Cisco Hierarchical Internetworking Model Cisco characterizes networks by using a three-level hierarchical model.

This helps clarify the purpose of each device in the network. Cisco calls them the Access, Distribution, and Core levels. They are described here: Access level Where end (user) nodes access the network. These are closet or desktop routers or switches. If the network is designed well, a good portion of the intra-workgroup traffic will remain at the Access level. VLANs are implemented at this level. Some basic filtering can happen here, but it is usually implemented at the distribution level. If there are WAN connections, they would connect the Access level to the Distribution level. Distribution level Aggregates the Access level connections to the Core level. Oversubscription of bandwidth happens here (150 10Mbps access-level users do not require a T1 to the Core, because they will not all use this bandwidth at the same time). Most Access Lists, compression, and encryption should be implemented here. Devices at this level are almost exclusively routers. Core level Concentrates all traffic that needs to transverse the network. The focus here is switching traffic as fast as possible. ATM, Gigabit, SONET, and other high-speed technologies are usually implemented here (although it is becoming more common to see higher speeds closer to the Access level, as equipment prices drop).

OSI Layer Model The International Standards Organization (ISO) developed the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Reference Model to define functional communications standards. This reference model is widely used by equipment manufacturers to assure their products will interoperate with products from other vendors. The OSI model describes the functions that are performed in data communications. The model architecture is seven layers those are listed below with each layer defining specific functions.

Layer 7 Application The Application layer provides the interface to the user. Any user application that requires network communication accesses the communication resources through this layer. This layer also is responsible for finding and determining the availability of communication partners. Typical applications in the TCP/IP

protocols are Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), Telnet, and File Transfer Protocol (FTP). Layer 6 Presentation The Presentation layer is responsible for encoding and decoding data that is passed from the application layer to another station on the internetwork. This layer is responsible for encoding data in a format that the receiving station can interpret and for decoding data received from other stations. Data compression and encryption are accomplished at this layer. Typical coding schemes include ASCII, EBCDIC, MPEG, GIF, and JPEG. Layer 5 Session The session layer is responsible for creating, managing and termination sessions that are used by entities at the presentation layer. The session layer is responsible for coordinating the service requests and responses generated and received by a station when it is communication with other entities on the internetwork. Layer 4 Transport The Transport layer implements reliable internetwork data transport services that are transparent to upper-layer protocols. The services include flow control, multiplexing, and error checking and recovery. If virtual circuits are needed for the communication to be accomplished, they are built and maintained at this layer. Flow control is responsible for making sure that a sending station does not transmit data faster than the receiving station can process it. Multiplexing allows multiple applications to share a common network interface. Error checking is implemented to discover errors on transmission and to provide a recovery mechanism when errors are found. Typical error recovery includes retransmission of the data. Layer 3 Network The Network layer defines routing services that allow multiple data links to be combined into an internetwork. The Network layer defines network-addressing schemes that logically identify network devices. The logical network addresses are different from the physical addresses defined at the MAC layer, and are used by routing protocols running at this level to transfer packets from one network to another. The most common network addressing protocols are IP, IPX, and AppleTalk. Typical routing protocols that run at this level are RIP, OSPF, IGRP, and NLSP. Layer 2 Data Link The Data Link layer provides reliable transit of data across a physical network link. The Data Link layer also defines the physical network-addressing scheme, such as the MAC Address on network interface cards in a workstation connected to a LAN. The Data Link layer also defines the topology of the network (bus, star, dual ring, and so on). Flow control at the Data Link layer is defined to ensure receiving stations are not overrun with data before they can process data already received. The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) has redefined the Data Link layer into two sublayers. The sublayers are the Logical Link Control (LLC) layer and the Media Access Control (MAC) layer. The LLC and MAC sublayers are defined in the IEEE 802.2 standards. The LLC manages communications between devices over a single link of a network. The MAC sublayer manages access to the physical medium from multiple upper-level protocols. The MAC layer also defines the MAC address, which uniquely identifies devices at the Data Link layer. Layer 1 Physical The Physical layer defines the parameters necessary to build, maintain, and break the physical link connections. It defines the characteristics of the connectors, data transmission rates and distances, and the interface voltages.

TCP/IP IP was created as a way to hide the complexity of physical addressing by creating a virtual addressing scheme that is independent of the underlying network. IP does not ensure that data is delivered to the application in the appropriate order; that responsibility is left to upper-layer protocols such as TCP and UDP. IP is a connectionless, Network-layer protocol. An IP address is 32 bits long. The bits can be broken down into four bytes. Each byte is expressed in decimal form and separated from other bytes by a dot (that is, x.x.x.x). This is called dotted-decimal format. Each bit within a byte carries a binary weight (starting from left to right) of 128, 64, 32, 16, 8, 4, 2, 1. If you add up these values, you get a range of 0-255 for each byte. For example, one byte can be translated from binary format to decimal format as follows: 128 0 0 64 1 64 32 1 32 16 1 + 16 8 0 0 4 0 0 2 0 0 1 1 1

= 113

IP addressing has been broken down into five separate classes based on the number of maximum hosts required by the network. IP Address Classes 8 Class A Class B Class C Class D Class E 0 10 110 1110 1111 Network Network Network Multicast Address Reserved 16 24 Host Host Host 32

You can see from above figure that each address class contains a network portion and a host portion. The network portion identifies the data link that is in common with all the devices attached to that network. The host portion uniquely identifies an end device connected to the network. Decimal Value of First Byte Max, Hosts 16,777,214

Class

Purpose Large organizations

Class A 0127 Class B 128191 Class C 192223 Class D 224247 Class E 248255 Private IP Addresses

Medium-sized Organizations 65,543 Small organizations Multicast addresses Experimental 254 n/a n/a

Private address space is not recognized by the Internet and can be used by anyone for use within a private network. Public address space, on the other hand, is a unique address that is assigned to a

company. Within Classes A, B, and C the following ranges have been defined as private. Starting Address 10.0.0.0 172.16.0.0 192.168.0.0 Address Masks The network mask is used in conjunction with an IP address to delineate the network portion of an IP address from the host portion. Each major network address within its designated class has a standard network mask. Ending Address 10.255.255.255 172.31.255.255 192.168.255.255

IOS Commands Router modes Modes Router> Router# Router(config)# Description User mode Privileged mode Global configuration mode

Router(config-if)# Interface mode Basic IOS Commands Command Enable Disable Config Terminal Hostname Banner Enable Password Enable Secret Line Aux Description Puts you into privileged mode Takes you from privileged mode back to user mode Puts you in global configuration mode and change the running-config Sets the name of a router Creates a banner for users who log into the router Sets the encrypted enable password Syntax Router>enable Router>disable Router#config t Router(config)#hostname R1 Router(config)#banner motd # Router(config)#enable password

Sets the encrypted enable secret. Supersedes Router(config)#enable secret the enable password if set Puts in the auxiliary interface configuration mode Router(config)#line aux 0 Router(config-line)#login Router(config)# password cisco

Line Console 0

Puts you in the console configuration mode

Router(config)#line console 0 Router(config-line)#login Router(config)# password cisco

Line Vty

Puts you in VTY (Telnet) interface configuration mode

Router(config-line)#line vty 0 4 Router(config-line)#login Router(config)# password cisco

Service Passwordencryption Terminal History Size Telnet

Encrypts the user mode and enable password Router(config)#service passwordencryption Changes your history size from the default of 10 up to 256 Tests IP connectivity and configures a router Router#terminal history size 25 Telnet [destination ip] Router#telnet 172.16.10.2

Ping

Tests IP connectivity

Ping [destination ip] Router#ping 172.16.10.2

Interface Fastethernet 0/0 Interface Serial 1 Ip Address Bandwidth Copy Run Start Erase Startup

Puts you in interface configuration mode for a Router(config)#int fa 0/0 fastethernet port Puts you in configuration mode for interface serial 1 and can be used for show commands Sets an IP address on an interface Sets the bandwidth on a serial interface Router(config)#int serial 1 Router(config)#ip address 172.16.10.2 255.255.255.0 Router(config-if)#bandwidth 64

Short for copy running-config, startup-config. Router#copy run start Places a configuration into NVRAM Deletes the startup-config Router#erase startup-config Router#sh controllers s 0 Router#sh history Router#sh int s 0 Router#sh run Router#sh start Router#sh terminal Router#sh ver Router(config-if)#shutdown

Show Controllers S Show the DTE or DCE status of an interface 0 Show History Show Interface S 0 Show Run Show Start Show Terminal Show Version Shutdown Shows you the last 10 commands entered by default Shows the statistics of interface serial 0 Short for show running-config. Shows the configuration currently running on the router Short for show startup-config. Shows the backup configuration stored in NVRAM Shows you your configured history size Shows you statistic of the router Puts an interface in administratively-down mode

IP Routing Commands

Command Ip route

Description Creates static and default routes on a router

Syntax Ip route [destination_network] [mask] [next_hop_address or exitinterface] [administrative_distance] [permanent] Example: Router(config)#ip route 172.16.20.0 255.255.255.0 172.16.10.2

No ip route Router RIP Network Router igrp AS

Removes a static default rout Turns on ip rip routing on a router Tells the routing protocol what network to advertise Turns on ip igrp routing on a router

Router(config)#no ip route 172.16.20.0 255.255.255.0 172.16.10.2 Router(config)#router rip Router(config-if)#network 172.16.20.0 Router igrp[Autonomous system no.] Router(config)#router igrp 10

Debug ip rip

Sends console messages displaying Router#debug ip rip information about rip packets being sent and received on a router interface Provides a summary of the igrp routing information running on the network Shows message requests from neighbor routes asking for an update and the broadcast sent from your router to that neighbor router Displays the ip routing table Router#debug ip igrp events Router#debug ip igrp transactions

Debug ip igrp events Debug ip igrp transactions

Show ip route

Router#sh ip route

Show protocols Shows the routed protocols and network Router#sh protocols addresses configured on each interface Show ip protocols Shows the routing protocols and timers associated with each routing protocol configured on a router Router#sh ip protocols

Managing Internetwork Command Cdp enable No cdp enable Cdp run No cdp run Cdp holdtime Cdp timer Clear line Config-register Copy flash tftp Copy run start Description Turns on cdp on an individual interface Turns off cdp on an individual interface Turns on cdp on a router Turns off cdp completely on router Changes the holdtime of cdp packets Changes the cdp update timer Clears a connection connected via telnet to your router Tells the router how to boot and to change the configuration register setting Copies a file from flash memory to a tftp host Copies the running-config file to the startup-config Syntax Router#cdp enable Router#no cdp enable Router#cdp run Router#no cdp run Router(config)#cdp holdtime 240 Router(config)#cdp timer 90 Router#clear line 2 Router(config)#config-register 0x0101 Router# copy flash tftp Router#copy run start

file Copy run tftp Copy tftp flash Copy tftp run Erase startupconfig Ip host Copies the running-config file to a tftp host Copies a file from a tftp host to flash memory Copies a configuration from a tftp host to the running-config file Deletes the contents of NVRAM on a router Creates a host table on a router Router#copy run tftp Router#copy tftp flash Router#copy tftp run Router#erase startup-config Ip host[hostname] [ip address] Example: Router(config)#ip host router2 172.16.10.2 No ip host Show cdp Show cdp entry Show cdp interface Show cdp neighbor Show cdp neighbor detail Removes a hostname from a host table Displays the cdp timer and holdtime frequencies Same as show cdp neighbor detail, but does not work on a 1900 switch Shows the individual interfaces enabled with cdp Shows the directly connected neighbors and the details about them Shows the ip address and IOS version and type, and includes all of the information from the show cdp neighbor command Router(config)#no ip host router2 172.16.10.2 Router#sh cdp Router#sh cdp entry Router#sh cdp interface Router#sh cdp nei Router#sh cdp neighbor detail

Show cdp traffic Shows the cdp packets sent and received on a device and any errors Show flash Show hosts Show sessions Shows the files in flash memory Shows the contents of the host table Shows your connections via telnet to remote device

Router#sh cdp traffic Router#sh flash Router#sh hosts Router#sh sessions

Cisco Discovery Protocol (CDP) Cisco Discovery Protocol (CDP) is a Cisco proprietary (layer 2) protocol that provides information about directly connected Cisco routers and switches (if enabled on the switch). CDP messages are not forwarded and, of course, not routed (layer 2). The protocol operates transparently and is enabled by default on all Cisco routers. It can be useful if you are trying to troubleshoot a connectivity problem. If the Data Link layer is operating, you will see CDP information from all directly connected routers (and switches, if enabled) that also have layer 2 functionality. Here is the kind of information provided: ROUTER#show cdp neighbors detail ------------------------Device ID: RTR3 Entry address(es): IP address: 10.10.10.2 Novell address: a1.0090.ab80.5e0f (Other configured network protocols would appear here) Platform: cisco 2500, Capabilities: Router Interface: Serial0.103, Port ID (outgoing port): Serial0.1 Holdtime : 151 sec

Version : Cisco Internetwork Operating System Software IOS (tm) 2500 Software (C2500-JOS56I-L), Version 12.0(7), RELEASE SOFTWARE (fc1) Copyright (c) 1986-1999 by cisco Systems, Inc. Compiled Thu 14-Oct-99 01:54 by phanguye CDP Timers and Holdtime Information The show cdp command gives you information about two CDP global parameters that can be configured on Cisco devices: CDP timer is how often CDP packets are transmitted to all active interfaces. CDP holdtime is the amount of time that the device will hold packets received from neighbor devices. Both Cisco routers and Cisco switches use the same parameters. The output on a router looks like this: Router#sh cdp Global CDP information: Sending CDP packets every 60 seconds Sending a holdtime value of 180 seconds Use the global commands cdp holdtime and cdp timer to configure the CDP holdtime and timer on a router: ROUTER#config t ROUTER(config)#cdp timer 90 ROUTER(config)#cdp holdtime 240 ROUTER(config)#^Z You can turn off CDP completely with the no cdp run command from the global configuration mode of a router. To turn CDP off or on for an interface, use the no cdp enable and cdp enable commands. The show cdp neighbor command delivers information about directly connected devices. show cdp neighbor detail command can be run on both routers and switches, and it displays detailed information about each device connected to the device you're running the command on. The show cdp entry * command displays the same information as the show cdp neighbor details command.

Routing Routing is the process of forwarding packets from one network to another. All the information needed for a router to forward packets to a hop (router/relay device) can be found in the router's routing table. Static Routing Static routing occurs when you manually add routes in each router's routing table. Static routes are routes that are administratively configured in routers. They are typically used when dynamic protocols are either unnecessary or unwanted. Static routing has following benefits:

y y

There is no overhead on the routers CPU There is no bandwidth usage between routers, which mean u could possibly save money on WAN links

Static routing has following disadvantages:

y y

The administrator must really understand the internetwork and how each router is connected in order to configure routes properly If a network is added to internetwork, the administrator has to add a route to it on all routers

Default Routing Default routing useto send packets with a remote destination network not in the routing table to the next-hop router. You can only use default routing on stub networks-those with only one exit path out of the network. Dynamic Routing Dynamic routing is the process of using protocols to find and update routing tables on routers and to maintain a loop-free, single path to each network. This is easier than using static routing but it will cost u in terms of router CPU processes and bandwidth on the network links. There are two types of dynamic routing protocols used in internetwork.Interior Gateway Protocols (IGP) and Exterior Gateway Protocols (EGP). IGP routing protocol are used to exchange routing information with routers in the same autonomous system (AS). An AS is a collection of network under a common administrative domain. EGP's are used to communicate between ASes. BGP is an example of EGP. Link State versus Distance Vector Routing Protocols In determining the best route to a destination, different routing protocols use a number of different measurements. These measurements are called metrics. Each routing protocol uses one or more metric to calculate the best route to a particular destination. The most common metrics include path length (hop count), reliability, delay, bandwidth, load, and financial cost of a link.

Another major difference between routing protocols is how they handle updating each other with current information. There are many methods of doing this. Given these major differences, routing protocols are broken into two main categories: Distance Vector and Link State. Distance Vector protocols include RIP and IGRP. They send their entire routing tables out in all directions at regularly scheduled intervals. Link State protocols are more advanced than distance vector protocols because, unlike distance vector, they do not send periodic routing updates. Link State protocols include OSPF, NLSP, BGP, and IS-IS. They send partial routing tables (of their own networks) to everyone and then send updates when necessary. Classful Versus Classless Routing The basic definition of classful routing is that subnet mask information is not carried within the routine, periodic routing updates. This means that every interface and host on the network must use the same subnet mask. In other words, a classful routing protocol abides strictly to the bit boundaries of the IP address classes. For example, the 10.0.0.0 network-a Class A network-cannot be advertised as anything Other than a route to 10.0.0.0, since the default network mask of a Class A network is 255.0.0.0. In other words, VLSMs are effectively useless. This is because the routing update packet has no field for subnet mask, so the default mask according to the class is assumed. Classful routing protocols include RIP v1 and IGRP. Classless routing protocols include the subnet mask information when an update is sent. This allows different length subnet masks to be used on the network called Variable Length Subnet Masks (VLSM). Default Administrative Distances Administrative distances are used to rate the trustworthiness of routing information received on a router from a neighbor router. If a router learns of different types of routes to the same destination (statically configured or advertised via a dynamic routing protocol), it must select which route to include in its routing table. Typically, only one route to a specific destination (same address and mask) is in a router's routing table. One method of route "selection" is accomplished by comparing the administrative distance of all the routes to the same destination. Administrative Distance is a value, which rates the reliability of the source of the route. If the source that provides a route to a router is considered to be less reliable-less trustworthy-it receives a higher administrative distance value. The lowest administrative distance becomes the preferred route entered in the routing table. Administrative distance values range from 0 to 255. If desired, the administrator can configure administrative distances so that the default administrative distance is not used.

Routing Protocols In determining the best route to a destination, different routing protocols use a number of different measurements. These measurements are called metrics. Each routing protocol uses one or more metric to calculate the best route to a particular destination. The most common metrics include path length (hop count), reliability, delay, bandwidth, load, and financial cost of a link. Another major difference between routing protocols is how they handle updating each other with current information. There are many methods of doing this. Given these major differences, routing protocols are broken into two main categories: Distance Vector and Link State. Distance Vector protocols include RIP and IGRP. They send their entire routing tables out in all directions at regularly scheduled intervals. Link State protocols are more advanced than distance vector protocols because, unlike distance vector, they do not send periodic routing updates. Link State protocols include OSPF, NLSP, BGP, and IS-IS. They send partial routing tables (of their own networks) to everyone and then send updates when necessary.

RIP (Routing Information Protocol) RIP is a true distance vector routing protocol. It sends the complete routing table out to all other active interfaces every 30 seconds. RIP uses Hop Count as it's only metric. The maximum number of hops in a RIP network is 15, one hop is a directly connected network, and 16 hops is an unreachable network. RIP v1 uses only classful routing. RIP v2 uses classless routing. RIP uses three different kinds of timers to regulate its performance: Route Update timer sets the interval (30 seconds) between periodic routing updates in which the routers sends a complete copy of its routing table out to all neighbors. Route Invalid timer determines the length of time that must expire (90 seconds) before a router determines that a route has become invalid. Router Flush timer sets that time between a route becoming invalid and its remove from the routing table (240 seconds). RIP Configurations RIP is very simple to configure. All you need to do is enable RIP and add each network that uses RIP. However, RIPv2 has a few more possible commands; you can use two of them: version and no autosummary. Because the router will by default use RIPv1, you must use the version command to tell the router to use RIPv2. In addition, by default RIPv2 will summarize major networks across boundaries. Use the no autosummary command to stop summarization. RIPv1 Configuration Example

Router A (config)#router rip Router A (config_router)#network 208.28.3.0 Router A (config_router)#network 192.38.56.0 Router Router Router Router Router B B B B B (config)#router rip (config-router)#network (config-router)#network (config-router)#network (config-router)#network

134.80.0.0 192.38.56.0 192.38.57.0 192.38.58.0

Router C (config)#router rip Router C (config-router)#network 192.38.58.0 Router C (config-router)#network 208.28.1.0 Router D (config)#router rip Router D (config-router)#network 192.38.57.0 Router D (config-router)#network 208.28.2.0 Monitoring and Verifying RIP Command Show ip protocols Show ip route Debug ip rip Ping trace Description Shows the entire routing table Shows routing protocol parameters and current timer values Issues log message for each RIP update Sends and receive ICMP echo messages to verify connectivity Sends a series of ICMP echoes with increasing TTL value

IGRP (Interior Gateway Routing Protocol) The Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP) is a Cisco proprietary protocol. Like RIP, IGRP is a distancevector interior routing protocol. However, unlike RIP, IGRP can be used in larger autonomous systems due to its large maximum hop-count limit of 255, compared to RIP's maximum hop count of 16. IGRP uses bandwidth and delay of the line by default as metric for determining the best route to an internetwork. This is called a composite metric. Reliability, load and maximum transmission unit (MTU) can also be used, although they are not used by default. To control performance IGRP uses different kind of timers: Update Timers specifies how frequently IGRP routing messages will be sent. The default is 90 seconds. Invalid Timer specifies how long a router should wait in the absence of a routing-update message of a specific route before declaring it invalid. The default is three times the Update timer, 270 seconds. Holddown Timer specifies the holddown period. The default is three times the update timer plus 10 seconds, 280 seconds. Flush Timer indicates how much time should pass before an IGRP route is flushed from the routing table. The default is seven times the routing update period, 630 seconds. IGRP Configurations Configuring IGRP is similar to configuring RIP in that after the router command you must specify only directly connected (system routes) networks. The only difference is in the command to enable the routing protocol. You must specify an AS number when enabling IGRP. The AS number parameter specifies the autonomous system number that is supported by this IGRP process and allows multiple IGRP processes to run on a single router. The AS number can be between 1 and 65,655. For example: RTR(config)# router igrp 10 RTR(config-router)# network 200.40.0.0 RTR(config-router)# network 200.30.0.0 Monitoring and Verifying IGRP Command Show ip protocols Debug ip igrp transactions Debug ip igrp events Ping trace Show ip route Description Shows routing protocol parameters and current timer values Issues log messages with details of the IGRP updates. Issues log messages for each igrp updates Sends and receive ICMP echo messages to verify connectivity Sends a series of ICMP echoes with increasing TTL value Shows routing protocol parameters and current timer values