Chemistry 3202 Notes Unit 1 Reaction Rates and Equilibrium All chemical rxns involve energy.

y. Potential energy: -stored energy (in the particles/the bonds) -provides the ability to do work Kinetic energy: -energy of motion (causing particles to move) 2 theories discuss particle movement: 1) KMT Kinetic Molecular Theory: Tiny Particles in all forms of matter are in constant motion. Proof: 1) drop of food coloring and the water molecules are constantly moving around mixing (diffusion) 2) squeezing a balloon apply to much pressure POP! - forces air molecules to hit each other vigorously. *solids vibrate = strong IMFs (intermolecular forces) liquids/gases = more freedom of movement = weaker IMFs 2) The Collision Theory For a successful rxn to occur: - there must be a collision between the reactant particle - there must be a minimum amount of energy in the colliding particles so that the old bonds can break AND new bonds can form. - the particles must collide at the right/correct orientation. * all of these criteria must be met simultaneously ** if one of these criteria isnt met, the rxn is unsuccessful and the reactants stay reactants. Activation energy (A) the minimum amount of energy Activated Complex the point at which the reactants have gained enough energy to break apart the old bonds.

*more energy was released than absorbed in this process exothermic rxn *H = negative value

*more energy was absorbed than released endothermic rxn *H = positive value Threshold energy an energy cut-off that particles must be past so that the old bonds have the opportunity to break. Temperature a measure of kinetic energy of particles. Particles in a substance travel at many different speeds some fast, some slow most travel at intermediate speeds. *only particles with Ek greater than the threshold can possibly cause a rxn. Reaction Rates: A measure of how fast a reactant is used up or a product is produced per unit of time. *Finding ways to speed up or slow down rxns is a part of kinetics research. Speed up -> Catalyst Slow down -> Inhibitor How are reaction rates measured? 1) Gas being produced

2) Examining a precipitate -mark an x on the bottom of the beaker -mix 2 solutions, ultimately producing a solid precipitate -time the rxn form the point of mixing to the point at which you can't see a mark 3) Acid levels - rates can be measured by a pH meter, indicating change in acidity over time 4) Color change -if a colored product is formed, the reaction can be timed from the point of mixing until first new color is seen 5) Change in ions present -reactions that alter the number of ions present will result in a change in the solutions conductivity.

Factors that affect reaction rates: *always remember: all reactions involve a bond breaking followed by bond formation. There are ways and means of influencing reactions: nature of reactants concentration of reactants use of a catalyst/inhibitor temperature surface area of reactants 1) Nature and Reactivity of Reactants -A number of variables play into whether a rxn is slow/fast a) # of bonds broken/being formed the more bonds that have to be broken, the slower the reaction generally b) strength of the bonds broken network covalent The stronger the bonds are that metallic must be broken, the slower the ionic reaction. covalent c) molecular vs. Ionic rxns - ionics in water > dissociate - in solution form, ionics have very weak bonding and are extremely fast in reactions 2) Concentration of Reactants - As concentration increases, the reaction rate will increase *Remember: Collision Theory As we increase the concentration, there are more particles present in a given volume. The particles are closer together therefore the # of collisions will increase and the number of successful collisions will increase. more particles are present in a given volume, thus leading to more collisions. *you can only manipulate the concentrations of solutions and gases. 3) Catalyst - a catalyst provides an alternate rxn mechanism with a lower activation energy - the catalyst lowers the amount of energy needed to break the old bonds - it lowers the activation energy in a rxn process - it minimizes the energy barrier - speeds up the rxn by lowering EA 4) Temperature - the higher the temperature, the faster the rxn - has the greatest single-most effect - even small temperature changes are quite noticeable - increase in temperature means particles are moving faster, therefore the # of collisions will increase and will be of greater intensity. - a greater number of collisions will surpass the minimum threshold energy and therefore will break bonds and make products more collisions will exceed the energy threshold * in society refrigeration / hypothermia (slows rxn rate)

5) Surface Area -by spreading out all the particles pf the reactants, there will be greater opportunities for rxns to take place -more particles are immediately available for collision , therefore more collisions will happen causing more successful collisions to occur, therefore rxn rate must increase. - surface area causes more particles to spread out, immediately available for collisions. - ex: mining industry (coal mine explosions, grain elevator explosions), starting a fire with splits instead of a log. Rxn Mechanisms 4 HBr (g) + O2 (g) 2Br2 (g) + 2H2O (g) based upon looking at this rxn, we'd expect a very slow rxn. Yet, under experimental conditions, this rxn is very quick. This rxn doesnt actually occur in 1 step... it occurs in a series of simpler steps involving collisions of 2-3 particles at a time. Steps: slow 1) Hbr + O2 HOOBr fast 2) Hbr + HOOBr HOBr + HOBr fast 3) Hbr + HOBr Br2 + H2O fast 4) Hbr + HOBr Br2 + H2O 4HBr + O2 2Br2 + 2H2O