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r r r F = IL B
F
F = ILB sin
B
I B
Fs = kx I
kx = ILB
k = spring constant, x = the total distance moved by the spring and is 90o
F = IBL
I=
k x BL
Important parts of PMMC Instrument Permanent magnet with two softiron poles Moving coil Controlling or restoring spring
Since the force acts on each side of the coil, the total force for a coil of N turns is
F = NIBL
The force on each side acts at a coil diameter D, producing a deflecting torque
TD = NIBLD
TC = K
Where K = the spring constant. For a given deflection, the controlling and deflecting torques are equal
BLIND = K
Since all quantities except and I are constant for any given instrument, the deflection angle is
= CI
Therefore the pointer deflection is always proportional to the coil current. Consequently, the scale of the instrument is linear.
Galvanometer
Galvanometer is essentially a PMMC instrument designed to be sensitive to extremely current levels. The simplest galvanometer is a very sensitive instrument with the type of center-zero scale, therefore the pointer can be deflected to either right or left of the zero position. The current sensitivity is stated in A/mm
DC Ammeter
An ammeter is always connected in series with a circuit.
PMMC instrument
The internal resistance should be very low The pointer can be deflected by a very small current Extension of ranges of ammeter can be achieved by connecting a very low shunt resistor
Ammeter shunt
Rs Coil resistance Im Is Rm
Vm = Vs
Vm Shunt resistance I
I m Rm = I s Rs I m Rm Rs = I Im
I = I s + Im
Rs
I m Rm Rs = Is
DC Ammeter
Example: An ammeter has a PMMC instrument with a coil resistance of Rm = 99 and FSD current of 0.1 mA. Determine the total current passing through the ammeter at (a) FSD, (b) 0.5 FSD, and (c) 0.25 FSD.
0.1 9.9 10
0.05 4.95 5
DC Ammeter: Multirange
Rm Rs1 Rs2 Rs3 Rs4 D E A C B
C D E
Multirange ammeter using switch shunts A make-before-break must be used so that instrument is not left without a shunt in parallel to prevent a large current flow through ammeter.
+
I
Is
R1 + R2 + R3 in parallel with Rm
Rm Im Im R1 Is
An Ayrton shunt used with an ammeter consists of several seriesconnected resistors all connected in parallel with the PMMC instrument. Range change is effected by switch between resistor junctions
VS R2 R3 C
I B A D
+
I
Is
R1 + R2 in parallel with Rm + R3
DC Ammeter
Example: A PMMC instrument has FSD of 100 A and a coil resistance of 1k. Calculate the required shunt resistance value to convert the instrument into an ammeter with (a) FSD = 100 mA and (b) FSD = 1 A.
DC Ammeter
Example: A PMMC instrument has a three-resistor Ayrton shunt connected across it to make an ammeter. The resistance values are R1 = 0.05 , R2 = 0.45 , and R3 = 4.5 . The meter has Rm = 1 k and FSD = 50 A. Calculate the three ranges of the ammeter.
DC Voltmeter
PMMC instrument
An ammeter is always connected across or parallel with the points in a circuit at which the voltage is to be measured. The internal resistance should be very high
V = I m Rs + I m Rm
Series resistance or multiplier
Rs = Range Rm Im
V Rm Im
Given V = Range
V
Rs =
Multiplier resistance
Coil resistance
Rs Im
Rm
The reciprocal of full scale current is the voltmeter sensitivity (k/V) The total voltmeter resistance = Sensitivity X Range
DC Voltmeter: Multirange
Multiplier resistors
R1
Meter resistance
R2 R3
Rm
V = I m (Rm + R)
Where R can be R1, R2, or R3
Rm
R1
R2
R3
V = I m (Rm + R)
Where R can be R1, R1 + R2, or R1 + R2 + R3
V
DC Ammeter
Example: A PMMC instrument with FSD of 50 A and a coil resistance of 1700 is to be used as a voltmeter with ranges of 10 V, 50 V, and 100 V. Calculate the required values of multiplier resistor for the circuit (a) and (b)
R1
Meter resistance
R2 R3
Rm
R1
R2
R3
Rm
(a)
(b)
+ V V -
IV
Ix Rx
VS
-
Fig. (a)
Rx V V = = I I x + IV 1 + IV / I x
Rmeas Rx
Nonlinear scale
15k 50
75 5k
Rx
Battery
R1 Rm
k 45
Meter Infinity resistance Meter
25
VS
Rx = Vs R1 Rm I
0 10
A 0
Ohmmeter scale
Basic series ohmmeter consisting of a PMMC and a series-connected standard resistor (R1). When the ohmmeter terminals are shorted (Rx = 0) meter full scale defection occurs. At half scale defection Rx = R1 + Rm, and at zero defection the terminals are open-circuited.
Rth
Vab
Rm
Vth
Vab
Rm
Vab = Vu = Vth
Vab = Vm = Vm = Rm Vth Rm + Rth
error =
Therefore, in practice, to get the acceptable results, we must have Rm 10 Rth (error ~ 9%)
Loading Effect
R1
100k
5V 10 V
100k
6.7 V
10 V R2
100k
5V
100k
3.3 V V
Vmeas =
100k
100k
6V 10 V
100k
5.2 V
10 V
100k
4V
200k
100k
4.8 V V
1000k
Vmeas =
Vmeas =
Loading Effect
Example Find the voltage reading and % error of each reading obtained with a voltmeter on (i) 5 V range, (ii) 10 V range and (iii) 30 V range, if the instrument has a 20 k/V sensitivity, an accuracy 1% of full scale deflection and the meter is connected across Rb SOLUTION The voltage drop across Rb with out the voltmeter connection
Vb =
Rb 5k V= 50 = 5 V 45 k + 5 k Ra + Rb
Ra
45k
On the 5 V range 45 V
Rm = S range = 20 k 5 V = 100 k
Req = Rm Rb 100 k 5 k = = 4.76 k Rm + Rb 100 k + 5 k
Req Ra + Req V= 4.76 k 50 = 4.782 V 45 k + 4.76 k
50 V Rb
5k
5V
Vb =
Loading Effect
Error of the measurement is the combination of the loading effect and the meter error The loading error = 4.782 - 5 = -0. 218 V The meter error = 5 x 1 = 0.05 V 100 % of error on the 5 V range:
Range (V) 5 10 30
Rth
Vab
Rm
Vth
Vab
Rm
I = I u = Vth / Rth
I = I m = Vth / (Rth + Rm )
I m = I u / (1 + Rm / Rth )
error =
Therefore, in practice, to get the acceptable results, we must have Rm Rth /10 (error ~ 9%)
A A A A A A
D W
A 2 A 2 A 2 A 3
A
2A
0 0
D A D +W
D A D +W
Using 4 diodes On positive cycle, D1 and D4 are forward-biased, while D2 and D3 are reverse-biased On negative cycle, D2 and D3 are forward-biased, while D1 and D4 are reverse-biased The scale is calibrated for pure sine with the scale factor of 1.11 (A/2 / 2A/)
Rs
D1
D3
Rm Vrms Vav
Vp
D2
D4
On positive cycle, D1 is forward-biased, while D2 is reverse-biased On negative cycle, D2 is forward-biased, while D1 is reverse-biased The shunt resistor RSH is connected to be able to measure the relative large current. The scale is calibrated for pure sine with the scale factor of 2.22 (A/2 / A/)