable circumstances for the promotion of SUA in the Greater Accra Region.
RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
BACKGROUND
Since 1983, Ghana has been on the receiving end of a number of loans linked to Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs) from the IMF and World Bank 1 . These SAPs were accepted on the premise of rebuilding Ghanas image after years of high national debt, low foreign reserves and a sharply falling GDP under the government of Kwame Nkrumah, Ghanas founding leader2. Ghana has received six Poverty Reduction Support Credits (PRSCs) from the World Bank over the last ten years at an average of around US$100 million per year3. PRSCs are delivered to low-income countries by the World Bank in order for them to carry out poverty reduction strategies. Currently, the government is working to achieve goals set by the World Bank in order to mobilize another PRSC.
Although agricultural production is not the main economic sector of Accra, urban farming is an important livelihood strategy, involving around 1,000 growers
Annual growth of Ghanas GDP is averaging over 5% at present4, in line with the governments aim to achieve Middle Income Country status, which is a means to increase confidence in the country, allowing access to more international funds. As planned, the status of Middle Income Country was attained in November 20105.
In terms of income inequality, Ghanas Gini Coefficient stands at 39.4, which places it 65th in the Central Intelligence Agencys index of countries by income equality6. Ghana has recently discovered offshore oil, which has boosted GDP growth predictions for 2011/2012 to over 10%: accelerated growth is an essential element of Ghanas Poverty Reduction Strategy (GPRS) set out by the World Bank and the Ghanaian Government in 2003 7.
Figure 1. Map of Plant Pool
Accra is the countrys capital city and its most urbanized centre: the majority of manufacturing and commercial activities, culture, political and administrative functions are based in the city, attracting migrants from other regions of Ghana and neighbouring countries.8 Although agricultural production is not the main economic sector of Accra, urban farming is an important livelihood strategy, involving around 1,000 growers, and it is typically practiced along water bodies and drains, and in backyards9. Located in northern Accra
Metropolitan Area (AMA), Plant Pool is an open farming site occupying institutional land owned by GRIDCO, underneath high-tension power lines. The site is composed of four areas (see Figure 1) where 36 male farmers cultivate mainly exotic vegetables. These crops are irrigated with piped water, with limited use of drainage water to cope with shortages. Farmers also use a mixture of artificial fertilizers and manure to increase yields; Produce is used both for farmers household commercialization, usually in local open markets. consumption and
BACKGROUND
METHODOLOGY AND LIMITATIONS
The following section describes how our research was carried out, the tools used, and outlines some of the most relevant limitations of our research.
Methodology
The details of our research methodology are presented in Appendix 2.
Limitations
The main limitation of our research was the small sample size of farmers at Plant Pool. There were only approximately 30 farmers on site, which limited our ability to generate fully representative research on understanding the micro- and macro-conditions impacting UA, poverty and well-being of farmers. We are also aware that our research might be biased towards the experience and perceptions of particular farmers: for instance our in-depth interviews on internal group dynamics were held with four younger Christians and two older Muslims. Another limitation was the short time we spent in the field. It was difficult to gather information from farmers and institutions, and understand the complex relationships between different actors at the macro-level, in just two weeks. Furthermore, the four specific site visits exposed us to barely over half the farmers. Those farmers in a representative position in the FA also refused to participate in the research. This hindered our efforts to analyze misunderstandings and leadership problems in the association. Regarding participatory exercises, the language barrier was a limitation. Some older farmers were not fluent in English, which limited our interactions in interviews and focus group discussions. The facilitator often helped in translation, but the dialogue and dynamic of group work may have been impoverished. Some younger, better-spoken farmers may have dominated the discussions, meaning that the views of other farmers may be under-represented.
FRAMEWORK AND HYPOTHESES

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Our research examines urban agricultural practices in the Plant Pool site as a case study to analyze how urban planning has shaped conditions that influence farmers capabilities to pursue their aspirations and advance wellbeing.
Defining wellbeing and poverty

Our research draws on a three-dimensional model of wellbeing. Wellbeing is defined as a social process that determines quality of life, which as a subjective term can be interpreted differently depending on person and context. It moves beyond objective measures of welfare such as health, income and nutrition, and emphasizes:
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[The] multiplicity and integrity of peoples lives, forged in a complex mix of priorities, strategies, influences, activities, and therefore outcomes.11
Figure 2. Dimensions of wellbeing
Figure 2 illustrates interdependence of the three dimensions. The subjective dimension at the apex of the triangle shows how peoples self-perceptions, values and ideologies influence material and relational dimensions. To understand the collective wellbeing of Plant Pool farmers according to their own values, we tried to identify their different aspirations as individuals and as a group (see appendix 4).
In the material dimension, farmers expressed aspirations such as expanding their farms and owning a house. In the relational dimension, they mentioned wishes of having a family and providing a good education for their children. In the subjective dimension, we identified the centrality of the value of respect, which was expressed as the importance of honouring older, wiser farmers, and also reflected in the way farmers perceived social relations. This provided a rationale for why most of them aspired to continue farming, as they felt that it was a respectable occupation. Having identified farmers relevant aspirations and some values behind them, it is necessary to examine the extent to which the farmers can pursue those aspirations: in other words, understand the elements that affect the process of wellbeing. Thus, it is important to recognize:
that people differ in their capacity to convert goods into valuable achievements due to personal and locational factors and social arrangements.12
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Along these lines, poverty can be defined as the deprivation of capabilities that one needs to lead the kind of life one values and aspires to. 13 The definition of capabilities includes two distinct elements: agency, which is an individuals ability to act and bring about change 14 and opportunity, which is related to the external forces that influence that process (such as public policies, social norms).
Urban plannings influence on wellbeing

Our research examines the extent to which urban planning shapes farmers abilities and opportunities and thus influences conditions of poverty. We define urban planning as the process of interaction between different stakeholders to advance wellbeing across different scales of governance. These complex interactions drive policy formulation and service delivery. Different stakeholders tend to act in their self-interest to advocate different discourses to advance wellbeing, such as the dominant discourses of neoliberal development and state-led 15 modernisation and the more recent one on active citizenship and participation (see Box 1). Tensions between discourses are played out in urban planning processes across national and local scales of governance. For example, bureaucratic elites at the centre may resist efforts by their political masters for greater decentralization and the hiving off of public services to the private sector and civil society organizations. Box 1 Discourses The Ghanaian government has prioritized economic growth in its policies and practices. This advocacy of growth is in line with the World Banks SAPs overarching discourse of promoting growth at all costs (Louis, 2005) and reflects the influence of the World Bank across policy making in Ghana. Below is a short summary of the discourses. The Economic Liberalization and Growth Discourse A key pillar of the GPRS; Ensure sound economic management for accelerated growth (GPRS, 2003) Citizen Participation Discourse - The devolution of power is critical for this discourse. In effect, the GPRS aims for local Assemblies to be in total control of their own departments (decentralization). A combination of decentralization and building better relationships with NGOs, civil society organizations, private sector and the public sector is proposed to provide improved national governance and nation building through dialogue and consensus (Ibid, 2003).
Within this context, urban planning can play a significant role in influencing peoples opportunities to achieve their aspirations. For example, inadequate public service provision of basic needs such as water, sanitation and housing can harm peoples physical health, which in turn constrains their ability to achieve aspirations such as providing for their family.
We have used Sustainable Urban Agriculture (SUA) as a means to critically analyze how urban planning processes influence conditions of poverty for Plant Pool farmers. SUA can be broken down into key components based upon Allens 2001 Five Dimensional Model of Urban Sustainability 16 as set out in Figure 2. 17 In particular, Allens model highlights the role of the political component, which can greatly influence sustainability of all the others. It also recognizes that power relations differ significantly between stakeholders and that the voice of marginalized groups, such as urban
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agriculture farmers, is often limited in planning processes. However, the degree to which SUA can be fulfilled depends much on the impacts of planning processes and the extent to which they support urban agriculture across all its components. The extent to which planning processes influence the five aspects of SUA (political, economic, social, environmental and built environment) can be evaluated using criteria for each dimension, examples of which are 18 illustrated in Figure 3 (see Appendix 7 for more details).
Figure 3. Urban planning's influence on wellbeing
Hypothesis 1
From pre-field study research we found that the government has a strategy to reform Accras urban planning 19 processes. However, efforts to usher in reforms to the planning framework have either been weakly implemented or have only produced piecemeal change. Decentralization of urban planning responsibilities has, in particular, been perceived as very weak, with many submetropolitan administrative units still not 20 fully established or operational. Concerning UA in Accra, and at Plant Pool in particular, although MoFA is providing local level support, there is widespread opinion among institutional stakeholders that UA is not 21 sustainable within AMA. In particular, it has been suggested that land would not be made available for farming purposes within AMA. These factors have shaped our first hypothesis to be tested in the field: Hypothesis 1 - Urban planning in Accra does not support SUA and has created conditions that hinder farmers pursuit of wellbeing, in two main ways: A. The liberalization discourse prevalent in urban planning has created a negative environment for SUA; B. Urban planning, characterized by poor policy implementation, has prevented the enforcement of policies that could create more favourable conditions for SUA.
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Hypothesis 2
Urban planning processes in Accra have been found to lack the formal 22 structures that allow civil society participation in decision making. This suggests that farmers also lack recognition in planning and do not have any clear, formal mechanisms to influence decisions that impact their lives. In this context, civil society organizations working to promote UA in Accra, such as IWMI and RUAF, have opened up a space of negotiation that previously did not exist as they introduced the UA in the policy agenda. However, they have thus far failed to coordinate their activities sufficiently 23 enough to significantly influence urban planning. Our research aims to examine opportunities for Plant Pool farmers to organize themselves more effectively, which could also provide them with opportunities for strategic partnerships with Accras under-resourced public service delivery agencies. In turn this could bolster the farmers terms of recognition, advance SUA practices and help improve their ability to pursue their aspirations and wellbeing. On this basis, our second hypothesis is that:
Hypothesis 2 - There are opportunities for farmers to improve collaboration, which can help address conditions created by urban planning that limit their capabilities. These broadly consist of: A. Collective action amongst farmers at Plant Pool between the farmers and civil society; B. Co-production between the farmers and state and non-state organizations for the purpose of public service delivery (see Appendix 8 for our definition of the terms collective action and co-production)
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KEY FINDINGS
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In order to analyze the influence of planning on wellbeing through our SUA framework, we broke down planning into structural elements of macro level policies and practices and analyzed their impact on agricultural processes and then farmers aspirations. Our key findings are organized around these linkages, shown in Figure 4. The structural elements consist of key strategic planning policies at the national and city level. Highlights of these are set out in Table 1 and these are further elaborated in Appendix 10. However, the way these policies are reflected in practices is influenced by organizational factors, such as bureaucratic inertia, lack of accountability and transparency mechanisms and political will. Bureaucratic inertia refers to the complexity of the governments reporting structure, while the latter points relate to how national-level bodies try to resist decentralization by keeping control of power, especially over budgets.
Policy Shared Growth and Development Agenda
KEY FINDINGS
Figure 4. Analysis of key findings
Table 1. Policy analysis Description Focus on sustaining growth by increasing private sector competitiveness; Mentions sustainable use of resources as a goal but promotes oil and gas development and mechanization of agriculture; Supports large-scale farming and enhancing the productivity of small-scale farmers through investments in technology, access to credit, markets and land. Envisions a modern and economic thriving city. Clearly seeks to address poverty but defines it in a topdown simplistic way as the lack of access to infrastructure and services. As a result, sees unplanned settlements as a major challenge and migrants as a problem to the city. Entrenched in the 1992 constitution, decentralization has been a challenge for Ghana. Aims to strengthen local institutions and the power of local authorities in order to enhance engagement with the beneficiaries of development. Advocates popular, local-level participation in planning, implementation, monitoring and delivery of services.
Millennium City Plan
National Decentralization Action Plan
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KEY FINDINGS
Collective action and group dynamics
Through profiling questionnaires and in-depth interviews with farmers we found that there is a complex ecosystem of social groups within Plant Pool, which involves different levels of cooperation, reciprocity, solidarity and respect, trust and communication. As shown in Box 3, there are different identity groups, especially in relation to age and religion. This has created delicate social dynamics, characterized by smaller groups of farmers with friendship/family ties that often cooperate amongst themselves but rarely do so with the larger group. Despite these internal complexities in Figure 5. Findings for collective action and group dynamics 2008 the PPFA was founded as part of the FStT project (see Box 2). Although limited in scope, the FA was active and well functioning, particularly because it had a power balance between different 24 groups . In this context, different planning interventions in Plant Pool saw a value in enhancing self-organization. This was influenced, on the one hand, by decentralization policies, to facilitate a process of official recognition of the group, and, on the other hand, by the neoliberal, pro-growth development agendas, to provide technical training to the farmers (further discussed in the next finding). Self-organization from above was promoted by formalizing the FA through the DoC, a central government agency responsible for supporting 25 cooperatives and farmer-based organizations . This, however, imposed a lot of rigid structures that exacerbated group dynamics. For example, new leadership elections were held under the DoC rules and a model constitution was given to guide the functioning of the FA. The farmers lacked supervision and so failed to modify the constitution. This diminished the perceived legitimacy of the new leadership and led to misunderstandings, contributing to disharmony within the FA. Failing to understand the complexity on the site, representatives from the DoC and MoFA viewed the lack of self-organization simply as a failure of Plant Pool farmers, who could not cooperate with each other because of a religious split.
Self-organization from above was promoted by formalizing the FA through the DoC: this imposed a lot of rigid structures that exacerbated group dynamics
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From this experience, we can argue that external interventions that fail to consider subjectivity and identity issues inhibit the political dimensions of SUA because they limit farmers ability to self-organize and effectively pursue recognition and participation in planning processes.
We can therefore conclude that external planning interventions harm farmers pursuit of their aspirations, especially in two dimensions: economic opportunities, because the lack of self-organization prevents farmers from cooperating to buy and sell collectively or to demand better service provision Box 2 External interventions from the government; and belonging, FStT was part of the wider Cities Farming For the Future (CFF) because it restricts their ability to be project, developed and implemented by RUAF and IWMI. recognized as part of a group and engage in beneficial social interaction. CFF facilitated a multi-stakeholder policy formulation and action planning (MPAP) on UA in Accra. The project resulted in the creation of AWGUPA, consisting of 15 different stakeholders from external organizations, including MoFA and FAs. AWGUPA produced a City Strategic Agenda, which outlined key issues affecting UPA in Accra, and formulated strategies/goals to resolve them. One of these goals was improvement in post harvest handling and in marketing; and this was implemented as FStT, which was executed by the local NGO Enterprise Works. FStT aimed to facilitate the development of sustainable urban farming and to contribute to urban poverty alleviation. It provided farmers with technical training on safe production, processing and marketing practices. FStT gained support from producer groups (including Plant Pool) to make direct business links with final consumers, such as hotels, restaurants and through farmer-led kiosks. The latter were supposed to be regulated by a marketing committee composed of relevant FA members. However, the farmers did not have the capacity or willingness to act as sellers as well as producers. Currently, the working kiosks are being run by a member of Enterprise Works, and serve their original objective, which was to move farmers up the value chain in order to increase profitability. However, this has created several misunderstandings within Roman Ridge and Plant Pool farmers groups.
KEY FINDINGS
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KEY FINDINGS
Environmental factors and the cycle of dependency

Influenced by the neo-liberal development agendas, training provided by external organizations, particularly through FStT, to Plant Pool farmers was centred on increasing yields and profitability. FStT focused on bolstering profitability across the value chain: farmers were trained to market their produce directly through a kiosk in Legon. However, training failed to consider that direct marketing requires a high level of coordination among farmers, and that farmers may not want to perform marketing tasks.
Figure 6. Findings for environmental factors and the cycle of dependency
FStT also trained farmers to adopt safer practices in application of chemicals and use of fertilizer and compost (through, for example, use of protective equipment, or composting raw manure prior to using it). However, farmers adoption of these measures was poor because of reported time and practicality constraints.
FStTs training does not meet the criteria established in the political dimension of SUA because it fails to recognize farmers priorities and constraints, which can harm their potential to participate in planning processes. Furthermore, ineffective training resulted in a lost opportunity to improve the economic and environmental sustainability of farmers practices. Farmers are also dependent on artificial inputs, such as fertilizer 26 , pesticides/herbicides and hybrid seeds to increase yields: they have expressed their concerns over the cost of these inputs, but maintain that this expenditure is unavoidable. However, these substances have environmentally unsustainable consequences such as soil degradation and pest resistance. This traps farmers in a cycle of dependency in which they need to purchase inputs from multinational corporations or large national retailers such as Aglow or Agrimat, which were former government companies privatized under the SAPs during the 1980s.
Farmers aspirations are themselves influenced by the neoliberal discourse, which means they accept the conditions within the cycle of dependency
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Thus, it appears that the underlying discourse of neoliberal development has influenced the training delivered and encourages farmers to pursue economic opportunities through high-input practices focused on short-term productivity gains. Additionally, farmers aspirations are themselves influenced by this discourse which means they accept the conditions within the cycle of dependency. The farmers position in the cycle of dependency clearly falls short of the criteria set out in the economic and environmental dimensions of SUA. We can conclude that external planning interventions and farmers position in the cycle of dependency harm farmers pursuit of economic opportunities.
KEY FINDINGS
Box 3 Who are the Plant Pool farmers?
Official MoFA records state that Plant Pool has a total of 36 all male farmers. During field research, we conducted profiling interviews with all farmers that were present during the visits, totalling 18 interviewees from all three areas that compose the site. Key information from the research sample: Farmers are between 20 and 75 years old with an average age of 44; All plant at least one type of exotic vegetable; They have been farming there for an average of 15 years, ranging from 1 to 49 years; Half of the farmers are Muslim and half Christians, but in the totality of the site, Muslims are said to be in the majority; Fifteen farmers are married with at least one child; Eleven farmers live nearby and cycle or walk to the site; Thirteen have farming as their only source of livelihood; The majority had family members, commonly fathers and brothers, involved in farming.
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KEY FINDINGS
Land tenure and enforcement of regulations

From our transect walk (see Appendix 2) we found that, contrary to previous research, farming land is being grabbed by shops, especially along roads. This phenomenon results from two wider processes. Firstly, commercial pressure on land in AMA is exacerbated by the neo-liberal development agenda, originating in the SAPs27. Secondly, in Plant Pool, although building regulations strictly forbid construction of 28 any structure under power lines, these rules have not been enforced. Decentralization created local bodies responsible to monitor these rules (AMAs BIU in this case), but owing to lack of resources, they do not operate 29 efficiently . Furthermore, nontransparent regulation has led to inaccurate interpretation. During our transect walk, for example, MoFAs EO and one farmer mentioned that shop owners built non-permanent structures because they believed these to be legal.
Figure 7. Findings for land tenure and enforcement of regulations
Commercial threats on land, coupled with lack of an official understanding between farmers and GRIDCO, highlights that land tenure is not secure, contrary to the criteria for the built environment dimension of SUA. This constant threat to farmers main source of livelihood hinders their sense of security and ability to seize economic opportunities.
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STRATEGIES
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STRATEGIES
Our findings have uncovered structural conditions of urban planning that hinder farmers wellbeing, and complexities of the farmers group dynamics, which limit their ability to act as a group and engage with other actors, such as FAs, civil society organizations and public service delivery agencies, to bring about change. As structural conditions are difficult to address, our strategies are focused on grounded and simple actions to facilitate the formation of a more organized and stronger group of farmers, as we believe this could provide initial grounds for action. As the benefits of acting as a group start to be realized, we expect that farmers values gradually shift from an individualistic to a collective perspective, and practices of reciprocity, solidarity and cooperation become more widespread.
Our strategies are focused on grounded and simple actions to facilitate the formation of a more organized and stronger group of farmers
Consequently, as a cohesive group, farmers can have a greater understanding of their current situation and attain a better position from which to challenge it, by seeking interaction with service providers and establishing strategic relationships of co-production. Along these lines, our first two strategies, Farming by the book and Act together, grow together focus on building collective action within the FA and with other civil society organizations, providing a base for the next two, Nothing goes to waste and Protecting Plant Pool, which involve coproduction with private and public organizations, helping to address issues of farmers dependency on artificial inputs and land encroachment. All strategies were discussed together with the farmers during field visits: implementation steps and monitoring indicators are presented in detail in Appendix 9.
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Strategy 1: Farming by the book

This strategy aims to create a new Constitution for PPFA, which should take into account the groups vision for the future and reflect a set of internally agreed rules. Due to its complex political nature, the formation of the Constitution should be tied to the elections for the associations new leadership, which will take place in the second half of 2011.
STRATEGIES
The Constitution will be a starting point for building collective action, as it should contain specific guidelines for new endeavours, such as savings schemes, self-enumeration and land preservation and monitoring, which will be further detailed in the following strategies.
The main outcome of this strategy is not the Constitution itself, but what the process of writing it collectively can represent
However, the main outcome of the strategy is not the Constitution itself, but what the process of writing it collectively can represent. Deciding on the content and reaching common ground on the various matters treated will promote better transparency and accountability and, more importantly, foster trust between the farmers, creating a greater sense of purpose for the association. Furthermore, the Constitution will lay the foundations for a legitimate and active association, which will, in turn, confer more credibility at the institutional level. In this new context, a closer relationship with the DoC can bring about opportunities such as facilitated access to credit and training programmes. Given the complexity of the task, we believe it is essential that farmers tap into the greater experience of Dzorwulus FA: their lessons learnt when performing the same activity would prove very valuable to Plant Pool. Moreover, this would provide a great opportunity to institutionalize the relationship between farmers of the two sites, which already exists in an ad hoc and informal basis, strengthening the potential for future collaboration.
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STRATEGIES
Strategy 2: Act together, grow together

Building on the Constitution, this strategy intends to address the currently limited collaboration between farmers, by strengthening the FA through two main mechanisms: collective savings, and self-enumeration and information sharing. Creating a collective savings scheme, be it limited or incremental to the FAs membership fees, could provide a group-wide welfare fund for farmers and collateral for loans taken collectively by the association, making it possible to access larger amounts under better terms and more flexible payment conditions for collective purchases. Although the benefits of collective savings appear clear to the farmers, during a focus group they identified lack of trust as a major potential obstacle. However, the farmers themselves suggested that a revolving fund could be established exclusively with the association fees, and additional savings could take place in smaller groups, capitalizing on friendship and family ties, and eventually be expended to the whole FA. Complementary to savings are efforts for self-enumeration: recording, sharing and updating information on every farmer working on the site. In addition to encouraging farmers to get to know more about each other, unveiling diversity and fostering greater familiarity and trust, enumeration would allow the association to keep track of crop schedules, share knowledge on farming practices and, therefore, improve marketing conditions.
Running a successful savings scheme and possessing updated information on the site can be a way to showcase selforganization capacity and gain visibility from planning bodies
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Moreover, periodically carrying out self-enumeration activities and sharing such data with MoFA and the DoC is a means to further engage with such bodies, allowing farmers to influence and shape future interventions on the site. In contrast to savings, the gains of self-enumeration were not evident to the farmers. Yet, they saw the instrumental value of recording information, especially in relation to land monitoring strategies, which will be detailed below. Thus, running a successful savings scheme and possessing updated information on the site can not only build a stronger and more cohesive group, but also be a way to showcase selforganization capacity and, consequently, gain visibility from planning bodies. To foster those processes and build connections to a wider movement of wellbeing, we believe that Plant Pool farmers can use the support of Peoples Dialogue (see Appendix 3 for stakeholder description), especially through exchange visits with different groups from the Federation of the Urban Poor (FUP), whose success stories could inspire farmers to work together.
STRATEGIES
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STRATEGIES
Strategy 3: Nothing goes to waste

This strategy is based on an initiative from CHF and Zoomlion (for stakeholders description see Appendix 3) to engage Plant Pool farmers in a composting project. Farmers would be provided with a dedicated facility near Plant Pool, training on composting and regular provision of organic waste (at no cost) to produce compost to satisfy their farming needs or sell for profit. In return they would be responsible for organizing themselves to operate and maintain facilities, and to manage relationships with organic waste suppliers and other actors. Plant Pool farmers have been trained by FStT on the benefits of compost for soil health. However, with limited space and time, farmers failed to follow the recommended procedures, reducing effectiveness of their compost.
Awareness on the cycle of dependency will motivate farmers to organize themselves collectively through the FA
This strategy has potential to promote availability and usage of compost, reducing farmers reliance on commercial inputs. Use of compost will also promote soil health, allowing farmers to pursue long-term agricultural practices in Plant Pool. While discussing this strategy with farmers, however, it was not clear whether many of them agreed on the environmental benefits of compost. Moreover, they expressed doubts over the amount of work required, as well as on the time and expense of regularly travelling to the composting site. In implementing this strategy, it is crucial that farmers are educated on how the cycle of dependency on commercial inputs impedes their aspirations for economic opportunity. This awareness will motivate them to not only invest individual time and labour, but to organize themselves collectively through the FA to manage project activities. We also recommend that CHF and Zoomlion continue to monitor the project after farmers take over facility management operations. Farmers would benefit from working with CHF and Zoomlion to address issues that cannot be resolved internally within the FA, while CHF and Zoomlion would benefit through learning lessons from this project, which can be applied to future, similar initiatives.
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Strategy 4: Protecting Plant Pool

To address issues of land grabbing, we propose that farmers set up monitoring duties within the association, erect signs to demarcate land boundaries, and report new instances of land conflict to AMAs BIU and GRIDCO. This form of co-production helps alleviate the service of land monitoring from AMAs underresourced BIU to farmers, who have a stake in protecting Plant Pool farmland from encroachment. This strategy also serves as an opportunity for the FA to show effectiveness of their self-organization in influencing and shaping interventions. PPFA can build greater identity and credibility with government authorities and GRIDCO, laying a foundation for future working relationships with other institutions in negotiating for and participating in pubic service delivery. A caveat is that reporting and monitoring land use may not prevent land grabbing. Due to issues of bureaucratic inertia and governmental accountability and transparency, actions may not be taken by government authorities to resolve land conflicts. As such, we recommend that land issues also be reported to GRIDCO, who has a stake in keeping the Plant Pool land free of (semi)permanent structures, as the area under high-tension power lines needs to be accessible for maintenance. We recommend that further research be conducted to investigate what actions can be taken by GRIDCO in preventing construction of structures in Plant Pool site without compromising farmers tenure. In addition, care must be taken to avoid creating conflict between farmers, community and shop owners, as land grabs are not driven by organized developers seeking to turn land use for speculation, but by other poor people who use shop keeping as a source of livelihoods.
STRATEGIES
This strategy also serves as an opportunity for the FA to show effectiveness of their self-organization in influencing and shaping interventions
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CONCLUSION
Our research has disclosed the influence of planning processes on the activities of 36 marginalized urban farmers at Plant Pool. Planning processes have diminished opportunities for these farmers voices to be heard in decision making, affecting their ability to pursue their aspirations. We have proposed strategies that are small stepping stones to strengthen values of collective action amongst the farmers; build a sense of environmental awareness of their practices and get them to think about ways in which they could collaborate with weak, local-level governmental institutions for their mutual benefit, for instance, through the monitoring of land-use practices. We acknowledge that the strategies have their own limitations especially because they may have wider implications for other citizens to pursue their own aspirations. Nevertheless, we believe that taken together the strategies provide an indication of how wider mobilization efforts of the urban poor could take place. Scaling up these efforts would not only help advance wellbeing for Accras citizens on a broader basis but also promote a greater awareness, especially within government, that citizens and all the multitude of cultures, knowledge, experiences, traditions and aspirations they represent have a role to play in placing the citys urban development on a truly sustainable path.
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Our key recommendation is to expand the research from focusing on the Plant Pool farmers situation to consider the motivations and norms governing the behaviour and actions of different actors involved in/influenced by the urban agriculture value chain. These actors would include market women, consumers, land encroachers and other farmer groups whose wellbeing may be constrained or facilitated by urban agriculture practices, and by other stakeholders. Careful consideration of the situations of different actors would foment the proposed strategies by identifying actions that mitigate negative effects for other groups. For example, in the Protecting Plant Pool strategy, we recommend that future research examine the conditions and motivations of the community and shop owners who are grabbing land in Plant Pool in an attempt to improve their livelihoods and wellbeing. Moreover, this analysis can identify opportunities and actions for the actors to work together to influence future interventions.
FURTHER RESEARCH
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to express our extreme gratitude towards the many lecturers, experts and organizations who supported us prior, during and after our journey to Ghana. First and foremost we would like to thank the DPU staff, and in particular, Alexandre Frediani, Pascale Hoffman, Adriana Allen and others who guided us throughout this project. We would also like to thank IWMI for providing insight and assistance, as well as operational support. Furthermore, we would like to extend our special gratitude to Sowah Ababio, our facilitator and interpreter, who very patiently and very competently guided us in the context of Plant Pool. Furthermore, we are thankful to all representatives of the institutions in Accra who contributed their time and energy to our research. Last but not least, our full appreciation goes to the Plant Pool farmers, for their friendly welcome, for providing most of the information in our research, not only in terms of insight and expertise in urban agriculture, and for positively challenging our notions on what it means to be development practitioners. Thank you!
Camila Haddad Davide Tassinari Eddie Wong Fong Yee Chan Mpigi Gbenekanu Jeet Mistry Omar Saeed Wan Hamidon
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AMA AWGUPA BIU CHF DoC DPU EO FA FStT GPRS GWCL GRIDCO IWMI MoFA NGO PPFA PRSC RUAF SAP SUA TCP UA VRA
Accra Metropolitan Area Accra Working Group on Urban And Peri-urban Agriculture Building Inspector Unit Cooperative Housing Foundation Department of Cooperatives Development Planning Unit Extension Officer Farmers Association From Seed to Table Ghanas Poverty Reduction Strategy Ghana Water Commission Limited Ghana Grid Company Limited International Water Management Institute Ministry of Food and Agriculture Non-Governmental Organization Plant Pool Farmer Association Poverty Reduction Support Credit Resource Centres On Urban Agriculture and Food Security Structural Adjustment Programme Sustainable Urban Agriculture Town and Country Planning Urban Agriculture Volta River Authority
APPENDIX 1 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
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APPENDIX 2 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Our research was undertaken in three phases as illustrated in Table 1 below.

Phase Phase 1: Pre-field visit Phase 2: Field visit Phase 1: Post-field visit
Phase
Phase 1: Pre-field visit 28th January 5th May The research began with a preliminary diagnosis of the context of UA in Plant Pool and Accra with an analysis of secondary data from past-year fieldtrip reports, seminar presentations and relevant literatures. A definition of SUA, criteria for its assessment and two hypotheses were then developed in accordance with the research objectives. Several research tools were produced to help understand and analyze the relationships among different UA actors in the context of Plant Pool, Accra and Ghana: Stakeholder analysis and map (see Appendix 3); Agricultural value chain (see Appendix 6); 28th January 5th May
Phase 2: Field visit
Phase 1: Post-field visit 21st May 8th June This final phase involves data processing, data analysis and generation of findings.
Period Description and activities
6th May 20th May Field research methodologies were used to collect primary data in the two-week field visit to Accra (see Table 2) The fieldtrip schedule is shown in Appendix 5. The objectives and key findings of focus groups, in relation to our theoretical framework, are outlined in Appendix 4.
Period
6th May 20th May
21st May 8th June
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Phase
Phase 1: Pre-field visit The research began with a preliminary diagnosis of the context of UA in Plant Pool and Accra with an analysis of secondary data from past-year fieldtrip reports, seminar presentations and relevant literatures. A definition of SUA, criteria for its assessment and two hypotheses were then developed in accordance with the research objectives. Several research tools were produced to help understand and analyze the relationships among different UA actors in the context of Plant Pool, Accra and Ghana: Stakeholder analysis and map (see Appendix 3); Agricultural value chain (see Appendix 6);
Phase 2: Field visit
Phase 1: Post-field visit This final phase involves data processing, data analysis and generation of findings.
Description and activities
Field research methodologies were used to collect primary data in the two-week field visit to Accra (see Table 2) The fieldtrip schedule is shown in Appendix 5. The objectives and key findings of focus groups, in relation to our theoretical framework, are outlined in Appendix 4.
Table 1. Research activities and relevant work phases
Table 2 shows a list of fieldtrip methodologies we used to collect primary data for testing our hypotheses and generating findings.
Table 2. List of research methods employed Method Focus groups Semi-structured interviews In-depth interviews Meetings with key informants Participatory mapping Participatory video Transect Walk Number 4 18 6 20 1 1 1
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APPENDIX 3 STAKEHOLDER MAP AND ANALYSIS
Stakeholder map
Stakeholder analysis
Level of Governance National-level Governmental Organizations Organization Description and key findings from readings and previous reports Room for Manoeuvre Has the potential to positively encourage farmers selforganization.
Department of Cooperatives, (meeting 12/5, 14001530)
Ghana Irrigation Development Authority (GIDA) under MOFA
Many ethnic groups in Ghana have long traditions of working cooperatively in agriculture and at the village level through traditional organizations, such as nnoboa groups. At the bottom of the Co-operative movement in Ghana are primary Cooperatives, which are normally single purpose or single crop Cooperatives. Most primary Cooperatives are small. They are active in most areas of economic activity, and fewer than half of Co-operatives are engaged in agriculture. The Department of Cooperatives exists to facilitate the development of vibrant cooperative and other group enterprises that are capable of contributing positively to sustainable employment generation, poverty reduction and community development. To explore all water resources for livelihood options in agriculture at appropriate scales for all communities. To formulate and execute plans to promote the development of land and water resources in Ghana for crop production, livestock watering, aquaculture, agricultural related industries and institutions within a sustainable environment.
Formulated National Irrigation policy which includes supporting water for
Potentially positive influence on water inputs. Currently a positive influence on water inputs.
34
Level of Governance
Organization
Description and key findings from readings and previous reports food security policy. Policy structure: (1) informal (smallholder) irrigation; (2) Formal irrigation; (3) large scale commercial irrigation. Has tried to introduce springer irrigation and drip irrigation, but the latter does not catch up well because filters have to be replaced regularly. May reintroduce drip irrigation to deal with water shortages. Affordability and profit is an important constraint. Is looking for water saving technologies to use in Accra. Provided piped water system to farmers on application and now about 70% of the total farming land in Plant Pool has been equipped with irrigation pipe lines. Farmers feel the water fees are more affordable, and are willing to pay to sustain the pipe water supply. Cuts off water in the dry season which leads farmers to stop irrigation during this time.
Room for Manoeuvre
Ghana Water Company Limited
Potentially a positive/negat ive influence on water inputs. Currently a positive influence on water inputs. Potentially a positive/negat ive influence on land inputs.
Lands Commission Odame Larbi, CEO
See article written by him, 1996, Spatial Planning and Urban Fragmentation in Accra, Third World Planning Review, Vol. 18,No. 2,pp. 193-215.
Has written about the WB sponsored Structure Plan for the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area The planning period is 1993-2010 Will know about progress with the land use policy being changed for the first time since 1945. Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MOFA)
MOFAs main goal is to create an environment for sustainable growth and development in the agricultural sector that would include: provision of food security; supply of raw materials for industry; creation of employment; reduction in poverty and the creation of wealth.
Potentially a positive influence over compost/fertil izer inputs. Potentially a positive/negat ive influence over seed inputs. Currently a positive influence (at outreach level) of farmers selforganization.
Has advocated the interests of Dzorwulu and Plant Pool UA farming. Is the only government body that has direct contact with farmers through on-site outreach officers. Advocates a Food and Agriculture Sector Development Policy (FASDEP) which has incorporated urban agriculture. Includes a unit dedicated to UA issues. Has encouraged farmers to compost, noting that farmers would prefer to use compost instead of chemical fertilizers. Ministry of Local Government (MLGRD),
Is responsible for the National Urban Policy. Is responsible for the National Decentralization Action Programme
Potential to encourage selforganization
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Level of Governance
Organization
Description and key findings from readings and previous reports
Room for Manoeuvre and potential for positive/negat ive influence on land and water inputs.
meeting 11/5, 1400-1530
(NDAP) to promote convergence of the decentralization efforts, consolidation of the processes of resource allocation and management, building capacities for poverty-targeted development and governance at the local level and promotion of partnership and participation between local government, civil society, the private sector and traditional authorities. However 2010 review found problems with implementation of the NDAP including incomplete functioning of the local government sub-structures, inadequate capacity in terms of full complements of staff, weakness of district departments, the low levels of internally generated revenues, planning and budgeting challenges and unsatisfactory conduct of public hearings. In practice, relationships between local authorities and central government ministries, departments and agencies, sectoral units, development projects and programmes; the scope of responsibilities; reporting mechanisms; needed to be worked out further. (http://www.gtz.de/de/dokumente/e n-national-decentralizationpolicy.pdf). Local level democracy also provides the context for decentralized planning. Planning is not only required to be bottom-up; it is also required to be participatory. Thus decentralized participatory planning should see the active involvement of the sub-district structures, the communities, the chiefs and traditional authorities, CSOs/CBOs/NGOs and other interest groups making inputs into the draft district development plan which ultimately should lead to a participatory budgeting framework in which the people decide with the local authorities the priorities of the district development plan and how the resources are to be appropriated to the programmes and projects in the plan(Draft Decentralization Policy Framework http://www.gtz.de/de/dokumente/e n-national-decentralizationpolicy.pdf) . Non-state actors will play critical roles in all aspects of policy implementation and review. Other local governance-related bodies including development NGOs such as
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Level of Governance
Organization
Room for Manoeuvre
the Local Governance Network (LOGNET) and the Network of Civic Unions (NETCU), membership organizations like organized labour, market associations, occupational and commodity groupings and faithbased organizations will periodically conduct alternative reviews and assessments of policy implementation to guide policy review (http://www.gtz.de/de/dokumente/e n-national-decentralizationpolicy.pdf).
Volta River Authority/ GRIDCO Owners of the land on which Plant Pool farmers cultivate. From 2010s report, the farmers were negotiating a MoU to clarify their terms of use on the land. Although Plant Pool is viewed as a secure cultivating space, there is still a possibility of eviction if GRIDCO needs to carry out major upgrading work on its power lines and because there have reportedly been incidents of conflict between farmers and GRIDCO workers when the latter have carried out maintenance work on the power lines. There is lack of clarity over the relationship between VRA and GRIDCO and ownership of the land. Established bye-laws for UA Receives RUAF support for MPAP Includes District Agricultural Development Unit that implicitly recognizes role of UA. Recommended by RUAF to assist UA by building marketing infrastructure. Waste Management Department Recognizes that composting is beneficial. Has noted that price of waste can get expensive if site is far from waste dump. Has note that farmers bring sacks to the waste plant and return using their own transportation. If they need help WMD will charge a fee for transportation. Composting plant has, however, been closed down. Has called for farmers to be better organized to advance UA in AMA. Can provide for open spaces for urban agriculture in its layout, land development planning, or land schemes. Is working towards providing a better system for the transfer, documentation, and mapping of lands, which is anticipated to take Potentially negative Influence over land and landuse inputs. Currently a positive influence on land.
District/Locallevel Governmental Organizations
Accra Metropolitan Assembly
Potentially positive/negat ive influence on compost/fertil izer, land, soil and transportation inputs. Currently positive on these inputs.
Town and Country Planning Department
Potentially a positive influence over land inputs. Currently a positive influence over labour and has encouraged
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Level of Governance
Organization
Description and key findings from readings and previous reports 25 years to complete. From the 2010 report, the process is at the design level. As of 2010, another 25-year land use and administration project designed to reform the land management system is nearing completion of its design stages. Noted in 2010 that plans to reformulate a Green Belt have not worked out. Has encouraged Roman Ridge farmers to apply to The Land Commission to gain secure designation and gain local support to do this. Has noted that the farmers may have an ally in the Executive Secretary of the Land Commission, who has previously worked on sustainable livelihoods issues.
Room for Manoeuvre selforganization of farmers.
Local NGOs/ Companies
Accra Working Group on Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture (AWGUPA)
Membership includes Accra Metropolitan Authoritys Department of Food and Agriculture, Planning and Coordination Unit, The Public Health Department, and The Town and Country Planning Unit; University of Ghanas College of Agriculture and Consumer Sciences and Department of Geography and Resource Development; Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR-STEPRI); IWMI-Ghana; Environmental Protection AgencyAccra; Ministry of Food and Agriculture; Directorate of Extension; Enterprise Works Ghana; Ghana Agriculture Workers Union; New Times Corporation; Crop Farmers Association; Livestock Farmers Association.
Is implementing a city strategic agenda on UA in Accra. Last years research suggested expanding AWGUPA to include additional actors, such as landowners and the media. Also suggested that there is room for AWGUPA to expand its work on land-related issues. Has updated training at urban producer field schools with entrepreneurial training and use of business plans.
Currently influences all inputs. Has the potential to positively influence across all inputs and encourage farmers selforganization.
The Civil Society Coalition on Land (CICOL), meeting 13/5, 1100-1230
CICOL is a network of civil society (CS) organizations working and advocating for equitable land tenure practices, policies and management in Ghana. Has highlighted plight of Ghanaian small-scale farmers, particularly women, kicked off their farmland to make way for large-scale jatrophy plantations (used for biofuels). Has been reported that the cultivation of the bio-fuel plant has gone largely
Has the potential to positively influence land inputs.
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Level of Governance
Organization
Room for Manoeuvre
unregulated. In 2009, was invited by the Ministry of Lands and National Resources to partner with government in developing the good land administration system for the country. CICOL's activities should transcend not only the land rights issues into assisting communities in proper land use planning, sensitization and awareness creation, in sound environmental management and sanitation in our environment. All these affect the proper uses of our land." Involved in the Land for Life NGO/project (meeting13/5, 16001730)
Dzorwulu Farmers Association
Divided between Plant Pool, Dzorwulu and Roman Ridge sites.
Potential to build knowledge sharing networks and social capital. Do not appear to work together for marketing of produce or share equipment. Only came together for FStT. Can have a positive influence on improving marketing knowledge for farmers. EW involved in helping to implement FStT program in Plant Pool. IWMI has carried out a lot of testing on water quality. Currently positive influence on labour inputs.
Enterprise Works
ILGS Institute of Local Government Studies, (meeting 11/5, 11001230)
IWMI
The Institute was commissioned in 1999 as a project of the Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development as part of efforts by the Government of Ghana to equip the local government system to play a pivotal role in development and poverty reduction. Works on local economic development and urban development issues. It also holds courses on environmental management and sanitation and good governance and sustainable dev. IWMI's sub-regional research portfolio focuses on efforts to reduce poverty and to provide improved food security through sustainable and efficient agricultural water use. Provides technical support through its research, and facilitates the development of gender-sensitive policies and action plans on UPA which are integrated into the programmes of key gov. and nongov. stakeholders. IWMI also promotes knowledge
Is currently promoting selforganization and influences all inputs. Has the potential to positively influence across all inputs and encourage farmers selforganization.
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Level of Governance
Organization
Room for Manoeuvre
sharing on UPA to strengthen the capacity of local stakeholders. IWMI and partners are contributing to improved food security and environmental sanitation by researching the safe and productive use of water, nutrients, organic matter and energy from liquid and solid waste. Currently undertaking a Design for Re-use research initiative looking at contributing to solutions that will enable continuous operation of sanitation facilities. Design for Reuse is looking at four primary means to re-use waste for revenue. One component will pilot the re-use of wastewater for irrigation, while another will pilot composting from fecal sludge.
From Pay Dreschel article: To show the authorities how farmers and street-food vendors are taking health issues seriously, representatives from other stakeholder groups were invited to join a road show event. Participants were taken on a bus tour, starting from a farm where wastewater is used, through the market, and ending at street restaurants where the vegetables are most commonly sold. At each stop, participants learned first hand about health threats and risk reduction methods. Although the road show required careful planning and facilitation, the method dissolved the traditional separation between active teachers and passive learners. By sharing their knowledge of good practices, participants become trainers, champions, and mediators. Key actors: Pay Dreschel, Olufunke Cofie. ISSR (Institute of Statistical Social and Economic Research), meeting 11/5 1600-1730 Peoples Dialogue on Human Settlements/ Ghana Homeless
ISSER is involved in The State of the Ghanaian Economy Report (SGER) and the Ghana Human Development Report (GHDR).
Peoples Dialogue on Human Settlements (PD) is communitybased, non-governmental organization that works in partnership with the Ghana Homeless Peoples Federation (the
Has the potential to encourage selforganization.
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Level of Governance
Organization
Room for Manoeuvre
Peoples Federation
Federation) to find permanent solutions to urban poverty in Ghana through the improvement of human settlements and shelter conditions. (see http://www.sdinet.org/country/ghan a)
Markets
Plant Pool Farmers Association
focuses on the capacity building of federation communities. Runs savings groups amongst slum dweller communities Plant Pool farmers sell products as individuals to the queens so there is potential to self-organize to sell as a group and boost their bargaining power. The price of one bed of cabbage is 100 CD, the cost of buying from farmers is eight CD. Transportation cost does affect the profit and the price of product. The price is different in different market and from different farming area. Consumers complained about UAs water quality and fertilizer use. Thus marketers prefer rural products and think that UA should stop. They note that resource for UA is poor, while cost of production is high. Although still young, has strong collaboration amongst members and with external actors such as the MOFA, Enterprise Works and other institutions to improve agricultural practices. Potential to work together with Dzorwulu FA.
Currently influences transport inputs, Has the potential to influence water and fertilizer/com post inputs and encourage farmers selforganization.
Currently and potentially a positive influence on farmers selforganization.
International Organizations
Zoomlion
Runs sorting and composting plants throughout Ghana and Accra
Conducts public education campaigns on sanitation. Has acquired lands in all the regions for commercial farming using compost. A subsidiary of Zoomlion undertakes landscaping, beautification of parks, gardens, and horticultural activities in the cities. Has noted that the government should use subsidies and incentives to encourage composting. In particular has referred to The Greening Ghana project which should use compost. Zoomlion owns The Plant Pool Company whose depot is located next to the Plant Pool site. Colombia Universitys Earth Institutes Millennium Cities Initiative (MCI)
Currently influences composting/fe rtilizer inputs. Has the potential to further influence composting, land and transport inputs.
Working closely with the Mayor and the Accra Metropolitan Assembly, as well as with other Ghanaian officials, scholars, scientists, community members and development partners, MCI will help address the citys most pressing challenges, including flooding, water security and
Has the potential to influence land, water, labour and transportation inputs.
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Level of Governance
Organization
Room for Manoeuvre
sanitation issues; in-migration and unplanned settlements; congestion; pollution; and the need for detailed and far-sighted urban planning
(from http://mci.ei.columbia.edu/?id=locati ons_accra).
MCI will take an in-depth look at the water and liquid waste disposal systems and has agreed to help two sprawling Accra neighborhoods become viable residential and commercial centers with ready access to public goods and services.
(from http://mci.ei.columbia.edu/?id=locati ons_accra). Cooperative Housing Foundation (CHF) International
Millennium Cities Project (meeting 11/5, 09001030)
International NGO using funding from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation to work on slum upgrading in Accra. CHF is implementing The Slum Communities Achieving Livable Environments with Urban Partners (SCALE-UP) Program which focuses on training and empowering residents and grassroots organizations to participate actively in designing and implementing physical and social improvement programs in partnership with local non-governmental organizations. (http://www.chfinternational.org/gh ana). The organization is working with Zoomlion to promote a composting project and is approaching Plant Pol farmers to provide them with training and facilities to for composting. The immediate objective of the Millennium Cities Initiative (MCI) (http://www.mci.ei.columbia.edu), established by The Earth Institute, Columbia University, in early 2006, is to help a number of Millennium Cities across sub-Saharan Africa achieve the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). The ultimate objective of the MCI is to develop an approach that can be used by under-resourced, mediumsize cities in sub-Saharan Africa to attain the MDGs on their own, or with minimal assistance from outside. These objectives are being pursued in the framework of helping the Millennium Cities formulate Integrated City Development Strategies. These strategies combine the economic and social components of a development strategy, recognizing that the sustainable
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Level of Governance
Organization
Room for Manoeuvre
delivery of social services requires cities to stimulate enterprise development, create employment and foster economic growth and development in brief, to eradicate extreme poverty, the first and most basic of the MDGs.
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APPENDIX 4 OBJECTIVES OF FOCUS GROUPS
The objectives and key findings of our focus groups with farmers were as follows.
Aspirations and activity mapping

We asked the farmers to draw and share what they see themselves in 5 years in order for us to learn about the different dimensions of wellbeing that are valuable to the farmers. We found that some farmers wanted to keep farming or to expand their farms, i.e. material wellbeing. Some others wanted to have a good education for themselves and for their children, i.e. relational wellbeing. Some wanted to be respected by planning bodies, i.e. subjective wellbeing. On top of the aspiration exercise, we also asked the farmers to map their core activities in relation to farming on a seasonal basis throughout the year. This included mapping when farmers planted and harvested different produce, mapping of changing weather patterns and soil quality and their impacts on production, the use of various inputs into farming processes such as seeds, fertilizers, chemicals, labour, water etc. This helped us to gain an insight into the level of coordination and organization of the group, the differences in knowledge about different produce, the attitudes of farmers to the use of different inputs, and the various issues concerning environmental management of their beds, how farmers resolved issues such as water shortages and the impact of changing weather patterns, and which farmers were more vocal and which were more marginalised within the group.
Mapping of flow
We engaged the farmers in mapping where they farm and live, and the flow of different farm inputs on/around the site. We found that privatization of inputs such as fertilizers brought the farmers into a cycle of dependency and negatively impacted their economic wellbeing and also the environment. The map we used to record farmers plots helped improve understanding among farmers and has the potential to help facilitate enumeration and further collaboration within the farmer association.
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Mapping of external organizations

We asked the farmers and mapped their perceptions on the power of different external organizations and the relationship of these organizations to the Plant Pool Farmer Association. The exercise would help input into our stakeholder analysis and the process of formulating potential strategies by helping to locate room for manoeuvre for farmers recognition and participation in decision making by providing entry points for potential collaboration with external organizations.
World Caf
We came up with some initial strategies based on the diagnosis of the Plant Pool context before the exercise. We wanted farmers opinions and inputs into these proposed strategies and received substantial feedback on their benefits, constraints and feasibility. The exercise was also useful in helping us to reconsider the entry points for self-organization efforts and coproduction to improve SUA and gain recognition of farmers from government agencies and other significant stakeholders.
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APPENDIX 5 FIELD TRIP SCHEDULE
Date May 9th
Methodology Presentation, Q&A session and discussion
Stakeholder(s) involved IWMI and local facilitator - Sowah
Purpose / Outcome To present and discuss our preliminary diagnosis with IWMI staff and arrange field visits To understand the general conditions of Plant Pool, in particular the farm inputs and farmers activities To learn about farmers aspirations and explore their farming activities throughout the year To explore farmers activities, obstacles impacting SUA and collect information for farmers profile To understand the vision of the Millennium City project, UAs role in this vision and the local government structure in relation to UA To understand the local government structure and processes, and how civic society can participate in policymaking To learn about the progress made with decentralization, key problems with the process, and the extent to which the new structures provide civil society with a voice in decision making processes To understand how the countrys development is interpreted by the government and what the key indicators being used to this end To map out where farmers live and the flow of inputs/outputs To explore the status and conditions of the hired labour in UA To explore farmers activities, obstacles impacting SUA and collect information for farmers profile To learn about farmers aspirations, examine conditions of poverty and factors impacting farmers wellbeing To understand its
May 10th
Transect walk
Local facilitator - Sowah
Focus group
Plant Pool Farmers
Semi-structured interviews
Plant Pool Farmers
May 11th
Presentation and Q&A session
Millennium City Initiative
Institute of Local Government Studies
Ministry of Local Government
Institute of Statistics and Social Economic Research
May 12th
Participatory mapping
Plant Pool Farmers
Focus group
Plant Pool Hired Labour (UA boys) Plant Pool Farmers
In-depth interviews
Plant Pool Farmers
Presentation and Q&A
Zoomlion
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Date
Methodology session
Stakeholder(s) involved
Purpose / Outcome perspective on waste management and compost production, and learn about the potential of co-production in making compost with farmers To learn about the key procedures required for FAs to register with the DoC, the benefits for FAs of registration and how the DoC handles problems within FAs, with particular reference to the problems concerning Plant Pools FA To understand its role in UA and how farmer cooperatives can benefit from the government To understand the current practices of irrigation and their impacts on UA To understand the different pressures on land tenure and security in Accra, the impact of governments policies on these, and what strategies are required to alleviate them To understand their different roles and how they perform enumerations, run saving groups, facilitate selforganization, and gain recognition for the urban poor from the government as a means of improving the condition of the urban poor To map out farmers perspectives with external organizations and potentials for coproduction To explore farmers activities, obstacles impacting SUA and collect information for farmers profile To learn about farmers aspirations, examine conditions of poverty and factors impacting farmers wellbeing To learn about MOFAs interpretation of the role and significance of UA within the countrys
Department of Cooperatives
May 13th
Enterprise Works
GIDA
Land for Life
Peoples Dialogue and Ghana Federation of Urban Poor
May 14th
Focus group
Plant Pool Farmers
Plant Pool Farmers
In-depth interviews
Plant Pool Farmers
May 16th
MoFA and MoFA extension department
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Date
Methodology
Stakeholder(s) involved
Purpose / Outcome agricultural policies and development. To understand the particular roles and responsibilities of the MOFA extension department and how MOFA interprets and is promoting sustainable urban agricultural development. To understand the land administration and regulations of the city and their impacts on UA/PUA To test out and examine the feasibility of our proposed strategies on SUA To get farmers involved in making a video to show their stories to external organizations To explore farmers activities, obstacles impacting SUA and collect information for farmers profile To learn about farmers aspirations, examine conditions of poverty and factors impacting farmers wellbeing To understand the current practices of stakeholder involvement in UA/PUA To understand the vegetable market operation and their relationship with farmers To present and share findings and get feedback for further research
Town and Country Planning
May 17th
Focus Group World Caf
Plant Pool Farmers
Participatory Video
Plant Pool Farmers
Semi-structured Interviews
Plant Pool Farmers
In-depth interviews
Plant Pool Farmers
AWGUPA
Semi-structured Interview
Market Women Association
May 19th
IWMI and stakeholders involved in the research
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Our group used the lens of the agricultural value chain to analyze the complex range of activities, rules, norms, and power relations that frame how products and services flow between various actors. We conducted a preliminary value chain analysis prior to the Accra trip to uncover topics to be explored on the field. To further focus our research, during fieldwork and findings analysis, we examined all of the topics below in relation to our framework and hypotheses.
APPENDIX 6 AGRICULTURAL VALUE CHAIN
Focus topic on the ground with farmers Different stages in value chain Finance Channels and ease to access credits? Interest rate? Any trainings from FStT, FA, MoFA? Degree of financial knowledge? Habit of keeping financial ledger? Inputs: Seeds, Water, Fertilizers, Labour, Tools Source/suppliers of inputs How much inputs are needed? Cost and reliability of input supply? Price fluctuation? Collective purchase of inputs? Any trainings from FStT on using inputs? Any variable costs? How often to hire labour? Where? Cost? Relationship with the hired labour? Farmers helping each others on harvest? Channels to sell produces? Any trainings from FStT on marketing? Source of market information about demand and price? Collective bargaining? Price stability? Any processing of produce before sale?
Cultivation
Collection
Marketing
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APPENDIX 7 CRITERIA FOR SUA
The criteria used to assess the influence of planning processes on urban agricultural practices are the following.
Economic
Farmers have the market information and knowledge to decide on the most appropriate marketing channel and price for their produce; Farmers have adequate access to funding to invest inputs into urban agriculture; Income from UA activities enables farmers to meet their material needs;
Social
Farmers do not contract disease from agricultural practices; There is no discrimination in terms of ethnicity, religion, age etc amongst the farmers (e.g. between Christians and Muslims);
Environment
Use of chemical inputs is minimized; Animal waste generated in the agriculture process is inputted safely into the agriculture process through compost; Soil remains healthy and microbial flora is intact; Farmers use safe water for irrigation; Transportation of inputs, outputs and of the farmers themselves does not involve long distances or time-consuming practices.
Built Environment
Farmers possess legally valid land tenure; Water system provides adequate amounts of water for urban agriculture;
Political
Recognition and participation of farmers in urban planning processes including opportunities for farmers to participate in decision making that impact their wellbeing; Urban planning at the local level considers appropriate infrastructure and/or techniques that can provide accessible and affordable, and timely access to water and waste composting resources; There is credible commitment from urban planning organizations to support and work with farmers and FAs; Farmer associations have established levels of cooperation, reciprocity, solidarity, respect, trust and communication which allow them to act together to strengthen their negotiating power with institutions and enable sharing of information.
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We will scrutinize the interactions between organizations involved in planning and the farmers using the theoretical lenses of collective action and coproduction as established in the work of Elinor Ostrom and the New 30 Institutional Economics School.
Collective action
Collective action will help to shed light on the key institutional norms that underpin cooperative interactions amongst the farmers and civil society. These norms include cooperation, reciprocity, respect, solidarity and trust. These norms help bind farmers to work collectively for their mutual benefit. In previous years, membership of the FA at Plant Pool have helped the farmers to access training and other services such as piped water from GWCL. The farmers have also collectively participated in numerous research projects with IWMI, RUAF, and University of Ghana. However, despite these efforts, there has been little collaboration in many areas such as accessing credit facilities; collectively purchasing key inputs such as compost, equipment and fertilizers; and the production, planning and marketing of 31 produce.
APPENDIX 8 COLLECTIVE ACTION AND COPRODUCTION
Co-production
Joshi and Moore, refining Ostroms concept of coproduction, define institutionalized coproduction as the provision of public services through a regular long-term relationship between weak and under-resourced public agencies and organized group of citizens, where both make resource 32 contributions. This definition implies that public agencies recognize and provide the means for civil society to actively participate in decision-making processes. Public agencies also need to show a level of credible commitment where they need to reciprocate efforts made by civil society to maintain or even improve delivery of services by increasing their engagement. Finding potential areas for coproduction would involve identifying issues for which farmers and public agencies have shared interests. Potentials to build credible commitment (by, for example, highlighting complementary aspects of SUA for either party or by proposing incentives to encourage greater levels of input from either side) would then need to be explored. Strategies could then be formulated to encourage coproduction and thereby improve the terms of recognition for farmers in planning processes. Greater recognition and participation in planning processes could in turn advance farmers pursuit of their aspirations and wellbeing.
51
APPENDIX 9 STRATEGY IMPLEMENTATION
The following table outlines implementation steps, monitoring indicators and related stakeholders for the four strategies.
Strategy
Steps for implementation by PPFA and farmers New FA executives (following appointment) organize a meeting to discuss the value of creating their own constitution; Work with Dzorwulu FA and draw from their experience on how to develop a constitution; Include all FA members to decide on content of the constitution and vote all rules before they are accepted; Make available the completed constitution for all members. (a) On enumeration scheme: Decide information to be recorded; Identify groups with existing bonds who gather information on each other; Collate profile information and share it at FA meetings; Pass information onto MoFA EO. (b) On saving scheme: Use membership dues of FA as basis of scheme to create savings ledgers; Decide collectively how money will be used, loaned and repaid; Include mechanisms to monitor repayments.
Who will monitor? MoFA EO
Indicators for assessment Member turnout for discussions and drafting of constitution; Number of controversies solved by referring to constitution; Decline in time of number of amendments made.
Farming by the book
Act together, grow together
MoFA EO; Peoples Dialogue.
Number of farmers providing/refusing information; attending FA meetings, and contributing to savings; Assess whether positive/negative participation is correlated with demographic characteristics (e.g. unequal participation between Christians/Muslims, young/old etc.); Frequency of profile update; Total funds in savings scheme and reasons for use.
52
Nothing goes to waste
Involve civil society advocates (e.g. Environment Protection Agency) to inform farmers about risks of chemical use and motivate them to participate in project; Organize meetings with involved stakeholders (e.g. waste providers) to evaluate willingness and to build relationships between different actors; Ensure CHF/Zoomlion remain involved in the project following transition of the facility management, monitoring project progress and resolving any significant issues with PPFA. Farmers/FA erect signs to warn about encroachment; Create maps illustrating farmers beds and the encroached areas; Develop ledgers and maintain to record and profile encroachers; Seek assistance from MoFA EO and report incidents to GRIDCO/AMA BIU; Invite representatives of GRIDCO/AMA BIU/MoFA EO, to take part in FA meetings so that information can be shared; See possibility to work with other sites through MoFA EOs to share strategies for preventing encroachment.
CHF/ Zoomlion; MoFA EO; NGO (i.e. Environmen t Protection Agency) on chemical use awareness.
Number of farmers involved; Daily hours farmers dedicate to composting; Possible decrease in daily hours devoted to farming; Total amount of compost generated every three months; Amount, if any, of surplus compost sold; Amount of fertilizer used.
Protecting Plant Pool
GRIDCO; AMA BIU; MoFA EO.
Reduction in number and size of existing encroachments; Level of response and quality of relationship with institutions; Number of meetings attended by GRIDCO/AMA BIU; Frequency of profile and encroachment ledger update.
53
APPENDIX 10 POLICY ANALYSIS
Ghanas Shared Growth and Development Agenda (2010-2013)

Developed to follow the Growth and Poverty Reduction Strategy II (20062009), Shared Growth and Development Agenda plans for a structural transformation of the Ghanaian economy in order to ensuring and sustaining macroeconomic stability. For that purpose, it envisions the development of an increasingly competitive private sector, characterized by industrialisation, manufacturing, modernised agriculture and a sustainable exploitation of Ghanas natural resources, namely oil and gas. Human development is among one of the main objectives of the agenda, but it is immediately followed by the words employment and productivity, which connotes that economic growth and consequent inclusion of people in the formal labour market are understood as the main mechanisms to address poverty. In that context, the document focuses on improving real standard of living (access to better food, housing, clothing, water, education, health, transport facilities), however, such improvement is to be measured in relation to access to tangible goods and services. Again, it is noticeable the focus on infrastructure to allow for an orderly development, which undermines citizens diverse values and aspirations, and their own perceptions on standard of living33. Regarding agriculture, the policys main goal is to promote and support large-scale enterprises, using science, technology and innovations to accelerate agricultural modernization and increase productivity, enhance food security, create employment opportunities, and boost agricultural export earnings. In the case of small scale farmers, actions like securing access to extension, storage, price stability, credit, markets and land and developing improved seeds/planting materials are planned as instruments to enhance productivity.
Millennium City Plan for Accra

The Millennium City Plans aims to design effective viable strategies for Accra to achieve the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). It is stated to seek solutions for the citys most pressing challenges, including flooding, water security and sanitation issues; in-migration and unplanned settlements; congestion; pollution; and the need for detailed and far-sighted urban planning. In December 2009, the Metropolitan Assembly launched its vision for the project, which is to make Accra a modern city with the provision of utilities daily, good environment and unlettered roads, effective drainage system, healthy private and public toilets, disciplined people, effective transportation, modern hospital to meet the challenges of the time and effective housing programme to meet the accommodation needs of the people.
54
Once more, it is possible to identify the focus on infrastructure as the panacea to reduce inequality, or at least its visual manifestations in the city. Aligned with this vision, halting of informal settlements gains a new force. As declared by mayor Dr. Vanderpuije, the new Accra is to see the end of further slum development while existing slums would be upgraded34. Furthermore, along those same lines, during a field research Q&A session about the Millennium City Project, realized on May 11th 2011, a representative from AMA emphasised the migration and urban growth factors as a big problematic, which needed to be contained, since not all migrants are able to secure a job and represent an increased demand for public services.
Decentralisation Policy
The Decentralization Policy intends to widen the opportunities for citizens to participate in local decision-making processes. Concerning economic development, a decentralized state is expected to address poverty and lower inequality by making public services more responsive to the needs of its people. Decentralization, therefore, has been regarded as a normatively justified policy, as it is closely linked to a democratization process. The new Local Government System, in place since the review of the Act 480 of the National Development Planning System Acts (1994), in 2010, is a response to the criticisms to the old system, reflected in the Constitution among other legislative instruments, which had a lot of drawbacks because was centrally planned and did not reflect citizens perspectives. Currently, Ghanas political structure consists of the Ministry of Local Government in the policy-making level, followed by the Regional Coordination Council, which is responsible for the coordination and monitoring of the local level bodies, namely the District, Municipal and Metropolitan assemblies. These assemblies and its sub units (sub-metros, councils and unit committees) are the implementation front, and are responsible for mobilization and allocation of resources at the local level, in addition to budgeting, planning, and delivering services. Through these policies, functions, powers, means and competences are being transferred from the national level, however, budgets are still centralized, since only 6% of the national revenue goes to the District Assembly Common Fund and then distributed according to a number of criteria, along with guidelines on how to spend it. Moreover, the complexity of the Local Government Systems reporting structure, intensified by the fuzzy definition of traditional authorities roles, seem to a major obstacle for local bodies, especially the Assemblies, to effectively engage with citizens and take their inputs to the highest levels of policy making.
55
Ghanas Budget Report

In the matters concerning agriculture, to ensure the growth of incomes in the sector and the reduction in income variability, the policy encourages farmers in addition to their food crop farming activities to diversify into the cultivation of cash crops and livestock for which they have comparative and competitive advantages. To support small-scale agriculture, the Budget Report presented the Small Farm Irrigation Project, which consists of the construction of irrigation facilities for an area of 492 ha designated for crop production. Additionally, the document registers the Ministry intention to increase the involvement of the private sector and NGOs in the delivery of services such as farmer training, Farmer Based Organization (FBO) development, input procurement and distribution and provision of technical services.
56
Kraus, J., 1991, The Struggle Over Structural Adjustment in Ghana, Africa Today Vol. 38 (4) pp.19-37.
LIST OF REFERENCES
Louis, K., 2005, The Lament of a Nation: Ghanas SAP Experience, Accessed 07/06/2011. Available from: http://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/features/artikel.php?ID=8045 3
Ghanaweb,
World Bank, 2011, Ghana: World Bank Approves US$215m for Ghana, Portal to Africa, Accessed on 5/06/2011. Available from http://portaltoafrica.com/news/africa/finance/world-bank-approves-us215mfor-ghana/
4 5
World Bank, 2011.
Ghanaweb, 2010, Ghana Attains Middle Income Country Status, Accessed 01/06/2011. Available from: http://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/artikel.php?ID=1 96857
6
The Gini coefficient is a measurement of income inequality, The 2006 CIA World Fact Book: Country Comparison: Distribution of Family Income , Accessed 01/06/2011. Available from: https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-worldfactbook/rankorder/2172rank.html
7
Ghana Poverty Reduction Strategy, 2003, Accessed 02/06/2011. Available from http://siteresources.worldbank.org/GHANAEXTN/Resources/Ghana_PRSP.pdf
8
Ghana Districts, 2011, AMA Demographic Characteristics, Accessed on June 02 2011. Available from http://www.ama.ghanadistricts.gov.gh/?arrow=atd&_=3&sa=3004.
9
RUAF, 2011, Urban Agriculture in Accra, Accessed on June 02 2011. Available from http://www.ruaf.org/node/498#intro
10
As defined by the Wellbeing in Developing Countries Research Group in White, S. C., 2010, Analysing Wellbeing: a Framework for Development Practice, Development in Practice, Vol. 20, No. 2, March, p. 158.
11
White, S. C., 2010, Analysing Wellbeing: a Framework for Development Practice, Development in Practice, Vol. 20, No. 2, March, pp. 158-172.
12
Frediani, A.A., 2010, Sens Capability Approach as a framework to the practice of development, Development in practice, Vol. 20, No.2, p.175.
13
Sen, A., 1999, Development as Freedom, Oxford University Press: Oxford, p.87.
57
14
Based on Nussbaum, M., Sen, A. (eds), 1993, The Quality of Life. Oxford University Press: Oxford. Agency involves an individuals consciousness about their situation and willingness to act, as much as his/hers concrete skills and capacities to do so.
15
Based on Levy C., 2010, Perspectives and Potentials in Planning, lecture given at the Development Planning Unit, UCL, 1 October. State-led modernisation refers to the dominant development approach in the 1950s60s where a strong state was viewed as the stimulator of development and economic planning through such strategies as state-led industrialisation. The general failure of this development model led to the emergence and current pre-dominance of the neo-liberal development model where the state has withdrawn from its previous role in economic planning. Instead the state has become the enabler of economic development by providing incentives for the market and private sector to determine the trajectory of economic development, which sees the shrinking of the size and power of the state as it withdraws from public service provision.
16
See Figure 2 and description, p.156 in Allen A., 2001, Urban Sustainability under Threat: the Restructuring of the Fishing Industry in Mar del Plata, Argentina, Development in Practice, Vol. 11, No. 2, pp. 152-173.
17
Based upon Dubbeling M., Van Veenhuizen, R., De Zeeuw H., 2011, The Role of Urban Agriculture in Building Resilient Cities in Developing Countries, Journal of Agricultural Science, No. 149, pp. 153-163. This interpretation of SUA shows how urban agriculture has the potential to provide a significant source of local livelihoods, improve a citys vulnerability to food insecurity, mitigate the impacts of climate variability and flooding, and overall help place Accras urban planning on a more sustainable path.
18 19
See Appendix 7 for a more detailed breakdown of these criteria.
This has involved incorporating democratization, transparency and public accountability, greater popular participation in decision making and effective policy and development planning. For further details see Gough, K. and Yankson, P., 2001, The Role of Civil Society in Urban Management in Accra, Ghana, in Tostensen, A., Tvedten, I. and Vaa M. (Eds.), Associated Life in African Cities Popular Responses to the Urban Crisis, Uppsala: Nordiska Afrikainstitutet.
20
Gough, K. and Yankson, P., 2001, The Role of Civil Society in Urban Management in Accra, Ghana, in Tostensen, A., Tvedten, I. and Vaa M. (Eds.), Associated Life in African Cities Popular Responses to the Urban Crisis, Uppsala: Nordiska Afrikainstitutet.
21
Al-Khalifa K., Shahar Brinenberg S., Chi X., Egborge E., Jeffery T., Nwogu A., Solomon V., Song J., and Tao Y., 2010, Promoting Sustainable Urban Agriculture in Accra, Ghana - 2010 Case Study: Plant Pool and Roman Ridge, Development Planning Unit, UCL.
58
22
Gough, K. and Yankson, P., 2001, The Role of Civil Society in Urban Management in Accra, Ghana, in Tostensen, A., Tvedten, I. and Vaa M. (Eds.), Associated Life in African Cities Popular Responses to the Urban Crisis, Uppsala: Nordiska Afrikainstitutet, p. 141.
23
Previous years studies found that Plant Pool farmers managed to selforganize as a FA. However, Plant Pool farmers, MoFA, and the TCPU were all found to agree that farmers needed to be better organized and more willing to collaborate for them to improve their terms of recognition in relation to urban planning processes. For further details see Al-Khalifa K., Shahar Brinenberg S., Chi X., Egborge E., Jeffery T., Nwogu A., Solomon V., Song J., and Tao Y., 2010, Promoting Sustainable Urban Agriculture in Accra, Ghana - 2010 Case Study: Plant Pool and Roman Ridge, Development Planning Unit, UCL.
24
During in-depth interviews, farmers Carlos Salasie and Emmanuel Quarshie pointed out that, because Muslims and Christians shared the leadership roles in the association, the group was more cohesive and conflicts were easily resolved.
25
The Department of Cooperatives mission is that cooperatives and farmerbased organizations operate as efficient member-owned and managed business enterprises.
26
One of many privatized inputs into UA in Accra; IWMI meeting at ABH, 9th May 2011
27
SAPs increase pressure on land in two main ways: firstly, raised interest rates make investment and speculation on land more attractive, and secondly pressure to develop and urbanise creates even higher demand for undeveloped land. See Yeboah, I. E. A., 2000, Structural Adjustment and Emerging Urban Form in Accra, Ghana, Africa Today, Vol. 47, No. 2 and his follow-up article Yeboah, I. E. A., 2003, Demographic and Housing Aspects of Structural Adjustment and Emerging Urban Form in Accra, Ghana, Africa Today, Vol. 50, No. 1 for a compelling explanation of how Ghanas SAPs have contributed to the acceleration of Accras urban expansion.
28
The National Building Regulation, Part II, Sub-Part I, Item 13 states that (3) No building shall be erected over a drain, culvert, watercourse, high tension cable or sewer; except that a District Planning Authority may pass the building plans if it considers that it can properly agree to the proposal in the circumstances of the case.
29 30
See in the notes reference from TCP meeting.
We drew heavily on the following works for our definitions of collective action and co-production: Ostrom E, 1990, Governing the Commons: the Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action, Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press; Poteete A.R., Janssen M.A. and Ostrom E., 2010, Chapter 9: Pushing the Frontiers of the Theory of Collective Action and the Commons, from Poteete A.R., Janssen M.A. and Ostrom E.,
59
Working Together: Collective Action, the Commons, and Multiple Methods in Practice, pp. 215-247, Woodstock: Princeton University Press; and Ostrom,
E., 1996, Crossing the Great Divide: Co-production, Synergy and Development, World Development, Vol. 24, No. 6, pp. 1073-1087.
31
Beckwith L., Chaware K., Coll F., Cowan L., Egeh B., Gitonga K., GuilbertBilletdoux A. and Musi S., Salazar D., Valerio A., Ziegler T., 2009, Promoting
Sustainable Livelihoods through Sustainable Urban Agriculture Case Study: Dzorwulu, Ghana, Development Planning Unit, UCL and Al-Khalifa K., Shahar
Brinenberg S., Chi X., Egborge E., Jeffery T., Nwogu A., Solomon V., Song J., and Tao Y., 2010, Promoting Sustainable Urban Agriculture in Accra, Ghana - 2010 Case Study: Plant Pool and Roman Ridge, Development Planning Unit, UCL.
32
Joshi A. and Moore M., 2004, Institutionalised Co-production: Unorthodox Public Service Delivery in Challenging Environments, The Journal of Development Studies, Vol. 40, No. 4, April, pp. 31-49.
33
Nevertheless an effort has been done on understanding peoples evaluation of the current status of public services quality and administration efficiency, in a document named Consultative Citizens Report Card.
34
AMA, 2010, Accra declared Millennium City. Available from http://ama.gov.gh/ama/page/5177/accra-declared-millennium-city. Published in 1st March 2010. Accessed on May 19, 2011.
60

Plant Pool: A Case Study For Analysing Wellbeing Through Sustainable Urban Agriculture

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Plant Pool: A Case Study For Analysing Wellbeing Through Sustainable Urban Agriculture

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University College London Development Planning Unit Field Trip 2011 to Accra: Plant Pool Group

London, 10th June 2011

A CASE STUDY FOR ANALYZING WELLBEING THROUGH SUSTAINABLE URBAN AGRICULTURE

METHODOLOGY AND LIMITATIONS

FRAMEWORK AND HYPOTHESES

FRAMEWORK AND HYPOTHESES

Defining wellbeing and poverty

FRAMEWORK AND HYPOTHESES

Urban plannings influence on wellbeing

FRAMEWORK AND HYPOTHESES

Figure 3. Urban planning's influence on wellbeing

FRAMEWORK AND HYPOTHESES

Figure 4. Analysis of key findings

Millennium City Plan

National Decentralization Action Plan

Collective action and group dynamics

Environmental factors and the cycle of dependency

Figure 6. Findings for environmental factors and the cycle of dependency

Box 3 Who are the Plant Pool farmers?

Land tenure and enforcement of regulations

Figure 7. Findings for land tenure and enforcement of regulations

Strategy 1: Farming by the book

Strategy 2: Act together, grow together

Strategy 3: Nothing goes to waste

Strategy 4: Protecting Plant Pool

APPENDIX 1 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

APPENDIX 2 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Our research was undertaken in three phases as illustrated in Table 1 below.

Phase 2: Field visit

Period Description and activities

6th May 20th May

21st May 8th June

Phase 2: Field visit

Description and activities

Table 1. Research activities and relevant work phases

APPENDIX 3 STAKEHOLDER MAP AND ANALYSIS

Department of Cooperatives, (meeting 12/5, 14001530)

Ghana Irrigation Development Authority (GIDA) under MOFA

Room for Manoeuvre

Ghana Water Company Limited

Lands Commission Odame Larbi, CEO

Potential to encourage selforganization

Description and key findings from readings and previous reports

meeting 11/5, 1400-1530

Description and key findings from readings and previous reports

Room for Manoeuvre

District/Locallevel Governmental Organizations

Accra Metropolitan Assembly

Town and Country Planning Department

Room for Manoeuvre selforganization of farmers.

Local NGOs/ Companies

Accra Working Group on Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture (AWGUPA)

The Civil Society Coalition on Land (CICOL), meeting 13/5, 1100-1230

Has the potential to positively influence land inputs.

Description and key findings from readings and previous reports

Room for Manoeuvre

Divided between Plant Pool, Dzorwulu and Roman Ridge sites.

ILGS Institute of Local Government Studies, (meeting 11/5, 11001230)

Description and key findings from readings and previous reports

Room for Manoeuvre

Has the potential to encourage selforganization.

Description and key findings from readings and previous reports

Room for Manoeuvre