I N T R O D U C T I O N I N T R O D U C T I O N

Man,themostintellectual&incomparablecreationsofGod,wasgiftedwith theSixthSense.Hehasforevertriedtobedifferentamongtheothercreaturesby exhibitingvariationsinhisappearance,lifestyle,cultureetc.Unlikeanimals,hehas alwaysshowedinterestinthecleanlinessofhisbody.Intheancientdays,heused theextractsofcertainherbs&shrubstokeephimselfcleanandaswelltoscraphis bodyodour.Later,soapswereinventedwhichwasthenadoptedbypeoplefortheir dailyuse.Soapswerecommercializedtoalargerextentinthe18thCentury.They outwittedallotherayurvedicextractsindifferentprovisions. Soapswerecompactandhandytouse,whichmadethemmorepopular amongthepeople.Theywerenotonlyproducedindifferentcoloursbutalsoina varietyoffragrants.Theywerecommercializedinthemarketatarelativelycheap ratewhichinducedthepublictocontinueusingtheproductasatooltogetridof theirbodyodourandinfections.Soapswerethenpopularizedasanantiseptic productwhichclaimedthatitwoulddriveoffthegermstherebyprovidingsafety alongwithitstendencytoenfragrentthebody.Thoseinnovationswerehighly acceptedandwelcomedbypeople.Thiswasnailedwithanevidenceofan extremelygoodsalewhentheseantibioticsoapswereintroduced.Theywere highlyrecommendedbydermatologiststotheirpatients. Thescopeofsoapswasthendiversifiedintocleaningofutensils,washings

ofclothesetc.Theywereclassifiedtobedetergents.Unlikesoapsusedforbathing, theydidnotcontainfat.Theyweremuchcheaperthanthebathingsoapsavailable inthemarket.Peoplethencompletelyplungedintotheuseofcommercialisedsoaps whichwerebasicallyproducedinfactoriesthroughtheprocessofSaponification. TheByeproductsalsoprovedtobeusefulbysomemeans.

1

Soaps:
Soapisasurfactantusedinconjunctionwithwaterforwashingandcleaningthatis availableinsolidbarsandintheformofaviscousliquid. Chemically,soapisasaltofafattyacid.Traditionally,soapismadebythereaction betweenafatandastrongalkalisuchaslye(sodiumhydroxide),potash(potassium hydroxide),orsodaash(sodiumcarbonate).Historically,thealkaliwasleachedfrom hardwoodash. Thechemicalreactionthatyieldssoapisknownassaponification.Inthe saponificationofafattoformsoapthealkaliandwaterhydrolyzethefatthus convertingitintofreeglycerol/glycerinandsoap(fattyacidsalt).Occasionally, saponificationcanoccurnaturally:anundergroundmasstombinSicilyhascorpses whosebodiesareslowlybecomingsaponified. Manycleaningagentstodayaretechnicallynotsoaps,butdetergents,whichareless expensiveandeasiertomanufacture. Insomecountries,itscompulsorytoindicatetheTotalFattyMatter(TFM)content ofsoapthatissoldtoconsumers,asapercentage.Usuallyitaveragesaround70%.

Structureandchemicalformation:
Soap,fromachemicalstandpoint,isasalt(oramixtureofsalts)offattyacids.As withallsalts,soapcontainsapositiveion,usuallyNa+orK+,andanegativeion, usuallytheanionsoflongchainedcarboxylicacidsobtainedbythehydrolysisof animalorvegetablefats.Thesefattyacids,ofwhichthereareabout20naturally occurringmembers,arecarboxylicacidscontaining14,16,or18carbonatomsinan unbranchedchain.Theevennumberedchainsresultfromthefactthatfatsare synthesizedincellsbythepolymerizationofa2carbonacetateunit. Inadditiontothenormal(straightchain)saturatedacids,thereoccurseveral

withhydroxylgroups,and/oroneormoredoublebondsinthecarbonchain.The presenceofunsaturation(doublebonds)inmoleculesoffattyacids,fats,orsoup tendtolowerthemeltingpointofthesecompoundsandtocausethemtobeinthe

2

liquidstateatroomtemperature.Thus,vegetablefatsarerelativelyunsaturatedand liquidundertheordinaryconditions,whileanimalfats,beingrelativelymore saturated,aresolid,orsemisolid,atthesametemperature.Forthisreason, vegetablefatsarecommonlyrefereedtoasvegetableoils.(Wesayrelatively saturatedorunsaturatedbecausebothvegetablesoilsandanimalfatscontain saturatedandunsaturatedchains).Thereasonwhydoublebondslowerthemelting pointofafattyacidchain,isthatthesectionsofthechainattachedtothedouble bondareattachedciswisetoeachother(probablybecausethedoublebondcis configurationproducesabentchainwhichdoesnoteasilyadheretoaneighboring chainbyaVanderWaalsattractionhencealowertemperature(lowermobility)is requiredforthesemoleculestoadhereinordertoformasolidcrystallattice.Itis interestingtonote,thatstraightchainedcarboxylicacidshavinganoddnumberof carbonatomsmeltlowerthanevenchainedacidsofcomparablemolecularweights.

Themostcommonlyencounteredfattyacidsinnaturalfatsaregivenbelow: SaturatedAcids LauricAcid(DodecanoicAcid)

3

CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2COOH

MyristicAcid(tetraderanoicAcids) Palmiticacid(hexadecanoicacid) CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2 CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2COOH

COOH Stearicacid(octadecanoicacid) CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2 COOH Unsaturatedacids: Oleicacid(octadec9enoicacid)

CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH=CHCH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2 COOH

Linoleicacid(octadec9,12dienoicacid) CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH=CHCH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2 COOH

4

Allfatsareesters(though,notallestersarenecessarily,fat!)ofthetrihydroxy

alcohol,glycerin,andfattyacids.Sinceeachmoleculeoffatcontainsthreeester groups,fatsareoftenreferredtoastriglyceridestodistinguishthemfromother materialshavingafattyorgreasytexture,suchaswaxes(monoestersoflongchain alcoholsarecarboxylicacids)mineraloil,andpetroleumjelly(longchain hydrocarbons). IfRCOOHrepresentsageneralizedfattyacid(Risahydrocarbonchainof13,15,or 17carbons)then,thegeneralformulaforafatis

Notethatthefattyacidresiduesinatypicalfatmolecule

areusuallydifferent!Fatsfromdifferentsourceshavedifferentpercentagesofthe commonfattyacids,andcanbedistinguishedfromoneanotherbyaquantitative analysisoftheseconstituents.Soapispreparedbyhydrolyzingafatunderalkaline (basic)conditions.Thereactioniscalledsaponification,andproducesonemolecule ofglycerinandthreemoleculesofsoap,foreachmoleculeoffattaken.

Thefatsandoilsmostcommonlyusedinsoappreparationarelardandtallowfrom animalsources,andcoconut,palmandoliveoilsfromvegetablesources. Tallowandlardarethefatsseparatedfromsolidbeeffat(suet)andhogfat,

bytheprocessofrendering.Renderingconsistsofofwateruntilalayerofmeltedfat collectsontop.(Whentheanimaltissueisheated,thefatinthecellsmelts,expands, rupturesthecellmembraneandthenflowsout.Sincethefatisimmisciblewith boilingtheanimalfatinapotwithequalvolumewater,andhydrocarbonchainand thenumberofdoublehasalowerdensity,itformsafloatinglayeronthetopofthe waterinthepot.)Therenderedfatisthendrawnoff,andallowedtosolidifyby cooling. Thelengthofthebondsinthecarbonylicacidportionofthefatoroil

determinesthepropertiesoftheresultingsoap.Forexample,asaltofasaturated, longchainacidmakesaharder,moreinsolublesoap.Chainlengthalsoaffects solubility.Tallowistheprincipalfattymaterialusedinsoapmaking,withcoconut orpalmoilblendedin,toproduceasofter(moresoluble)soapwhichwillreadily lather.SoapsmadewithKOH(causticpotash)insteadofNaOH(causticsoda)are liquidratherthansolid,atroomtemperature.(Potassiumsaltshavealowermelting pointthansodiumsalts.) Toiletsoapsaregenerallycarefullywashedfreeofanyremainingalkaliused

inthesaponificationproceduretoavoidirritationanddryingoftheskin.Asmuch glycerineaspossibleisusuallyleftinthesoap,andperfumes,coloring,and medicinalagentsaresometimesadded.Alsoadded,areantioxidantstopreventthe soapfromturningrancid.Manysoapsaresuperfatted,i.e.notallofthefatis hydrolysed,inorderthatthefinalsoaphavesomefatremainingtolubricateand smoothdryandsensitiveskin. Besidestallowandcoconutoil,therearemanyothernaturalfatsandoils

whichcanbeeconomicallyemployedtomakesoapsofvaryingdegreesofquality. Thelesspuretherawmaterialis,themorelikelythesoapwillhaveanoffcolor (generallyyelloworbrown),andanundesirableodor.(Impurefatsaresometimes treatedwithbleachingagentsbeforesaponification,butthisaddstotheircost.) Examplesofsuchotherstartingmaterialsinsoapmanufactureare:coconutoil,palm oil,oliveoil,cottonseedoil,sesameoil,cornoil,Soyabeanoil,hydrogenated vegetableoils,rosin,naphthelinicacids,andgreasesmadefromanimalskins,bones,

6

tankageandgarbage.Thelowergradesofsoapsareusedasyellowlaundrysoap, soappowders,cleansers,andindustrialsoaps.

Commercial soap production

UntiltheIndustrial Revolution,soapmakingwasdoneonasmallscaleandthe productwasrough.Andrew Pearsstartedmakingahighquality,transparentsoapin 1789inLondon.Withhisgrandson,FrancisPears,theyopenedafactoryinIsleworth in1862.William Gossageproducedlowpricegoodqualitysoapfromthe1850s. Robert Spear Hudsonbeganmanufacturingasoappowderin1837,initiallyby grindingthesoapwithamortarandpestle.William Hesketh Leverandhisbrother, James,boughtasmallsoapworksinWarringtonin1885andfoundedwhatisstillone ofthelargestsoapbusinesses,nowcalledUnilever.Thesesoapbusinesseswere amongthefirsttoemploylargescaleadvertisingcampaigns. IntheUnitedStates,oneofthefirstmanufacturersofsoapwastheAmour and CompanyinChicagoin1888.Thesoapwasmadefromtallow,abyproductofthe meatproductionprocess.In1948,ArmoursoapbecameDialsoap,thefirst deodorantorantibacterialsoapintroducedintheUSA.

Industrialpreparationofsoaps:
Themostcommonsoapmakingprocesstodayisthecoldprocessmethod,where fatssuchasrenderedlardreactwithlye.Somesoapersalsopracticeotherprocesses, suchasthehistoricalhotprocess,andmakespecialsoapssuchasclearor transparentsoap,whichmustbemadewithethanolorisopropylalcohol. Soapmakerssometimesusethemelt and pourprocess,whereapremadesoapbaseis meltedandpouredinindividualmolds.Whilesomepeoplethinkthatthisisnot reallysoapmaking,theHand Crafted Soap Makers Guilddoesrecognizethisasa legitimateformofsoapcrafting. Handmadesoapdiffersfromindustrialsoapinthatwholeoilscontainingintact triglyceridesareusedandglycerinisadesirablebyproduct.Industrialdetergent manufacturerscommonlyusefattyacids,whicharedetachedfromthegylcerol headsfoundintriglycerides.Withouttheglycerolheads,thedetachedfattyacidsdo notyieldglycerinasabyproduct. Process Coldprocesssoapmakingisdonewithoutheatingthesoapbatter,whilehotprocess soapmakingrequiresthatthesoapbatterbeheated.Bothprocessesarefurther describedafterthegeneralsoapmakingprocessdescription. General soap making process Soapmakingrequirestheuseofsaponificationchartstodeterminethecorrectlye/fat ratio.Ifexcessunreactedlyeremainsinthesoap,theresultanthighpHcanburnor irritateskin. Conversely,ahighproportionofexcessfatwillresultingreasysludgethatwillnot formsolidbarsofsoap,althoughsomesoapmakersdeliberatelysuperfattheir soapsothatsomeoilswillremaininthefinishedbarsofsoap.Thiscanbedoneby eitheraddingasmall(510%)excessproportionoffats,orbydiscountingthe formulatedamountoflyeto9095%. Thelyeisdissolvedinwater;asthisisanexothermicprocess,thesolutionwill spontaneouslygenerateheatandmayevenboil.Theoilsareheatedseparately(to thepointofliquefactioniftheyaresolidatroomtemperature).Oncefatsandlye waterhavebothcooledto80100F(2738C),theyarecombined.Thismixtureoflye waterandfatsisstirreduntiltraceoccursandthemixturebecomesasoapbatter.
8

Therearevaryinglevelsoftrace:alighttraceimpliesathinnersoapbatteranda heavytraceimpliesathickersoapbatter.Additives,suchasessentialoils,fragrance oils,botanicals,clays,colorantsorotherfragrancematerials,arecombinedwiththe soapbatteratdifferentdegreesoftrace,dependingupontheadditive.Withelapsed timeandcontinuedagitationthesoapbatterwillcontinuetothicken.Thecold processsoapbatteristhenpouredintomolds,whilehotprocesssoapbatteris pouredintoadoubleboilerorcrockpottosustainahightemperature. Cold-process Althoughcoldprocesssoapmakingtakesplaceatroomtemperature,thefatsare firstheatedtoensuretheliquificationofthefatsused.Then,whenthelyewater solutionisaddedtothefats,itshouldbethesametemperatureofthemeltedoils andbotharetypicallybetween8090F.Anexternalheatsourceisnotnecessarybut themoldedsoapshouldbeincubatedbybeingwrappedinblanketsortowelsfor24 hoursafterbeingpouredintothemold.Milksoapsaretheexceptionanddonot requireinsulation,whichmaycausethemilktosour.Thesoapwillcontinueto exothermicallygiveoffheatformanyhoursafterbeingmolded.Duringthistime,it isnormalforthesoaptogothroughagelphasewheretheopaquesoapwillturn semitransparentforseveralhoursbeforeturningopaqueagain.Thesoapmaybe removedfromthemoldafter24hoursbutthesaponificationprocesstakesseveral weekstocomplete. Hot-process Unlikecoldprocessedsoap,allhotprocessedsoapexperiencesagelphaseasa resultofbeingheated,suchasinadoubleboilerorcrockpot.Hotprocesssoapmay beusedsoonafterbeingremovedfromthemoldbecausethehighertemperatures acceleratethesaponifcationprocessandalsodriveoffexcesswater. Purification and finishing Thecommonprocessofpurifyingsoapinvolvesremovalofsodium chloride,sodium hydroxide,andglycerol.Thesecomponentsareremovedbyboilingthecrudesoap curdsinwaterandreprecipitatingthesoapwithsalt. Mostofthewateristhenremovedfromthesoap.Thiswastraditionallydoneona chillrollwhichproducedthesoapflakescommonlyusedinthe1940sand1950s. Thisprocesswassupersededbyspraydryersandthenbyvacuumdryers. Thedrysoap(approximately612%moisture)isthencompactedintosmallpellets. Thesepelletsarenowreadyforsoapfinishing,theprocessofconvertingrawsoap pelletsintoasalableproduct,usuallybars.
9

Soappelletsarecombinedwithfragrancesandothermaterialsandblendedto homogeneityinanamalgamator(mixer).Themassisthendischargedfromthe mixerintoarefinerwhich,bymeansofanauger,forcesthesoapthroughafinewire screen.Fromtherefinerthesoappassesoverarollermill(Frenchmillingorhard milling)inamannersimilartocalenderingpaperorplasticortomakingchocolate liquor.Thesoapisthenpassedthroughoneormoreadditionalrefinerstofurther plasticizethesoapmass.Immediatelybeforeextrusionitpassesthroughavacuum chambertoremoveanyentrappedair.Itisthenextrudedintoalonglogorblank, cuttoconvenientlengths,passedthroughametaldetectorandthenstampedinto shapeinrefrigeratedtools.Thepressedbarsarepackagedinmanyways. Sandorpumicemaybeaddedtoproduceascouringsoap.Thisprocessismost commonincreatingsoapsusedforhumanhygiene.Thescouringagentsserveto removedeadskincellsfromthesurfacebeingcleaned.Thisprocessiscalled exfoliation.Manynewermaterialsareusedforexfoliatingsoapswhichareeffective butdonothavethesharpedgesandpoorsizedistributionofpumice.

Laboratorypreparationofsoaps:

Thepreparationofsoapfromfatandlyehasbeen,historically,ahousehold task.Onlyinthelastcenturyhasthemakingofsoapbecomeacommercial undertaking.Ourancestorsmadesoapbyboilinganimalfatswiththelye obtainedfromleachingwoodashes.Inthisexperiment,wewillmakesoapby thesameprocess,calledsaponification,butwillusemoderningredients. Intheprocessofmakingsoap,animalfat,whichisatriglyceride,is hydrolyzedbytheactionofastrongbase,suchassodiumhydroxide,and heat.Theresultingproductsaresoapandglycerol: CAUTION:Safetygogglesmustbewornthroughoutthisexperiment.This labisintendedtobedoneinaschoollab,withadultsupervision.Sodium hydroxideisverycaustic,andcancausesevereburnstotheskin,especially whenhot.
MATERIALSNEEDED:

*80mlof6MolarNaOHsolution 15gramsoflard
10

75mlofdistilledwater **300mlhotsodiumchloridesolution 100mlgraduatedcylinder Wirescreen Ringstand Ring Wiregauze Burner Tongs Stirringrod 400mlbeaker 250mlbeaker *Tomake6molarsodiumhydroxide,dissolve19.2gramsofNaOHin enoughwatertomakeatotalvolumeof80ml. **ThisisjustasaturatedsolutionofNaCl.
PROCEDURE:

Obtain80mlof6molarNaOHand15gramsoflard,andplace40ml oftheNaOHsolutionandthelardina400mlbeaker Heattoboiling,onastandardringstandsetup,andthencontinue boilingthemixtureoverthelowestflamethatwillsustaintheboiling process.Stirthemixtureconstantlytoavoidspattering.IfSpattering occurs,removetheflameandcontinuestirringthemixture.Replace theflameandcontinueheatingafterthespatteringstops. Continueboilingandstirringforabout20minutes,oruntilitappears thatmostofthewaterhasbeenevaporated.Thencarefullyaddthe remaining40mlofNaOHsolutionandcontinueboilingforan additional20minutesoruntilmostofthewaterhasboiledoff.DO NOTLETITBOILDRY. Asthecrudesoapcools,awaxysolidshouldform.Addtoitabout25 mlofdistilledwaterandabout100mlofhot,saturatedsodium chloridesolution.Stirthemixture,breakinguplumpswithyour stirringrod.Decantthewashsolutionbypouringitthroughawire screen,whichwilltrapsmallsoapparticles. Repeatthewashprocesstwice.Afterthefinalwashing,pressthesoap betweentwosheetsofpapertowllingtoexpelasmuchwateras possible.

Result: 11

Howsoapworks:
Soapsareusefulforcleaningbecausesoapmoleculesattachreadilytobothnonpolar molecules(suchasgreaseoroil)andpolarmolecules(suchaswater).Althoughgrease willnormallyadheretoskinorclothing,thesoapmoleculescanattachtoitasa handleandmakeiteasiertorinseaway.Appliedtoasoiledsurface,soapywater effectivelyholdsparticlesinsuspensionsothewholeofitcanberinsedoffwith cleanwater. (Fattyend):CH3(CH2)nCO2+Na:(watersolubleend) Thehydrocarbon(fatty)portiondissolvesdirtandoils,whiletheionicendmakes itsolubleinwater.Therefore,itallowswatertoremovenormallyinsolublematter byemulsification.

History:
Early history Theearliestrecordedevidenceoftheproductionofsoaplikematerialsdatesbackto around2800BCinAncientBabylon.Aformulaforsoapconsistingofwater,alkali andcassiaoilwaswrittenonaBabylonianclaytabletaround2200BC. TheEberspapyrus(Egypt,1550BC)indicatesthatancientEgyptiansbathed regularlyandcombinedanimalandvegetableoilswithalkalinesaltstocreatea soaplikesubstance.Egyptiandocumentsmentionthatasoaplikesubstancewas usedinthepreparationofwoolforweaving. Romanhistory Ithadbeenreportedthatafactoryproducingsoaplikesubstanceswasfoundinthe ruinsofPompeii(AD79).However,thishasproventobeamisinterpretationofthe survivalofsomesoapymineralsubstance,[citationneeded]probablysoapstoneat theFullonicawhereitwasusedfordressingrecentlycleansedtextiles.Unfortunately thiserrorhasbeenrepeatedwidelyandcanbefoundinotherwisereputabletextson soaphistory.TheancientRomansweregenerallyignorantofsoapsdetergent properties,andmadeuseofthestrigiltoscrapedirtandsweatfromthebody.The wordsoap(Latinsapo)appearsfirstinaEuropeanlanguageinPlinytheElders HistoriaNaturalis,whichdiscussesthemanufactureofsoapfromtallowandashes,
12

buttheonlyusehementionsforitisasapomadeforhair;hementionsrather disapprovinglythatamongtheGaulsandGermansmenarelikeliertouseitthan women. Astoryencounteredinsomeplacesclaimsthatsoaptakesitsnamefromasupposed Mount Sapowhereancient Romanssacrificedanimals.Rainwouldsendamixof animaltallowandwoodashdownthemountainandintotheclaysoilonthebanks oftheTiber.Eventually,womennoticedthatitwaseasiertocleanclotheswiththis soap.ThelocationofMountSapoisunknown,asisthesourceoftheancient Romanlegendtowhichthistaleistypicallycredited.Infact,theLatinwordsapo simplymeanssoap;itwasborrowedfromaCelticorGermaniclanguage,andis cognatewithLatinsebum,tallow,whichappearsinPlinytheEldersaccount. Romananimalsacrificesusuallyburnedonlythebonesandinedibleentrailsofthe sacrificedanimals;ediblemeatandfatfromthesacrificesweretakenbythehumans ratherthanthegods.Animalsacrificesintheancientworldwouldnothaveincluded enoughfattomakemuchsoap.ThelegendaboutMountSapoisprobably apocryphal. Muslim history Truesoapsmadefromvegetableoils(suchasolive oil),aromaticoils(suchasthyme oil)andlye(alSodaalKawia)werefirstproducedbyMuslim chemistsinthemedieval Islamic world.Theformulaforsoapusedsincethenhasntchanged(Nabulsi soap). Fromthebeginningofthe7thcentury,soapwasproducedinNablus(WestBank), Kufa(Iraq)andBasra(Iraq).Soaps,asweknowthemtoday,aredescendantsof historicalArabianSoaps.ArabianSoapwasperfumedandcolored,someofthe soapswereliquidandothersweresolid.Theyalsohadspecialsoapforshaving.It wassoldfor3Dirhams(0.3Dinars)apiecein981AD.ThePersianchemistAl-Razi wroteamanuscriptonrecipesfortruesoap.Arecentlydiscoveredmanuscriptfrom the13thcenturydetailsmorerecipesforsoapmaking;e.g.takesomesesameoil,a sprinkleofpotash,alkaliandsomelime,mixthemalltogetherandboil.When cooked,theyarepouredintomoldsandlefttoset,leavinghardsoap. Insemimoderntimessoapwasmadebymixinganimalfatswithlye.Becauseofthe causticlye,thiswasadangerousprocedure(perhapsmoredangerousthanany presentdayhomeactivities)whichcouldresultinseriouschemical burnsoreven blindness.Beforecommerciallyproducedlye(sodium hydroxide)wascommonplace, lye(sodium hydroxide),potash(potassium hydroxide),andsoda ash(sodium carbonate) wereleachedfromtheashesofahardwoodfireforsoapmakingathome. Modern history CastilesoapwaslaterproducedinEuropefromthe16thcentury.
13

Inmoderntimes,theuseofsoaphasbecomeuniversalinindustrializednationsdue toabetterunderstandingoftheroleofhygieneinreducingthepopulationsizeof pathogenicmicroorganisms.Manufacturedbarsoapsfirstbecameavailableinthelate nineteenthcentury,andadvertisingcampaignsinEuropeandtheUnitedStates helpedtoincreasepopularawarenessoftherelationshipbetweencleanlinessand health. Soaphasalsobeenusedtopunishpeopleforcursingoroccasionally,forother infractions.Thisisdonebyforciblyplacingsoapintoapersonsmouthand, sometimes,forcingthemtoswallowit.Itiscommonlyknownaswashingones mouthoutwithsoaporanyofnumerousvariationsofthatphrase,or,more recently,mouthsoaping.

IMPORTANTCONSTITUENTSOFSOAPS:
Lye Reactingfatwithlye(sodiumhydroxide)willproduceahardbarsoap.Reactingfat withpotassium hydroxidewillproduceasoapthatiseithersoftorliquid.Historically, thealkalisusedweresodium hydroxide,potassiumhydroxide,andsodium carbonate leechedfromhardwoodashes. Fat Soapismadefromeithervegetableoranimalfats.Sodiumtallowate,afattyacid sometimesusedtomakesoaps,isderivedfromtallow,whichisrenderedfromcattle orsheeptissue.Soapcanalsobemadeofvegetableoils,suchaspalmoil,oliveoil,or coconutoil.IfsoapismadefrompureoliveoilitmaybecalledCastilesoapor Marseillesoap.Castileisalsosometimesappliedtosoapswithamixofoils,buta highpercentageofoliveoil. Anarrayofoilsandbuttersareusedintheprocesssuchasoliveoil,coconutoil, palmoil,cocoabutter,hemp oilandshea buttertoprovidedifferentqualities.For example,oliveoilprovidesmildnessinsoap;coconutoilprovideslotsoflather; whilecoconutandpalmoilsprovidehardness.Mostcommon,isacombinationof coconut,palm,andoliveoils.
14

Belowisashortglossaryoftermsemployedtodescribespecialtypesofsoap: CastilesoapamildsoaporiginallymadeinSpainwithpureoliveoil.Todaymany castilesoapsaremadewithothervegetableoils.Castileisamarvelouscleanser, producingarichlather. Creamsoapssoapscontainingcoldcreammaterials,moisturizersandemollients. Creamsoapsareparticularlygoodfordryanddelicateskin Deodorantsoapssoapstowhichantibacterialagentshavebeenaddedtoreduce odorcausingbacteria. Floatingsoapssoapshavingairbubblesincorporatedtolowerthedensity.This causesthebartofloat. HypoallergenicsoapsMildformulasoaps,lowinpotentialirritants.Theyusually produceapoorlather. Medicatedsoapssoapscontainingmedicationssuchastar,sulphur,or antibacterialingredients,usedtotreatacneandotherskindisorders.Medicated soapsrequirethroughrinsingandarenotrecommendedforsensitiveskin. Milledsoapsthesearethemostcommonlyused,massproducedsoaps.Milling referstothemixingofcolor,perfumeandsoapflakes.

15

CONCLUSION:

16