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ISSN 1067-8212, Russian Journal of Non-Ferrous Metals, 2008, Vol. 49, No. 1, pp. 1827. Allerton Press, Inc.

., 2008. Original Russian Text A.V. Naumov, 2008, published in Izvestiya VUZ. Tsvetnaya Metallurgiya, 2008, No. 1, pp. @@.

METALLURGY OF RARE AND NOBLE METALS

Review of the World Market of Rare-Earth Metals


A. V. Naumov
OOO KVAR, ul. Tallinskaya 24, Moscow, 123458 Russia e-mail: kvar@comail.ru AbstractOn the basis of publications of recent years, the contemporary state of the world market of rareearth metals is reviewed, periods of its development are considered, and prospects are shown. DOI: 10.3103/S1067821208010057

INTRODUCTION The location of rare-earth metals (REM) in the Periodic Table is unusual, since these 15 chemically similar elements with ordinal numbers from 57 (lanthanum) to 71 (lutecium), which are also known as lanthanides, are combined in a separate group of the table. In commercial practice, another two elements situated in the table immediately above lanthanum are referred to as REMs, namely, scandium, under the number 21, and yttrium, with the number 39. REMs are subdivided into yttrium [Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, Lu, (Y)] and lanthanide (cerium) [(La), Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu] groups. The term rare earths, which was introduced at the end of the 18th century (in the jargon of chemists of these years, earths were called refractory oxides insoluble in water), is not quite correct, as the content of these metals in the earths crust varies from 60 ppm for cerium to ~0.5 ppm for thulium and lutecium. In other words, almost all of them are situated in the earths crust in amounts larger than that of silver and the four most widespread elements (yttrium, lanthanum, cerium, and neodymium) are situated in amounts greater than that of lead. The only truly rare metal in this group is promethium with the ordinal number 61, which is radioactive with an extremely small half-life period, and its amount in the nature is vanishingly small. Scandium is the 21st element of the Periodic Table, which is contained in the earths crust in the amount of 22 ppm (i.e., higher than that of lead and mercury), is also referred to as an REM and it has a series of established spheres of its application [1, 2]. The value of REMs is increasingly rising due to their uses in many modern technologies, including the production of catalytic lter-neutralizers of exhaust gases of cars, ber optics, lasers, oxygen sensors, phosphors, and superconductors. Therefore, the REM market, which is the youngest goods market, rises violently. From 1964 to 1997, it increased by a factor of 17 and, from 1997 to 2007, it has increased by a factor of 20.5 [6]. The purpose of this review is an attempt to carry out periodization in the development of the world market of
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REMs, to describe its state in recent years (both mixed REM oxides and separated metals), and to evaluate its prospects. MINERAL AND RAW MATERIAL RESOURCES The main REM sources are the following minerals: bastnasite [Ce, La, (CO3)]F (content of REM oxides of 7075%), monazite (Ce, La, Nb)[PO]4 (5560%), loparite (Na, Ce, Ca)(Ti, Nb)O3 (3035%), xenotime (Y, Eu, Gd)PO4 (5560%), and ion-absorption clays (1020%). According to USGS estimates, in 2006, the total world stocks of REMs recalculated for oxides were 88 million t. However, in nature, these ores are distributed so that only a small amount of deposits profitable for mining exists in the world. Figure 1 clearly shows that as raw material resources were developed, the types of deposits playing the leading role in the mining structure of REMs varied. The history of industrial mining and obtaining of REMs started at the end of the 19th century with the mining of monazite sand sediments, which also involved quartz, rutile, and thorium(IV) oxide. Despite a considerably low REM content, deposits were processed by relatively simple methods. A rst pilot REM production was obtained in 1893 in North Carolina (United States). In Brazil, monazite mining started in 1887, while in India, it began in 1911. This segment of REM industry is presented by monazite deposits with resources of hundreds of thousands of tons in Australia, Brazil, China, India, Malaysia, Republic of South Africa, Sri Lanka, and Thailand. In the 1950s, monazite sands were the worlds main source of REMs. In the 1960s, the era of the mining of bastnasite carbonatitesthe product of crystallization of deep magmas containing uorocarbonates of REMsbegan. Presently, two large deposits of carbonatite have been developed, namely Mountain Pass (California, United States) and Bayan Obo (China). In the former of these, the resources of useful components amounted to several million tons and, since 1966, the deposit has been developed by Molycorp Inc; from the mid-1960s to the mid-1980s, it was the main source of the rare-earth raw

REVIEW OF THE WORLD MARKET OF RARE-EARTH METALS Production of REM oxides, ths t 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 1950 1960 1970
United States Mountain Pass deposit (United States) Monazite period China Bayan-Obo deposit etc. (China)

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Bastnasite-carbonatite period

Others 1980 Years 1990 2000 2006

Fig. 1. World production of REM oxides in 19502006. SourceUSGS.

(a)

(b)
Pr Nd La Sm GdLu, Y Sm Eu Nd Pr Dy Ho Tm Yb Lu Y La Ce

Eu

Gd Tb

Ce

Er

Fig. 2. Mineralogical composition of REM ores (a) of the Mountain Pass deposit, the United States, and (b) of ion-absorption REM ores, South China. Source: USGS [9].

materials in the world. The composition of REMs in bastnasite concentrates from Mountain Pass is shown in Fig. 2a. In the early 1980s, a giant root bastnasite deposit Bayan Obo was discovered and developed in China. Resources of this deposit reach 36 million tons of REM oxides with a content of 56%, i.e., 54% of all world resources, while the forecast resources are about 100 million tons. At present, this deposit is becoming the main source of rare-earth raw materials in the world. Therefore, at the modern stage, the prevalent source of REMs is bastnasite, which constitutes 8090% of the raw materials produced in the world and, to an insignificant degree, xenotime, ion-absorption clays, and monRUSSIAN JOURNAL OF NON-FERROUS METALS

azite. Recently, the mining and processing of monazite have been considerably reduced, as the content of thorium and radium make this material radioactive. Dynamics of mining of REMs for certain countries in the period of 19992006 is presented in Table 1. Lanthanides and Yttrium China. The mining of REMs in China started in 1981; the output was <3 ths t REM oxides and their 1 world production was 40 ths t/yr. Nowadays, this coun- 1 try is the dominant world producer of REMs; its part in 20052006 was 120 ths t, i.e., >95% of all REMs pro- 1 duced in the world. The main resources in China are concentrated in ironniobium rare-earth deposits in
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20 Table 1. World mining of REMs*, t Country United States China Commonwealth of Independent States Brazil India Total 1999 yr 5000 70000 2000 1400 2700 82000 2000 yr 5000 70000 2000 1400 2700 81000

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2001 yr 5000 73000 2000 200 2700 83000

2002 yr 5000 75000 2000 200 2700 98300

2003 yr 90000 2000 2700 95000

2004 yr 96000 2000 2700 102000

2005 yr 98000 2000 2700 105000

2006 yr 120000 n.d. 2700 123000

* By the content of REM oxides.

Inner Mongolia (Bayan Obo), in bastnasite deposits in the north, and in the mining of ion-absorption ores in the south of the country. The latter are valued due to their relatively high content of higher rare-earth elements (see Fig. 2b). ~80% of all world resources of REMs of the less widespread yttrium group are concentrated in China. In its southern region (provinces Jiangxi and Guandun), absorption ores are used as raw materials and heavy REMs and metals of the average weight are produced; seven companies operate there. In the northern region (provinces Baotou and Sichuan), lighter REMs are produced based on bastnasite ore. The producers are Baotou Iron & Steel Group, Baotou Rare Earth Group, Gansu Rare Earth Corp, and Sichuan Rare Earth Group. Since 1990, Chinese dominance in the history of mining of REMs has been prevalent; since 2002 (the cessation of mining in United States), China has undisputedly dominated in the world market of REM producers [26]. India is second among the worlds producers, mainly of yttrium, which is extracted from monazite. Indian Rare Earth Ltd produces yttrium oxide in Aluva; Kerala Minerals & Metals Ltd extracts monazite from heavy mineral sands in states Kerala, Taminland, and Orissa. The United States still possess large resources of REMs. Until 2002, one of the richest deposits of the cerium group, Mountain Pass, was exploited. From 1990 to 2002, along with Bayan Obo, they provided more than 80% of the world mining of the rare-earth raw materials. Currently, the deposit has been suspended, mainly because of environmental problems associated with the disposal of thorium-containing waste, while REMs are produced from the storage of bastnasite previously mined at the Mountain Pass and imported concentrates. Russia. Resources of REMs have been counted in ores of 14 deposits, of which the dominant part (60.2%) 2 is contained in apatitenepheline ores on the Kola peninsula, during the processing of which REMs are not extracted. Other resources refer to loparite ores of the Lovozerskoe deposit (14.2% of All-Russian resources); 2 rare-earth apatite ores of the Seligdarskoe deposit, Sakha-Yakutiya (22.8%); and, as associated compo-

nents, to the rare metal ores of Ulug-Tanzek deposit and oil-bearing sandstones of the Yaregskoe deposit. At present, the only source of raw materials is the loparite ores of the Lovozerskoe deposit, which contain ~1% of REM oxides, as well as 0.24% of niobium pentoxide and 0.018% of tantalum pentoxide. Concentrates obtained from these deposits contain 3031% REM oxides, 78% niobium pentoxide, 0.50.6% tantalum pentoxide, and 3538% titanium dioxide; rare-earth metals are represented mainly by the cerium group (97.7%). The maximal production volume of the loparite concentrate is limited by the productive capacity of the Solikamsk magnesium industrial complex 1 (1012 ths t/yr). With the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Russia actually lost sources of raw materials of yttrium and metals of yttrium group, the mining and output of which were concentrated in Kyrgyzstan (Kirgizskii GMK, deposit Kutessai). The prospective demand in Russia for REMs can be satised through the introduction of a new enterprise based on established resources of the Tomtor deposit (uch-k Burannyi, SakhaYakutiya), which is represented by the residual soil of carbonatites. The ores mined there contain 912% REM oxides on average, i.e., they comprise their natural concentrate. Australia. Lynas Corporation Ltd mines monazite. However, for recent 10 years, the output of this mineral reduced by a factor more than 3.5 because of the decreasing ore quality. Today Australia possesses the richest bastnasite deposit, Mount Weld, which contains 1623% of REM oxides per 1 million tons of resources. This deposit is not currently mined, but is preparing for development. Others. Among other countries with large REM resources are the Commonwealth of Independent States, Brazil, Canada, and the Republic of South Africa. Scandium Thortveitite, the most scandium-enriched mineral, is one of the rarest. In addition, Sc is contained in sterrettite, kolbeckite, and bolzite, which are somewhat
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RUSSIAN JOURNAL OF NON-FERROUS METALS

REVIEW OF THE WORLD MARKET OF RARE-EARTH METALS Table 2. Main carrier ores and volume of accompanying scandium Ores Bauxites Uranium Ilmenites Tinstones Zircons Processing, million t/yr 71 50 2.0 0.2 0.1 Amount of accompanying Sc, t/yr 7101420 50500 2040 2025 512

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less uncommon. However, this element is present in iron, uranium, tin, and tungsten ores, as well as in lowgrade coals, in hundredths and thousandths of a percent. Annually, tremendous amounts of Sc are taken away on the earths surface along with other mined minerals (Table 2). There are no exact data on the worlds production of scandium; its annual output over the world is apparently several tons [4, 12]. WORLD PRODUCTION OF REM-CONTAINING PRODUCTS AND THE MAIN PRODUCERS Processing of concentrates. To produce the concentrates, which contain 6070% of mixed REM oxides, the mined ore is usually processed with the use of otation technology. Then, initial cracking or leaching follows, after which the solutions pass through several separation stages. From concentrates, intermediate products can be obtained such as mixed chlorides or uorides of REMs, which are the basis for the simplest separation technology by extraction from the solution. In view of similarity of metals, separation is initially performed into subgroups, then into individual elements. Obtaining of REMs is performed by the metal thermal reduction of chlorides and uorides. In the rst case, the reducing agent can be sodium and calcium though, in the second case, it can only be calcium. For example, low-melting lanthanides (La, Ce, Pr, Nd) are obtained by the reduction of chlorides or uorides by calcium and refractory REMs (Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Lu, Y) are obtained from uorides with the use of calcium thermal reduction in tantalum crucibles; individual REMs, such as Sm, Eu, and Yb, are obtained via the reduction of their oxides by lanthanum with simultaneous distillation. Initially, they are deposited in the form of oxalates, which are sintered until oxides are obtained. High purity of the latter is reached with the use of ion-exchange technology. Then, oxides are reduced by lanthanum in vacuum with simultaneous distillation of forming metals, which have a higher vapor pressure compared with lanthanum. REMs are conventionally rened by distillation in vacuum.
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Features of the market of individual REMs. Relation of concentrations of individual REMs in various ores can vary to a large extent and it does not correspond to the levels of their commercial demand. As a result, in order to obtain the required amount of rarer, yet more important, elements, producers are forced to fabricate considerable volumes of other, more widespread, metals. China is the main country processing REM ores into various types of REM production. Inner Mongolia HEFA Rare Earth Science & Technology Development C exploits ve enterprises near Baotou with productive capacity of 10 ths t/yr REMs each. Other large repro- 1 cessors are Gansu Rare Earth Corp, Xmwei Group, Yue Long Non-Ferrous Metal, and Primet LLC; Jiangym Jia Hua produces medium and heavy elements and Zibo Jia Hua specializes in production of light elements. More than half of all obtained REM products go toward domestic consumption, the volume of which in China has surpassed the United States since 2000. Chinas domination of the market for the mining and production of REMs has led to European, Japanese, and other producers proceeding through an organization of joint enterprise with China. The United Statesis one of the countries leading in the world in processing of REM ores and output of separated rened REMs. The raw materials are delivered from China and Australia. Producers of rare-earth products are Grace Division and Samotoku America Inc. Australia. Treibacher Industrie AG produces separated REMs, misch metal, oxides, and other compounds of REMs. France. Rhodia Electronics and Catalyses produces a complete set of separated REM products for catalytic lters-neutralizers of exhaust gases and possesses shares of Chinese Baotou Rhodia Rare Earth and Liyang Rhodia. Japan. Shin-Etsu, Santoku, Showa Electronics, and Sumkin-Molycorp produce a wide range of REM products, including REM magnites; Nikki KK produces cerium alloys jointly with Baotou Rare Earth (China); and Showa Denko produces neodymiumiron-boron alloys jointly with Inner Mongolia Baotou Steel Rare Earth Hi-Tech (China). Canada. In 2005, AMR Technologies (joint owner and operator of Jiangym Jia Hua and Zibo Jia Hua) announced merger with Magneqench Incleading producer of REMiron-boron magnetic alloys. In 2000, Inter Citic Mineral Technologies Inc (Canada) purchased 80% shares of Langzhang Zhanghai Tech Mat Co Ltd (China) [412]. MAIN APPLICATIONS OF RARE-EARTH METALS When speaking of the structure of the world consumption of REMs, we should note that a considerable part of these materials is used in the form of relatively
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Others 17% Catalysts for oil purification 4% Magnets 4%

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Car catalysts 32%

REM phosphors 15% Polishing of glass and ceramics 12%

Metallurgical additives and alloys 16%

Fig. 3. Branch consumption of REMs in 20002006.

low-cost mixed compounds. Large amounts of REMs in the form of a mixture of oxides are used in metallurgy, as well as glass and ceramic industries. About 25% of all mined, unseparated REMs are supplied to the production of separated pure metals. Of individual REMs, the most widely used are cerium lanthanides (Ce, Nd) and some yttrium lanthanides (Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb). The volumes of annual offers range from several 1 tons for europium, terbium, and lutecium to 15 ths t for cerium, yttrium, lanthanum, and neodymium. Strictly speaking, the sectors of the market of mixed

and separated REMs should be considered independent. Lanthanides The branch structure of the consumption of REMs is presented in Fig. 3 and the main spheres of their consumption are presented in Table 3. Glass polishing and ceramics. Virtually every form of the production of high-quality polished glass, including mirrors and precision lenses, is subjected to treatment with the use of cerium oxide. REMs also serve as

Table 3. Main spheres of the use of individual REMs in production REM Scandium Yttrium Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Ytterbium Lutecium Thulium Gadolinium Symbol Sc Y La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Tb Dy Ho Er Yb Lu Tm Gd Field of application High-strength AlSc alloys, electron beam tubes Capacitors, phosphors, microwave lters, glasses, oxygen sensors, radars, lasers, superconductors Glasses, ceramics; car catalysts, phosphors, pigments, accumulators Polishing powders, ceramics, phosphors, glasses, catalysts, pigments, misch metal, UV lters Ceramics, glasses, pigments Constant magnets, catalysts, IR lters, pigments for glass, lasers Sources for measuring devices, miniature nuclear batteries, phosphors Constant magnets, microwave lters, nuclear industry Phosphors Phosphors Phosphors, ceramics, nuclear industry Ceramics, lasers, nuclear industry Ceramics, dyes for glass, optical bers, lasers, nuclear industry Metallurgy, chemical industry Single-crystal scintillators Electron beam tubes, visualization of images in medicine Visualization of images in medicine, optical and magnetic detection, ceramics, glasses, crystal scintillators
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REVIEW OF THE WORLD MARKET OF RARE-EARTH METALS

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additives to ceramics, which improve its properties. REM oxides are used in glazes and enamels, as well as for the coloration of porcelain. Ce-containing glass does not lose it luster under the effect of radiation. Metallurgical additives and alloys. Misch metal is widely used, which comprises a natural alloy of most widespread rare-earth metals. It conventionally contains ~50% Ce, 30% La, 15% Nd, and 5% Pr, and is claimed in metallurgy for purication of steel of free oxygen and sulfur (in the form of stable oxysuldes) and of impurities of lead and antimony. Misch metal alloyed with iron and magnesium is used in the production of light alloys. REM additives to aluminum and magnesium alloys increase their strength at high temperatures. Catalysts. A large sphere of consumption of REMs is the production of various types of catalysts. Cerium oxide is necessary for the improvement of characteristics of catalytic lters-neutralizers of exhaust gases of cars. Its presence promotes transformation of carbon oxide, unburned hydrocarbons, and nitrogen oxide into carbon dioxide, water, and nitrogen. It is assumed that cerium stabilizes the effect of aluminum oxide, enhances the proceeding of certain catalytic reactions, and increases the activity of rhodium for the reduction of the NOx concentration in exhaust gases. REMs are used for the maintenance of various catalytic reactions of hydrocarbons in the oil-rening industry and the production of plastics. Cerium and lanthanum are used in the FCC-catalysts, which contain zeolites, and in the processing of crude oil into oil products. REMs are more stable with respect to catalyst poisons, such as nickel, vanadium, and sulfur; for this reason, catalysts on their bases are used for the removal of sulfur impurities from crude oil. In addition, REMs enhance the effect of other industrial catalysts, which are assigned for the performance of processes of oxidation, dehydration, wetting, and polymerization. Phosphors. An important market of REMs is the production of luminescent materials (or phosphors) in which rare-earth elements can be involved in the substance matrix or be the centers of excitation. The electron structure of REE atoms provide their specic efciency during high-energy excitation with the use of gamma, X-ray, cathode (electrons), or ultraviolet radiation with the purpose of obtaining narrow-band luminescence in a visible spectral region. In TV electron-beam tubes, yttrium oxysulde activated by trivalent europium (Y2O2S : Eu3+) is the standard red phosphor, which replaced the ZnS: Ag phosphor used previously. Among other phosphors for electron-beam tubes are Gd2O2S : Tb3+ and Y3Al5O12 : Ce3+. In a new generation of three-band uorescent lamps, three phosphors are used for the transformation of ultraviolet beams into red, green, and blue luminescence; their summation forms white radiation. A divalent Eu center gives blue luminescence, Ce and Tb centers give green luminescence, and trivalent Eu centers
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give red luminescence. Similarly, in at plasma panels and screens with the eld emission, REM-based phosphors that form white LEDs are used. In medicine radiography, with the use of REMbased phosphors, X-rays are transformed into blue or green radiation, which photoemulsion is more sensitive to. Magnets. The application of REMs has led to revolutionary transformations in this branch. Powerful magnets based on SmCo alloy were developed in the mid1960s; the SmCo5 and Sm2Con alloys were used in this case. Later, samarium was partially replaced by other rare-earth elements. Even more powerful solid magnets were introduced into use in 1984 and were based on the NdFeB alloy that possesses the magnetic strength larger than that of the SmCo products by a factor of two and have high stability toward demagnetization. The demand for magnets is increasing and, in 2005, their world shipments exceeded 40 ths t for a sum of 1 3.7 billion dollars. Others. Among other spheres of consumption of REMs is particularly the production of recharged La Ni hydride storage batteries, usually called nickel metal hydride batteries. Due to their higher characteristic and environmental advantages, they are gradually forcing NiCd batteries out of use. In addition, REMs are used in pigments (red, orange, brown) for plastics and in the lanthanum-based and cerium-based paints, which are developed as an alternative to dyes containing heavy metals (cadmium). Fiber-optic cables transmit signals for large distances since they have periodically arranged segments of an erbium-doped ber that acts as a laser amplier. Promethium-147 is used in miniature atomic batteries that are capable of supplying energy for several years. In such a battery, a twofold energy transformation proceeds. Initially, emission of promethium forces the luminescent composition (phosphor) to shine; then, the energy of this light is transformed into electrical power in a silicon photocell. Promethium-147 oxide (Pr2O3) in an amount of 5 mg is mixed with nely powdered phosphor, which absorbs -radiation and transforms its energy into red or infrared radiation [916]. Yttrium The introduction of small amounts of yttrium into steel makes its structure ne-grained and improves its mechanical, electrical, and magnetic properties. If a small amount (hundredth parts of percent) is added into cast iron, its hardness will increase by a factor of two and wear resistance will increase by a factor of four. This type of cast iron approaches steel in its strength characteristics and withstands high temperatures. Yttrium increases the heat resistance of Ni-, Cr-, Fe-, and Mo-based alloys; increases the plasticity of refractory metals, such as V, Ta, and W, and the alloys based on them; and strengthens the Ti-, Cu-, Mg-, and
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24 Price, ths $/kg 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0


La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Y REM oxides REM met

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PRICES FOR RARE-EARTH METALS Figure 4 presents the ratio of prices for various REMs in the form of oxides and in the metal form existing after 2000. The balance of demand and supply in the world market of REMs was always rather unstable. After a rapid increase in demand in the 1980s by developed countries, it somewhat decreased in 19911993. In that moment, the REM market was affected, rst, by a tremendous increase in their production in China and, second, by the presence of large reserves in countries of the former Soviet Union. Demand started to exceed the supply, and excess of supplies had led to that the prices for rare-earth metals considerably decreased. In 1995, the tension with supplies of REM production appeared again as caused by a further increase in demand, which had led to certain acceleration in the rate of price rise. However, in 1996, China increased mining and prices dropped again. Until 2000, a fundamental peculiarity of the REM market mentioned above clearly manifested itself. If the producer follows the current demand of the market for a denite element, other REMs remain unclaimed, since mining of the whole set of metals is performed simultaneously. From 1990 to 2000, the total output of REMs increased from 33 to 81 ths t, or, by a factor of 2.45, 1 while the demand by the producers of the NdB magnets for oxides of neodymium and dysprosium oxides increased in this period by a factor of 910. In 2000, the demand for neodymium reached its peak, which caused an abrupt increase in its production in China in both the metal and oxide forms. Simultaneously, this led to considerable excess supplies of other rare-earth metals, which decreased their prices. In MarchApril 2000, the Chinese government, with the intent to improve the situation in the world market of REMs, took measures to limit their mining, reduce their exports, and revoke government support from a series of unprotable enterprises. This caused a decrease in the total supplies of REMs to the world market and an increase in their prices. However, a weakening of the worlds demand for telecommunication equipment and computers in the rst half of 2001 made these measures ineffective and an excess of supplies formed again [79]. The period from 2000 to 2007 was characterized by a large variety of tendencies, though namely by a gradual decrease; however, in 2007, an increase was observed in prices for the most widespread REMs, including yttrium, cerium, and most of the light elements, as well as a stable increase for dysprosium, terbium, and other heavy elements (Fig. 5 and Table 4) [10].
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Fig. 4. Approximate relation of prices for REMs in the forms of oxides and metals. Source: USGS.

Al-based alloys. A light Mg9%Y alloy, which possesses high corrosion resistance, is used for fabricating various details and units of aircrafts. Yttriumaluminum garnets (Y3Al5O12 or YAG) are synthetic crystals that are widely used as an active laser medium in solid-state lasers. To obtain laser emission with a specied wavelength, they are doped, as a rule, via the introduction of neodymium. Scandium The main by volume use of scandium are the AlSc alloys for aerospace industry and sports equipment (motorcycles, baseball bats, etc.). In alloy with aluminum, scandium provides additional strength and ductility (tensile strength at break for pure scandium is ~400 MPa, or 40 kg/mm, and for titanium 250 350 MPa). Such materials are characterized by ner grain size and increased strength and resistance to the formation of cracks on heating the welds. The use of scandium alloys in aviation and rocket production abruptly increases the reliability of exploited systems. In the Soviet Union, their alloys were rst used in parts for the MIG-29. Scandium is used for obtaining of superhard materials. For example, doping of titanium carbide by scandium makes this new alloy fourth in hardness after the diamond (~98.7120 GPa). Compositions of scandium with beryllium, which possess unique characteristics in strength and heat resistance, are of interest. Scandium beryllide possesses a favorable combination of density, strength, and a high melting point. In this respect, it exceeds the titanium-based alloys and composition materials, including a series of materials based on carbon and boron wires. In nuclear industry, scandium hydride is used as a moderator of neutrons in neutron generators [48].

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REVIEW OF THE WORLD MARKET OF RARE-EARTH METALS Price, $/kg 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 2001 2003 2004 2006 2007 2001 2003 (c) 2004 2006

25

(a)

1200 1100 1000 900 800 700 600 500 400 2007 2001 820 720 620 520 420 320 220 120 20 2001 2003 2003

(b)

2004 (d)

2006

2007

2004

2006

2007

Fig. 5. Dynamics of prices for (a) yttrium, (b) europium, (c) dysprosium, and (d) terbium for 20002007.

CONCLUSIONS In the medium-term prospects, the situation at the REM market appears favorable and it is unlikely that the shortage of raw materials will appear at such impressive production volumes in China and stored reserves in the United States. A considerable increase in prices for REMs is not expected since the goods supply can still respond to an increase in demand and an excess of supplies is characteristic of industry in general. However, market competitors admit the possibility of a certain decrease in the nearest future of production of REMs in China and, correspondingly, an increase in prices, since as the Olympic games in Peking approach, central authorities a demonstrate toughening of environmental demands in many sectors of metallurgy, depriving export licenses from plants that pollute the environment. In the long-term prospects, the situation of rareearth metals seems to be uncertain. The tremendous industrial resources of deposits now in use (they are formally sufcient for 500 years) do not guarantee protection from the appearance of problems associated with an imbalance in the supply and demand for separate REMs. It seems likely that it is precisely this fact, rather than the monopolistic position of China in the
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REM market, that causes anxiety among the producers and consumers of this production. The rare-earth metal industry of China long ago came to constitute an integral part of the worldwide chain of the production and consumption of REMs. Today, the worlds consumption of rare-earth metals is ~7075% of their total production; i.e., regular accumulation of unclaimed REMs takes place. The data for individual mines are more impressive. For example, in 2006, ofcial representatives of Balyunebo Iron Mine in province Baotou informed that since 1958, about 12.5 million tons of REM ores have been mined, of which only 1.2 million tons, i.e., about 10%, were used [1116]. It seems likely that in the long-term prospects, a time may come when it will become impossible (not remunerative) to satisfy the demand for individual REMs via an increase in the mining of ores of todays metallurgical composition. In other words, not only will the volume of deposits, but also their mineralogical variety can become in the course of time the determining factor of mining protability. In this connection, in the world REM industry, a series of projects on building of new enterprises in the sphere of both the mining and processing of raw materials is performed or prepared today. In 2005, Lynas
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26 Table 4. Average prices for REMs to the end of 2007 REM La Ce Sm Y Pr Nd Eu Gd Tb Dy Er Yb Lu Misch metal Misch metal Purity, % 99.999.99 9899.99 9699.9 99.999.99 9699.5 9699.99 9999.9 9999.99 9999.99 9599.99 9599.99 99.9 9999.99 (48% Ce) (25% La) Price, $/kg Oxide 3.94.0 3.63.7 3.153.35 8.58.7 2633 3335 330350 2225 570590 8487 50300 8295 10002500 Metal

NAUMOV

pass from small to large and very large deposits, it may be possible that in the future, the main criterion will be the mineralogical composition of the REM ores. REFERENCES
1. Zelikman, A.N., Metallurgiya redkikh metallov (Metallurgy of Rare Metals), Moscow: Metallurgiya, 1980. 2. Kogan, B.I., Redkie metally: sostoyanie i perspektivy (Rare Metals: State and Prospects), Moscow: Nauka, 1978. 3. Boyarko, G.I., Metally Evrazii, 2003, no. 4, p. 72. 4. Usova, T.Yu., Sorosovskii Obrazovat. Zhurn, 2001, no. 11, p. 79. 5. State of the World Market of Rare Earths, www.metalltorg.ru., 07.12.06. 6. Market of Rare-Earth Metals of China, Japan, and United States in 2005, www.metalltorg.ru., 20.03.06. 7. State and Prospects of the World and Domestic Market of Nonferrous, Rare, and Noble Metals, Issue 11, 2002, www.infogeo.ru. 8. US Geological Survey, www.minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/rare_earth. 9. Rare Earth ElementsCritical Resources for High Technology, USGS Fast Sheet 087-02.2002, www.minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/rare_earth. 10. www.metal-pages.com. 11. Development of Rare Earth Magnets Signicantly Rising, www.metal-pages.com, 08.09.06. 12. Scandium Outdistance Titanium, www.metal-pages.com, 04.06.06. 13. Rare Earth Action Urged, www.metal-pages.com, 06.12.06.

7.357.55 8.78.9 1213 4446 4647 5051 620640 ~100 770790 124126 250300 260320 ~8000 7.27.3 5.15.3

Corp. Ltd announced the completion of the project Mount Weld in Western Australia; Great Western Mineral Group (Canada) performs a geological survey in the framework of the project Hoidas Lake (province Saskatchewan); Rare Earth Metals (Canada) performs works at the carbonatite deposit Eden Lake; and Rare Element Resources (United States) develops the Bear Lodge deposit in Wyoming. Therefore, if the variation in the source of raw materials of REMs continues to

Spell: OK

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No. 1

2008

REVIEW OF THE WORLD MARKET OF RARE-EARTH METALS 14. Rare Earth Sons Down in Southern China, www.metalpages.com, 10.01.07. 15. Rare Earth Industry Develors Fast in Sichuan, www.metal-pages.com, 08.10.06. 16. Rare Earth Concentrate up Further, www.metalpages.com, 24.10.06.

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SPELL: 1. ths, 2. apatite

RUSSIAN JOURNAL OF NON-FERROUS METALS

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No. 1

2008

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