Forging

Dr. Dmitri Kopeliovich Forging is a compressive metal forming process, involving shaping a metal piece by hammer, press or rolls.
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Hammer forging (drop forging) is forming a preheated workpiece by using impact energy of the falling hammer forcing the metal to fill the space between the punch (a part attached to the hammer) and the forging die (a part attached to the anvil).

Press forging is forming a preheated workpiece by using a force created by a hydraulically driven ram causing the metal to be squeezed into the die cavity by the static pressure.

Press forging achieves more uniform internal structure due to transmitting deformation to the interior layers of the worpiece. This effect is particularly important when large shafts or other thick parts are forged.
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Upset forging is a forging operation which is employed for manufacturing head of bolts, valves, artillery shells and other parts where increase of cross section dimensions of the workpiece is desired. Roll forging is a forging operation involving reduction of the workpiece diameter (with increase of its length) by rolling it between two grooved rolls rotating at the same rotating direction.
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Forging structure is a result of breaking coarse cast structure and forming at first stage grain structure having fibrous character with elongated grains oriented in the direction of the forging stresses. The fibrous grain structure is then converted to the fine equiaxed grain structure (recrystallization process). Small shrinkage and gas pores are closed up in the hot forging operation, non-metallic inclusions break up and distribute more uniformly. As a result mechanical properties and homogeneity of the forged parts are improved.

Rolling
Dr. Dmitri Kopeliovich Rolling is a process of reduction of the cross-sectional area or shaping a metal piece through the deformation caused by a pair of rotating in opposite directions metal rolls. A scheme of rolling process is shown in the picture:

The gap between the rotating rolls is less than the thickness of the entering bar H0 therefore a friction force is necessary in order to bite the bar and to pull it through the rolls. A metal bar passing through the rotating rolls is squeezed, and it elongates while its cross section area decreases. The amount of deformation R achieved in a flat rolling operation (thickness reduction) is determined by the relationship: R = 100% * (H H0)/H0 A machine used for rolling metal is called rolling mill. A typical rolling mill consists of a pair of rolls driven by an electric motor transmitting a torque through a gear and pair of cardans. The rolls are equipped with bearings and mounted in a stand with a screw-down mechanism. A force applied to the rolls in vertical direction is called roll separating force. A rolling mill is characterized by the maximum values of its roll separating force and the torque. The maximum amount of deformation (thickness reduction) which may be achieved in a single rolling pass is determined by the maximum roll separating force, maximum torque, work roll diameter, friction coefficient and mechanical strength of the rolled material and its width.

Low roll diameter results in low roll contact area and consequently in low absolute value of the roll separating force and the torque required for achieving a certain thickness reduction. However such rolls are susceptible to bending and causing non-uniform widthwise strip thickness distribution (convex crown). Complex rolling mill designs employing back-up rolls are used to diminish the bending effect:

Hot rolling is a rolling operation carried out at a temperature exceeding the recrystallization temperature and permitting large amount of deformation. Cold rolling is a rolling operation carried out at room temperature. Cold rolling is commonly conducted after hot rolling when good surface quality and low thickness tolerance are needed. Cold rolling causes material strengthening and may be followed by annealing.

Extrusion
Dr. Dmitri Kopeliovich Extrusion is a metal forming process involving shaping a metal billet (hot or cold) by forcing it through a die with an opening. The two possible schemes of extrusion are presented in the picture:

The metal billet is placed to the container of the extrusion press. The die with an opening is mounted at the end of the container. When the hydraulically driven ram presses the billet, the metal starts to flow through the opening forming the extruded product of the required cross section. In the direct extrusion the extruded metal flows in the direction of the ram motion. In the indirect extrusion the metal flows in the direction opposite to the ram motion. Indirect extrusion requires a lower force than direct process as there is no friction between the billet and inside walls of the container. In the hot extrusion process the metal billet is preheated to the required temperature: 840F 930F (450C - 500C) for extrusion aluminum alloys and 1300F - 1470F (700C - 800C) for Copper alloys. The dies are manufactured from hard alloyed steels.
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Extrusion is used for manufacturing round and hexagonal rods, tubes, various profiles (mainly aluminum) and other shapes.

Drawing
Dr. Dmitri Kopeliovich Drawing is a metal forming process involving pulling a workpiece (cold or hot) through a die providing reduction of the cross section of the workpiece.

The drawing process employs a series of dies with opening of similar shape and of size which is slightly reduced in each consequent die. As the cross section decreases after passing each die, the length of workpiece increases, requiring corresponding increase of the speed. The draw force is dependent on the yield strength of the metal, reduction of the cross section area (amount of deformation), contact area of the bar with the die and the coefficient of friction. Friction and deformation in the die cause heating the workpiece (wire, tube, rod) surface and may result in sticking and breaking. Contact friction, which is about a half of the total draw force, is controlled by lubricating the bar before it enters the die. When the total amount of deformation is too large and the wire undergoes hardening as a result of the previous cold work operations, drawing is carried out in steps with annealing after each step. Dies are made of alloy steel (die steel) hard alloys and diamond (drawing steel wires).

Drawing provides good surface quality and very low dimensions tolerances. Drawing is used for production of wires (diameter down to 2m) , seamless tubing, rods and other products from brass and steel.

Deep drawing
Dr. Dmitri Kopeliovich Deep drawing is a cold metal forming process, in which a flat metal blank is forced into a die cavity by hydraulically driven punch. A cup-like cylindrical part, having the depth greater than its diameter, is formed as a result of drawing. deep The process is presented in the picture:

Typical stages of a deep drawing process are as follows:

y y y y

shearing a blank (round rectangular or other shape); clamping the blank on the die; stretching the blank by the punch forcing it into the die cavity; returning the punch and removal the part from the die;
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trimming the excess blank.

The maximum amount of deformation occurs in the cup walls, deformation of the flange is lower, bottom region undergoes no deformation. Deep drawing alloys should possess high ductility in order to withstand large amounts of deformation. The following alloys are used in deep drawing process: pure copper, some aluminum alloys and pure aluminum, 70-30 brass, cupro-nickel, mild steels. Car bodies, pans, cartridge cases, kitchen sinks, beverage cans, bullet envelopes and other cuplike parts are manufactured by deep drawing process.

Steel strip processing

Dr. Steel Coiled strips steel are strips commonly have the Dmitri manufactured thickness of (gauge) continuously up to 0.2 Kopeliovich cast (5 slabs. mm).

The strips are supplied in different conditions:

y y y y

Hot rolled Pickled Cold rolled Coated

Hot rolling Continuously cast steel slabs are processed in a hot Rolling line:
y y

y y y

Heating in a gas/oil fired reheating furnace to the temperature 2200-2280F (1200-1250C). Removing oxide scale in a scale breaker. Iron oxides form on the slab surface as a result of high temperature oxidation in the reheating furnace. Scale breaker utilizes high pressure water jets directed to the slab surface. Rough rolling in either reversing or tandem roughing rolling mill. Rough rolling mills may have either two-high or four-high configuration. The strip temperature decreases in the rough rolling operation to about 1830F (1000C). Finishing rolling in a tandem four-high rolling mill (5-7 stands). The strip dimensions (thickness, width) are strictly controlled in this operation. Cooling by water jets. The temperature is reduced to max. 1110F (600C). Coiling the finished strip. Hot rolled strips have a thin scale of iron oxides on their surface. Part of the strips is used in as-rolled condition. Other part is processed in a pickling line where the oxide scale is removed. 8

to top Pickling of steel strip Hot rolled strip is treated in a pickling line:
y y y y y y y

Uncoiling. Pickling in a solution of hydrochloric or sulfuric acid. The acid dissolutes the oxide scale from the strip surface according to the reaction: Fe2O3 + 6HCl = 2FeCl3 + 3H2O. Rinsing and passivation of the strip. At this stage the acid residuals are washed by water from the strip. Passivation film is formed on the strip surface providing corrosion protection. Drying. Edge trimming. Oiling. Recoiling.

to top Cold rolling of steel strip Cold rolled steel strips are used mainly in the Deep drawing process.

The purposes of cold rolling processing are:

y y y y

Further reduction of the strip thickness; Improvement of the surface finish; Improvement of the surface flatness; Achievement of a required level of work hardening.

Cold rolling processing includes the following stages:

y y

Cold rolling in a tandem rolling mill. The rolling mill consists of 5-7 stands having four-high configuration (two large back-up rolls and two small work rolls). Annealing at a temperature 1100-1300F (600-700C) in a controlled reducing atmosphere (commonly a mixture of Hydrogen and Nitrogen) preventing oxidation of the steel surface. Annealing results in recrystallization of the steel Grain structure and in stress relief. There are two alternatives of annealing process: continuous annealing line and batch annealing furnace. In the continuous annealing line (see the picture below) steel strip passes annealing furnace at a controlled speed. In the batch process steel strip coils are stacked on top of each other in the bell type furnace. Batch annealing allows to achieve lower hardness and higher ductility of the steel than in alternative continuous annealing. Temper rolling (skin pass rolling) - final cold rolling operation with low thickness reduction conducted in order to impart to the steel required levels of hardness, evenness and surface finish. Four-high rolling mill is used for tempering.

Most of annealed low carbon steel strips are tempered since they are too soft (HV<110) in annealed condition. Bending and deep drawing operations of soft annealed steel may cause
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formation of kinks (cross breaks) and stretcher strains, which are the result of localized stretching of the strip at low cold deformation beyond the yield point. Light tempering of annealed strip (non-kinking temper, pinch pass) produces strip surface conditions, which do not cause formation of cross breaks and stretcher strains. Hardness of pinch passed steel is about 115 HV. Other temper conditions of steel strip are: eighth hard (105<HV<125), quarter hard (115<HV<130), half hard (130<HV<160), three quarter hard (150<HV<185).

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Surface finish conditions of cold rolled steel strip:

y y y

Mirror. Superior luster mirror finish is produced by rolling between fine polished rolls. Mirror finish strips are used mainly for electroplating. Bright. Bright finish is produced by rolling between polished rolls. It is the common surface finish condition of cold rolled strip. Matt. Matt (dull) surface finish is produced by rolling between roughened rolls. Matt surface is suitable for enameling and painting. Matt finish strips are also used in deep drawing due to the ability of the rough surface to hold lubricant providing low friction between the strip and the drawing tools (punch, blank holder, die). Blued. Blued surface finish is produced by controlled heating and cooling of bright finish strip resulting in formation of thin blue oxide film on the steel surface.

Strip edges conditions:

y y y y

Natural mill edges, which are result of cold rolling without any edge cutting operation. Natural mill edges may have micro-cracks due to non-uniform work hardening. Slit edges (shared edges), which are produced by rotary slitter. Slit edges are square with slight sharp burr. Dressed edges - slit edges, from which burr has been removed. Rolled edges, which are formed by edge rolling.

to top Steel strip coating The most popular techniques of continuous steel strip coating are hot dip galvanizing and Electroplating. Hot dip galvanizing process
y y

Uncoiling. Cleaning. This operation commonly combines alkaline cleaning (degreasing) and mechanical cleaning by rotating cylindrical brushes. Oil and other contaminants are removed from the steel surface. Pickling. Degreased and rinsed strip enters a pickling bath where oxides and rust are dissolved by hydrochloric acid and removed according to the reactions:

Iron oxide reaction: Fe2O3 + 6HCl Rust reaction: Fe2O3*nH2O + 6HCl = 2FeCl3 + (n+3)H2O
y y y y

2FeCl3

3H2O

Zinc coating (hot galvanizing). Clean strip passes through a bath with molten zinc (Zn). Wiping excessive zinc by air knives. Cooling. The coated strip is cooled by air and water. Levelling. Leveller produces smooth and flat strip surface. 12

Recoiling.

Continuous electroplating process

y y

Uncoiling. Cleaning. This operation commonly combines alkaline cleaning (degreasing) and mechanical cleaning by rotating cylindrical brushes. Oil and other contaminants are removed from the steel surface. Pickling. Degreased and rinsed strip enters a pickling bath where oxides and rust are dissolved by hydrochloric acid and removed according to the reactions:

Iron oxide reaction: Fe2O3 + 6HCl Rust reaction: Fe2O3*nH2O + 6HCl = 2FeCl3 + (n+3)H2O
y

2FeCl3

3H2O

Electroplating. Clean strip passes through a series of vertical electroplating baths. The strip is connected to the DC power supply as a cathode (negative). The positively connected anodes are arranged in parallel to the strip opposite to its surface. The bath is filled with an electrolytic solution. Electrolyte and anodes compositions are determined by the the deposited material and the electroplating method (Tin alloy electroplating, Decorative chromium electroplating|chromium electroplating, zinc electroplating). Recoiling.

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Plastic deformation
Dr. Dmitri Kopeliovich Plastic deformation is a change of the material dimensions remaining after removal of the load caused the deformation. Plastic deformations in metals occurs by slip mechanism, illustrated in the picture:
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When the yield stress is achieved one plane of atoms in crystal lattice glides over another. Few parallel slip planes form a block, neighboring with another block. Thus movement of the crystal planes is resulted in a series of steps, forming slip bands black lines viewed under optical microscope. Slip occurs when the share resolved stress along the gliding planes reaches a critical value. This critical resolved shear stress is a characteristic of the material. Certain metals (Zn and Sn) deform by a process of twinning, differing from the normal slip mechanism, where all atoms in a block move the same distance. In the deformation by twinning atoms of each slip plane in a block move different distance, causing half of the crystal lattice to become a mirror image of another half. In polycrystalline material directions of slips are different in different crystals. If a grain is oriented unfavorably to the stress direction its deformation is impeded. In addition to this grain boundaries are obstacles for the slip movement as the slip direction should be changed when it crosses the boundary. As a result of the above strength of polycrystalline materials is higher, than that of mono-crystals. Slip and twinning processes, occurring during plastic deformation result in formation of preferred orientation of the grains. If the stress value required for a slip is higher than cohesion strength, metal fracture occurs.

Phase transformations and phase diagrams

Dr. Dmitri Kopeliovich

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In contrast to pure metals, which solidify at a constant temperature - freezing point, alloys solidify over a range of temperature, depending on the alloy components and their concentrations. In course of solidification and subsequent cooling of solid alloy processes of phase transformations take place. The phases compositions and their quantities change with the temperature. Phase diagrams are used for quantitative description of the phase transformation and changes. Phase diagram of an alloy system is a graphical presentation of the relationships between the phases compositions and their relative amounts at any given temperature and under equilibrium conditions. Despite the fact, that in real metallurgical processes, especially in the processes, occurring in solid state, the equilibrium conditions are not reached, phase diagram is a very useful instrument of analysis and quantitative evaluations of the alloy behavior. Phase diagram of an alloy system consisting of two components is called binary phase diagram. There are three main types of binary phase diagrams :
y y y

Complete solid and liquid solution diagram, Eutectic diagram (including Eutectic diagram with partial solubility of the components in solid state and Eutectic diagram with intermetallic compound) Peritectic diagram.

These three diagrams and combinations of them describe behavior of most of binary alloys. Complete solid and liquid solution diagram The typical diagram of this type is illustrated by the figure below. The diagram has two curves liquidus (equilibrium conditions of liquid phase with first solid crystals primary crystals) and solidus (equilibrium conditions of last liquid with nearly complete solid).

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Consider solidification of an alloy with concentration C. When the alloy temperature is higher than TL , single liquid phase exists (point M on the diagram). When the temperature reaches the value TL (point M1 on the liquidus curve) solidification starts. According to solidus curve (point N1 )the first solid crystals have different composition C1. Further cooling of the alloy causes changing of the liquid phase composition according to the liquidus curve and when the alloy temperature reaches a certain intermediate value T (position MT ), liquid phase of composition Cy and solid phase of composition Cx are in equilibrium. Relative amounts of the two phases are determined by their compositions and may be calculated by the lever rule : WS / WL = MTY / MTX or WS / WL = (CY-C) / (C-CX) Where: WS weight of the solid phase;
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WL weight of the liquid phase; MTY and MTX length of the corresponding lines in the diagram. Solidification ends at the temperature TS and the last remainders of liquid phase have the composition C2 (according to the point F2 on the liquidus curve). to top Eutectic diagram Eutectic phase diagram describes behavior of the alloys, two components of which are completely soluble in liquid state and entirely insoluble in solid state. This diagram has two liquidus curves, starting from the freezing points of the two metals and intersecting in a minimum point eutectic point.

Consider solidification of an alloy with concentration C. When the alloy temperature is higher than TL , single liquid phase exists (point M on the diagram).
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When the temperature reaches the value TL (point M1 on the liquidus curve) solidification starts. The primary crystals, forming in this case are the crystals of the metal A. Further cooling of the alloy causes enrichment of the liquid phase with the metal B according to the liquidus curve and when the alloy temperature reaches a certain intermediate value T (position MT ), liquid phase of composition Cy and solid phase, consisting of A crystals, are in equilibrium. At the temperature equal to TE (eutectic temperature) formation of the primary crystals stops and the remainding liquid phase , having composition CE (eutectic composition), transforms to an intimate mixture of small A and B solid crystals. This is the eutectic phase transformation. Relative amounts of the primary crystals and the eutectic mixture may be calculated by the lever rule : WP / WE = (CE-C) / C Where: WP weight of the primary crystals; WE weight of the eutectic mixture. to top Eutectic diagram with partial solubility of the components in solid state This kind of phase diagram is a hybrid ofthe diagram with complete solid and liquid solution and the eutectic diagram (the metals are completely soluble in liquid state and entirely insoluble in solid state).

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Consider solidification of an alloy with concentration C. When the alloy temperature is higher than TL, single liquid phase exists (point M on the diagram). When the temperature reaches the value TL (point M1 on the liquidus curve) solidification starts. According to solidus curve the first solid crystals (primary crystals) of the -phase have composition C1. Further cooling of the alloy causes changing of the liquid phase composition according to the liquidus curve and when the alloy temperature reaches a certain intermediate value T (position MT ), liquid phase of composition Cy and solid -phase of composition Cx are in equilibrium. At the temperature equal to TE (eutectic temperature) formation of the primary crystals stops and the remainding liquid phase , having composition CE (eutectic composition), transforms to a finely devided mixture of small solid crystals of -phase and -phase (eutectic phase transformation). At this temperature all -phase crystals have composition C and all crystals of -phase have composition C .

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Relative amounts of the -phase primary crystals and the eutectic mixture may be calculated by the lever rule : WP / WE = M2E / M2N or WP / WE = (CE-C) / (C- C ) Where: WP weight of the -phase primary crystals; WE weight of the eutectic mixture; Just below the eutectic temperature TE the alloy consists of two solid phase: -phase and phase, relative amounts of whichis determined by the lever rule : W / W = M2F / M2N or W / W = (C -C) / (C- C ) Where: W weight of the -phase; W weight of the -phase; During further cooling solid solution phases ( -phase and -phase) change their compositions according to the solvus curves NN3 and FF3 . Solvus curve determins formation of solid solution phase from another solid solution phase similar to liquidus curve. At the temperature T3 -phase crystals have composition C and all crystals of -phase have composition C . Hypo-eutectic alloys If an alloy composition C is lower, than eutectic composition CE , solidification of the alloy starts from formation of the primary crystals of -phase according to the left branch of the liquidus curve. These alloys are called hypo-eutectic. Hyper-eutectic alloys
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If an alloy composition C is higher, than eutectic composition CE , solidification of the alloy starts from formation of the primary crystals of -phase according to the right branch of the liquidus curve. These alloys are called hyper-eutectic. Eutectoid phase transformation is analogous to the eutectic transformation, however it occurs with a solid solution phase, breaking up into a mixture of two finely divided phases of different compositions. to top Eutectic diagram with intermetallic compound Intermetallic compound (valence compound) is a phase, having chemical composition equal to a fixed simple ratio, like CuZn,Cu3Sn, Mg2Pb, etc. Sometimes intermetallic compounds exist over a range of composition, differing from the valence law. Intermetallic compounds of this sort are called electron compounds or intermediate solutions. An example of a phase diagram with intermetallic compound AB2 is shown in the figure below.

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This diagram may be considered as a combination two different diagrams: A- AB2 and AB2-B. to top Peritectic diagram Sometimes a solid solution phase, which has already been formed, andthe residual liquid phase react and form another solid solution phase or intermetallic compound, having a composition between the compositions of the liquid and the first solid. This is peritectic transformation (peritectic reaction). An example of a phase diagram with peritectic transformation is shown in the figure:

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Consider solidification of an alloy with concentration C. When the alloy temperature is higher than TL , single liquid phase exists (point M on the diagram). When the temperature reaches the value TL (point M1 on the liquidus curve) solidification starts. According to solidus curve (point N1 )the first solid crystals (primary crystals) of the -phase have composition C1. Further cooling of the alloy causes changing of the liquid phase composition according to the liquidus curve and when the alloy temperature reaches a certain intermediate value T (position MT ), liquid phase of composition Cy and solid -phase of composition Cx are in equilibrium. At the temperature equal to TP (peritectic temperature) formation of the -phase crystals stops and the remainding liquid phase , having composition CL reacts with -phase crystals , forming -phase of composition CP (peritectic phase transformation). At this temperature remaining -phase crystals have composition C and all crystals of -phase have composition CP (peritectic composition). Relative amounts of the -phase crystals and the liquid phase just above the peritectic transformation may be calculated by the lever rule :
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W / WL = (CL-C) / (C- C ) Where: W weight of the -phase crystals; WL weight of the liquid phase; Just below the peritectic temperature TP the alloy consists of two solid phase: -phase and phase, relative amounts of whichis determined by the lever rule : W / W = (CP-C) / (C- C ) Where: W weight of the -phase; W weight of the -phase; During further cooling solid solution phases ( -phase and -phase) change their compositions according to the corresponding solvus curves. At the temperature T3 -phase crystals have composition C and all crystals of -phase have composition C . If the alloy composition is exactly equal to peritectic composition CP , -phase and liquid phase are consumed comletely in the peritectic reaction. Alloys with composition C lower than CP , some quantity of -phase remains after the peritectic reaction (it may be calculated by the lever rule). If the alloy composition C is higher than CP , some liquid phase remains after the peritectic reaction. This remaining liquid transforms to -phase during the further cooling.

Imperfections of crystal structure

Dr. Dmitri Kopeliovich There are three conventional types of crystal imperfections: Point defects The simplest point defects are as follows:
y

Vacancy missing atom at a certain crystal lattice position; 25

y y y y

Interstitial impurity atom extra impurity atom in an interstitial position; Self-interstitial atom extra atom in an interstitial position; Substitution impurity atom impurity atom, substituting an atom in crystal lattice; Frenkel defect extra self-interstitial atom, responsible for the vacancy nearby.

Line defects Linear crystal defects are edge and screw dislocations.
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Edge dislocation is an extra half plane of atoms inserted into the crystal lattice. Due to the edge dislocations metals possess high plasticity characteristics: ductility and malleability.

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Screw dislocation forms when one part of crystal lattice is shifted (through shear) relative to the other crystal part. It is called screw as atomic planes form a spiral surface around the dislocation line.

For quantitative characterization of a difference between a crystal distorted by a dislocation and the perfect crystal the Burgers vector is used. The dislocation density is a total length of dislocations in a unit crystal volume. The dislocation density of annealed metals is about 1010 - 1012 m. After work hardening the dislocation density increases up to 1015 - 1016 m-. Further increase of dislocation density causes crackes formation and fracture. Planar defects Planar defect is an imperfection in form of a plane between uniform parts of the material. The most important planar defect is a grain boundary. Formation of a boundary between two grains may be imagined as a result of rotation of crystal lattice of one of them about a specific axis. Depending on the rotation axis direction, two ideal types of a grain boundary are possible:
y y y

Tilt boundary rotation axis is parallel to the boundary plane; Twist boundary - rotation axis is perpendicular to the boundary plane: An actual boundary is a mixture of these two ideal types.

Grain boundaries are called large-angle boundaries if misorientation of two neighboring grains exceeds 10-15. Grain boundaries are called small-angle boundaries if misorientation of two neighboring grains is 5 or less.

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Grains, divided by small-angle boundaries are also called subgrains. Grain boundaries accumulate crystal lattice defects (vacancies, dislocations) and other imperfections, therefore they effect on the metallurgical processes, occurring in alloys and their properties. Since the mechanism of metal deformation is a motion of crystal dislocations through the lattice, grain boundaries, enriched with dislocations, play an important role in the deformation process. Diffusion along grain boundaries is much faster, than throughout the grains. Segregation of impurities in form of precipitating phases in the boundary regions causes a form of corrosion, associated with chemical attack of grain boundaries. This corrosion is called Intergranular corrosion.

Shot peening
Dr. Dmitri Kopeliovich

Shot peening is a cold work process, in which the metal part is struck by a stream of small hard spheres (shot) creating numerous overlapped dimples on the part surface. The surface material resists to stretching induced by the shots impacts resulting in a formation of a compression stressed skin of about 0.01 (0.25 mm) thickness. Glass, steel or ceramic balls of a diameter from the range 0.007-0.14 (0.18-0.36 mm) are used as shot media. The residual compression stresses inhibits both crack initiation and propagation. Therefore shot peening is used mainly for increasing fatigue strength.
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Dimples formed on a part surface as a result of shot peening may serve as lubricant pockets, which provide continuous lubrication of the part preventing galling. Steels, nodular (ductile) cast irons, Aluminum alloys, Nickel alloys and Titanium alloys may be treated by shot peening. The properties, which may be increased by shot peening:
y y y y y y

fatigue strength Stress corrosion cracking Corrosion fatigue Resistance to Intergranular corrosion Galling resistance Wear resistance.

The components, which are normally shot peened: springs, wheels, turbine parts (blades, shafts), marine propellers, aircraft wings, internal combustion engine parts (valves, gears, crankshafts, connecting rods, pistons, cylinder heads). Shot peening may increase the components life by 500-1000%.

Laser peening
Dr. Dmitri Kopeliovich

Laser peening is a cold work process, in which the metal part is struck by a high energy pulsed laser beam producing high amplitude stress waves. The surface material resists to stretching induced by the stress waves resulting in a formation of a compression stressed skin.

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A typical laser system used for laser peening has the following parameters:
y y y y

Laser wavelength is about 0.04 inch (1 m). Pulse duration 10-50 nanoseconds. Pulse energy 50-100 joules. Beam diameter 0.2 (5 mm).

Prior to laser peening the material surface is plated with an opaque layer of black paint, metal foil or tape. The black layer is then covered with a transparent overlay (commonly flowing water). The material of the black layer has low heat of vaporization. When the laser strikes the workpiece surface the pulses energy is absorbed by the opaque material, which heats up, vaporizes and forms a high temperature plasma. The plasma gas is trapped between the workpiece surface and the transparent water layer limiting the thermal expansion of the gas. As a result the gas pressure increases to extremely high value. The high pressure is transmitted to the workpiece material producing a shock wave, which travels through the part material and generates compression stress. Effect of laser peening is cold work (not heating nor melting). The purpose of water is to confine the high pressure plasma gas (not cooling the workpiece surface). The depth of the residual compression stress layer produced by laser peening is over 0.04 (1 mm), which is 4-5 times deeper than the compressed zone produced by Shot peening. The residual compression stresses inhibits both crack initiation and propagation. Therefore laser peening is used mainly for increasing fatigue strength. Due to deeper penetration of the compression stress zone laser peening provides higher effect on surface related properties as compared to shot peening. Steels, nodular (ductile) cast irons, sintered iron alloys, Aluminum alloys, Nickel alloys and Titanium alloys may be treated by laser peening. The properties, which may be increased by laser peening:
y y y y

fatigue strength Stress corrosion cracking Corrosion fatigue Resistance to Intergranular corrosion

The components, which are normally laser peened: aircraft gas turbine engine fan blades, airframe structures, helicopter transmission gears, jet engine rotors, disks, gears and shafts, oil tools (drill collars, bits, mud pumps).

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Tensile test and Stress-Strain Diagram

Dr. Dmitri Kopeliovich

Stress-Strain Diagram expresses a relationship between a load applied to a material and the deformation of the material, caused by the load . Stress-Strain Diagram is determined by tensile test. Tensile tests are conducted in tensile test machines, providing controlled uniformly increasing tension force, applied to the specimen. The specimens ends are gripped and fixed in the machine and its gauge length L0 (a calibrated distance between two marks on the specimen surface) is continuously measured until the rupture. Test specimen may be round or flat in the cross-section. In the round specimens it is accepted, that L0 = 5 * diameter. The specimen deformation (strain) is the ratio of the increase of the specimen gauge length to its original gauge length: = (L L0) / L0 Tensile stress is the ratio of the tensile load F applied to the specimen to its original crosssectional area S0: = F / S0

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The initial straight line (0P)of the curve characterizes proportional relationship between the stress and the deformation (strain). The stress value at the point P is called the limit of proportionality:
p=

F P / S0

This behavior conforms to the Hooks Law: = E* Where E is a constant, known as Youngs Modulus or Modulus of Elasticity. The value of Youngs Modulus is determined mainly by the nature of the material and is nearly insensitive to the heat treatment and composition. Modulus of elasticity determines stiffness - resistance of a body to elastic deformation caused by an applied force. The line 0E in the Stress-Strain curve indicates the range of elastic deformation removal of the load at any point of this part of the curve results in return of the specimen length to its original value. The elastic behavior is characterized by the elasticity limit (stress value at the point E):
el=

FE / S0
el= p.

For the most materials the points P and E coincide and therefore

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A point where the stress causes sudden deformation without any increase in the force is called yield limit (yield stress, yield strength):
y=

FY / S0

The highest stress (point YU) , occurring before the sudden deformation is called upper yield limit . The lower stress value, causing the sudden deformation (point YL) is called lower yield limit. The commonly used parameter of yield limit is actually lower yield limit. If the load reaches the yield point the specimen undergoes plastic deformation it does not return to its original length after removal of the load.

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Hard steels and non-ferrous metals do not have defined yield limit, therefore a stress, corresponding to a definite deformation (0.1% or 0.2%) is commonly used instead of yield limit. This stress is called proof stress or offset yield limit (offset yield strength):
0.2% =

F0.2% / S0

The method of obtaining the proof stress is shown in the picture. As the load increase, the specimen continues to undergo plastic deformation and at a certain stress value its cross-section decreases due to necking (point S in the Stress-Strain Diagram). At this point the stress reaches the maximum value, which is called ultimate tensile strength (tensile strength):
t=

FS / S0

Continuation of the deformation results in breaking the specimen - the point B in the diagram. The actual Stress-Strain curve is obtained by taking into account the true specimen cross-section instead of the original value.

34

Other important characteristic of metals is ductility - ability of a material to deform under tension without rupture. Two ductility parameters may be obtain from the tensile test: Relative elongation - ratio between the increase of the specimen length before its rupture and its original length: = (Lm L0) / L0 Where Lm maximum specimen length. Relative reduction of area - ratio between the decrease of the specimen cross-section area before its rupture and its original cross-section area: = (S0 Smin) / S0 Where Smin minimum specimen cross-section area.

Hardness test methods

Dr. Dmitri Kopeliovich Hardness is resistance of material to plastic deformation caused by indentation. Sometimes hardness refers to resistance of material to scratching or abrasion. In some cases relatively quick and simple hardness test may substitute tensile test. Hardness may be measured from a small sample of material without destroying it. There are hardness methods, allowing to measure hardness onsite. Principle of any hardness test method is forcing an indenter into the sample surface followed by measuring dimensions of the indentation (depth or actual surface area of the indentation). Hardness is not fundamental property and its value depends on the combination of yield strength, tensile strength and modulus of elasticity. Benefits of hardness test:
y y y y

Easy Inexpensive Quick Non-destructive 35

y y

May be applied to the samples of various dimensions and shapes May be performed in-situ

Depending on the loading force value and the indentation dimensions, hardness is defined as a macro- , micro- or nano-hardness. Macro-hardness tests (Rockwell, Brinell, Vickers) are the most widely used methods for rapid routine hardness measurements. The indenting forces in macro-hardness tests are in the range of 50N to 30000N. Micro-hardness tests (micro-Vickers, Knoop) is applicable when hardness of coatings, surface hardness, or hardness of different phases in the multi-phase material is measured. Small diamond pyramid is used as indenter loaded with a small force of 10 to 1000gf. Nano-hardness test uses minor loads of about 1 nano-Newton followed by precise measuring depth of indentation.
y y y y y y

Brinell Hardness Test Rockwell Hardness Test Rockwell Superficial Hardness Test Vickers Hardness Test Knoop Hardness Test Shore Scleroscope Hardness Test

Brinell Hardness Test

In this test a hardened steel ball of 2.5, 5 or 10 mm in diameter is used as indenter.

36

The loading force is in the range of 300N to 30000N (300N for testing lead alloys, 5000N for testing aluminum alloys, 10000N for copper alloys, 30000N for testing steels). The Brinell Hardness Number (HB) is calculated by the formula: HB = 2F/ (3.14D*(D-(D - Di))) Where F- applied load, kg D indenter diameter, mm Di indentation diameter, mm. In order to eliminate an influence of the specimen supporting base, the specimen should be seven times (as minimum) thicker than indentation depth for hard alloys and fifteen times thicker than indentation depth for soft alloys. Rockwell Hardness Test

37

In the Rockwell test the depth of the indenter penetration into the specimen surface is measured. The indenter may be either a hardened steel ball with diameter 1/16, 1/8 or a spherical diamond cone of 120 angle (Brale). Loading procedure starts from applying a minor load of 10 kgf (3kgf in Rockwell Superficial Test) and then the indicator, measuring the penetration depth, is set to zero. After that the major load (60, 100 or 150 kgf)is applied. The penetration depth is measured after removal of the major load. Hardness is measured in different scales (A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, K) and in numbers, having no units (in contrast to Brinell and Vickers methods).

38

Aluminum alloys, copper alloys and soft steels are tested with 1/16 diameter steel ball at 100 kgf load (Rockwell hardness scale B). Harder alloys and hard cast iron are tested with the diamond cone at 150 kgf (Rockwell hardness scale C). An example of Rockwell test result: 53 HRC. It means 53 units, measured in the scale C by the method HR (Hardness Rockwell). Rockwell Superficial Hardness Test Rockwell Superficial Test is applied for thin strips, coatings, carburized surfaces. Reduced loads (15 kgf, 30 kgf, and 30 kgf) as a major load and deduced preload (3kgf) are used in the superficial test. Depending on the indenter, two scales of Rockwell Superficial method may be used: T (1/16 steel ball) or N (diamond cone). 62 R30T means 62 units, measured in the scale 30T (30 kgf, 1/16 steel ball indenter) by the Rockwell Superficial method (R).

Vickers Hardness Test The principle of the Vickers Hardness method is similar to the Brinell method. The Vickers indenter is a 136 degrees square-based diamond pyramid.
39

The impression, produced by the Vickers indenter is clearer, than the impression of Brinell indenter, therefore this method is more accurate. The load, varying from 1kgf to 120 kgf, is usually applied The Vickers number (HV) is calculated by the formula: HV = 1.854*F/ D Where F-applied load, kg D length of the impression diagonal, mm The length of the impression diagonal is measured by means of a microscope, which is usually an integral part of the Vickers Tester. for 30 seconds.

Knoop Hardness Test

40

A diamond pyramid indenter with angles 130 and 17030 is used in this method. The Knoop Hardness Test is applied for testing soft material and thin coating, since the penetration depth is very small (about 1/30 of the impression length). The loading force in the Knoop method are usually in the range of 10 gf to 1000gf (microhardness range). The Knoop number (HK) is calculated by the formula: HK = 14.229*F/L Where F-applied load, kg L long diagonal of the impression, mm Shore Scleroscope Hardness Test The Shore Scleroscope hardness is associated with the elasticity of the material.

41

The appliance consists of a diamond-tipped hammer, falling in a graduated glass tube from a definite height. The tube is divided into 140 equal parts. The height of the first rebound is the hardness index of the material. The harder the material, the higher the rebound. The Shore method is widely used for measuring hardness of large machine components like rolls, gears, dies, etc. The Shore scleroscope is not only small and mobile, it also leaves no impressions on the tested surface.

Fracture Toughness
Dr. Dmitri Kopeliovich Fracture is a process of breaking a solid into pieces as a result of stress. There are two principal stages of the fracture process:
y y

Crack formation Crack propagation

Ductile fracture Ductile materials undergo observable plastic deformation and absorb significant energy before fracture. A crack, formed as a result of the ductile fracture, propagates slowly and when the stress is increased. Plastic deformation of a multi-phase material causes formation and coalescence of voids on the phase and inclusions boundaries. These voids are responsible for the specific appearance of the ductile fracture surface, consisting of numerous spherical micro-cavities (dimples), initiating formation of the crack. Tensile specimen fractured by the ductile mechanism is characterized by the cap and cone appearance of the fracture. Single-phase alloys and pure metals are more ductile, than metals, containing second phases or inclusions. Brittle fracture
42

Brittle fracture is characterized by very low plastic deformation and low energy absorption prior to breaking. A crack, formed as a result of the brittle fracture, propagates fast and without increase of the stress applied to the material. The brittle crack is perpendicular to the stress direction. There are two possible mechanisms of the brittle fracture: transcrystalline (transgranular, cleavage) or intercrystalline (intergranular). Cleavage cracks pass along crystallographic planes through the grains. Intercrystalline fracture occurs through the grain boundaries, embrittled by segregated impurities, second phase inclusions and other defects. The brittle fractures usually possess bright granular appearance. Toughness Toughness is ability of material to resist fracture.

43

The general factors, affecting the toughness of a material are: temperature, strain rate, relationship between the strength and ductility of the material and presence of stress concentration (notch) on the specimen surface. Fracture toughness is indicated by the area below the curve on strain-stress diagram (see the figure):

As seen from the diagram toughness of the ductile materials is higher than toughness of brittle materials. Stress-intensity Factor (K) is a quantitative parameter of fracture toughness determining a maximum value of stress which may be applied to a specimen containing a crack (notch) of a certain length. Depending on the direction of the specimen loading and the specimen thickness, four types of stress-intensity factors are used: KC, KIC KIIC KIIIC. KC stress-intensity factor of a specimen, thickness of which is less than a critical value. KC depends on the specimen thickness. This condition is called plane stress.

44

KIC,KIIC, KIIIC stress-intensity factors, relating to the specimens, thickness of which is above the critical value therefore the values of KIC KIIC KIIIC do not depend on the specimen thickness. This condition is called plane strain. KIIC and KIIIC stress-intensity factors relating to the fracture modes in which the loading direction is parallel to the crack plane. These factors are rarely used for metals and are not used for ceramics; KIC plane strain stress-intensity factor relating to the fracture modes in which the loading direction is normal to the crack plane. This factor is widely used for both metallic and ceramic materials. KIC is used for estimation critical stress applied to a specimen with a given crack length:
C

KIC /(Y( a))

Where KIC stress-intensity factor, measured in MPa*m;

C

the critical stress applied to the specimen;

a the crack length for edge crack or half crack length for internal crack; Y geometry factor. Impact test

45

Impact test is used for measuring toughness of materials and their capacity of resisting shock. In this test the pendulum is swing up to its starting position (height H ) and then it is allowed to strike the notched specimen, fixed in a vice. The pendulum fractures the specimen, spending a part of its energy. After the fracture the pendulum swings up to a height H. The impact toughness of the specimen is calculated by the formula: a = A/ S Where a-impact toughness, A the work, required for breaking the specimen ( A = M*g*H0M*g*H), M - the pendulum mass, S - cross-section area of the specimen at the notch. One of the most popular impact tests is the Charpy Test, schematically presented in the figure below:

46

The hammer striking energy in the Charpy test is 220 ft*lbf (300 J).

Fatigue
Dr. Dmitri Kopeliovich Fatigue is a type of failure of a material, occurring under alternating loads. Most of the failures of machine details are caused by fatigue. Fatigue life is the number of cycling stresses, causing failure of the material. Frequency of these stresses is not important. Fatigue limit is the maximum value of repeatedly applied stress that the material can withstand after an infinite number of cycles (10-20 mln. Cycles in practice).

47

Fatigue strength at N cycles is the load, producing the material fracture after N cycling applications of the load. Fatigue limit of a material is much lower, than its ultimate tensile strength. Fatigue tests are carried out in the Whler-type machine, schematically shown in the picture. The rotating specimen in form of a cantilever is driven by an electric motor. The specimen is loaded by the force F, applied to the ball bearing, mounted on the end of the specimen. Since the force direction does not change, the direction of the stress applied to the specimen will be reversed each 180 of the shaft rotation. This scheme provides cycling loading of the specimen, presented in the equivalent scheme. To find the fatigue limit the fatigue test is repeated at different loads.

48

The tests results are presented in form of S-N curve (stress vs. number of cycles): Fatigue fracture is characterized by presence of two different types of the surface: One part is smooth and discolored with ripple-like marks, indicating slow crack growth from the center of the crack formation. Another part of the surface has coarse crystalline appearance resulted from the final catastrophic crack propagation. The following factors affect fatigue fracture:
y

Surface factor

Fatigue cracks form and initiate on the specimen surface therefore hardened and smooth surface (without stress concentrations - notch, flaw) will increase the fatigue limit.
y

Compressive stress

Compressive stresses, produced in the specimen surface by Shot peening, cold work or heat treatment result in considerable increase of fatigue limit.
y

Micro-structure defects

Non-metallic inclusions and other micro-defects may initiate formation of fatigue cracks.
y

Environmental factor

Fatigue in the presence of corrosive environment (Corrosion fatigue) occurs at lower cycling stresses and after lower number of cycles.

Creep
49

Dr.

Dmitri

Kopeliovich

Creep is a phenomenon of slow plastic deformation (elongation) of a metal at high temperature under a constant load. The creep mechanism: At low stresses the creep is controlled by the diffusion of atoms through the grain boundaries. At higher stresses the creep strain proceeds due to the dislocations movement. The rate of creep is a function of the material, the applied stress value, the temperature, and the time exposure. Considerable creep deformation, causing damage of machines and structures occur at high temperatures (about a half of the melting point measured in the absolute temperature scale). Therefore this phenomenon is taken into account in design and operation of heat exchangers, steam boilers and pipes, jet engines and other loaded equipment, working at high temperatures. Soft metals (lead, tin) may experience creep at room temperature. A typical creep behavior is presented in the diagram:

The initial strain is not time dependent and it is caused mainly by elastic deformation.

50

The first stage creep is characterized by relatively fast plastic deformation occurring at decreasing rate. During this stage resistance creep increases causing decrease the deformation rate. The second stage creep occurs at a constant and relatively low deformation rate. This rate is used in the engineering design. The rate of creep at the second stage depends on both the load (stress) and the temperature. The third stage creep is associated with accelerated strain rate caused by decrease of the cross sectional area of the specimen (necking). This stage is finalized by the specimen fracture. At room temperature creep is negligible at any stress below the yield point. The quantity, which is used in precise design of machines and structures working at elevated temperatures, is creep strength. Creep strength is a stress which causes a definite creep strain after a specified period of time at a given temperature. Creep strength of a material is much lower, than its tensile strength. If a large amount of deformation is tolerated rupture strength is used in design. Rupture strength is a stress which causes a fracture of a metal after a specified period of time at a given temperature. Creep strength and rupture strength are determined in stress-rupture tests conducted in [Tensile test and Stress-Strain Diagram|tensile test]] machines equipped with a furnace providing uniform heating of the tested specimens. This machine records amount of strain at every moment after the test has started and until the specimen failure.

51

Iron-carbon phase diagram

Dr. Dmitri Kopeliovich Iron-carbon phase diagram describes the iron-carbon system of alloys containing up to 6.67% of carbon, discloses the phases compositions and their transformations occurring with the alloys during their cooling or heating. Carbon content 6.67% corresponds to the fixed composition of the iron carbide Fe3C. The diagram is presented in the picture:

52

The following phases are involved in the transformation, occurring with iron-carbon alloys:
y y

L - Liquid solution of carbon in iron; -ferrite Solid solution of carbon in iron.

Maximum concentration of carbon in -ferrite is 0.09% at 2719 F (1493C) temperature of the peritectic transformation. The crystal structure of -ferrite is BCC (cubic body centered).
y

Austenite interstitial solid solution of carbon in -iron.

Austenite has FCC (cubic face centered) crystal structure, permitting high solubility of carbon up to 2.06% at 2097 F (1147 C).

53

Austenite does not exist below 1333 F (723C) and maximum carbon concentration at this temperature is 0.83%.
y

-ferrite solid solution of carbon in -iron.

-ferrite has BCC crystal structure and low solubility of carbon up to 0.025% at 1333 F (723C). -ferrite exists at room temperature.
y

Cementite iron carbide, intermetallic compound, having fixed composition Fe3C.

Cementite is a hard and brittle substance, influencing on the properties of steels and cast irons. The following phase transformations occur with iron-carbon alloys: Alloys, containing up to 0.51% of carbon, start solidification with formation of crystals of ferrite. Carbon content in -ferrite increases up to 0.09% in course solidification, and at 2719 F (1493C) remaining liquid phase and -ferrite perform peritectic transformation, resulting in formation of austenite. Alloys, containing carbon more than 0.51%, but less than 2.06%, form primary austenite crystals in the beginning of solidification and when the temperature reaches the curve ACM primary cementite stars to form. Iron-carbon alloys, containing up to 2.06% of carbon, are called steels. Alloys, containing from 2.06 to 6.67% of carbon, experience eutectic transformation at 2097 F (1147 C). The eutectic concentration of carbon is 4.3%. In practice only hypoeutectic alloys are used. These alloys (carbon content from 2.06% to 4.3%) are called cast irons. When temperature of an alloy from this range reaches 2097 F (1147 C), it contains primary austenite crystals and some amount of the liquid phase. The latter decomposes by eutectic mechanism to a fine mixture of austenite and cementite, called ledeburite. All iron-carbon alloys (steels and cast irons) experience eutectoid transformation at 1333 F (723C). The eutectoid concentration of carbon is 0.83%. When the temperature of an alloy reaches 1333 F (733C), austenite transforms to pearlite (fine ferrite-cementite structure, forming as a result of decomposition of austenite at slow cooling conditions). Critical temperatures
y

Upper critical temperature (point) A3 is the temperature, below which ferrite starts to form as a result of ejection from austenite in the hypoeutectoid alloys.
54

Upper critical temperature (point) ACM is the temperature, below which cementite starts to form as a result of ejection from austenite in the hypereutectoid alloys. Lower critical temperature (point) A1 is the temperature of the austenite-to-pearlite eutectoid transformation. Below this temperature austenite does not exist. Magnetic transformation temperature A2 is the temperature below which -ferrite is ferromagnetic.

Phase compositions of the iron-carbon alloys at room temperature

y

Hypoeutectoid steels (carbon content from 0 to 0.83%) consist of primary (proeutectoid) ferrite (according to the curve A3) and pearlite. Eutectoid steel (carbon content 0.83%) entirely consists of pearlite. Hypereutectoid steels (carbon content from 0.83 to 2.06%) consist of primary (proeutectoid)cementite (according to the curve ACM) and pearlite. Cast irons (carbon content from 2.06% to 4.3%) consist of proeutectoid cementite C2 ejected from austenite according to the curve ACM , pearlite and transformed ledeburite (ledeburite in which austenite transformed to pearlite).

y y

Effect of alloying elements on steel properties

Dr. Dmitri Kopeliovich Alloying is changing chemical composition of steel by adding elements with purpose to improve its properties as compared to the plane carbon steel. The properties, which may be improved
y

Stabilizing austenite increasing the temperature range, in which austenite exists.

The elements, having the same crystal structure as that of austenite (cubic face centered FCC), raise the A4 point (the temperature of formation of austenite from liquid phase) and decrease the A3 temperature. These elements are nickel (Ni), manganese (Mn), cobalt (Co) and copper (Cu). Examples of austenitic steels: austenitic stainless steels, Hadfield steel (1%C, 13%Mn, 1.2%Cr).
y

Stabilizing ferrite decreasing the temperature range, in which austenite exists.

The elements, having the same crystal structure as that of ferrite (cubic body centered BCC), lower the A4 point and increase the A3 temperature.
55

These elements lower the solubility of carbon in austenite, causing increase of amount of carbides in the steel. The following elements have ferrite stabilizing effect: chromium (Cr), tungsten (W), Molybdenum (Mo), vanadium (V), aluminum (Al) and silicon (Si). Examples of ferritic steels:transformer sheets steel (3%Si), F-Cr alloys.
y

Carbide forming elements forming hard carbides in steels.

The elements like chromium (Cr), tungsten (W), molybdenum (Mo), vanadium (V), titanium (Ti), niobium (Nb), tantalum (Ta), zirconium (Zr) form hard (often complex) carbides, increasing steel hardness and strength. Examples of steels containing relatively high concentration of carbides: hot work tool steels, high speed steels. Carbide forming elements also form nitrides reacting with Nitrogen in steels.
y

Graphitizing decreasing stability of carbides, promoting their breaking and formation of free Graphite.

The following elements have graphitizing effect: silicon (Si), nickel (Ni), cobalt (Co), aluminum (Al).
y

Decrease of the eutectoid concentration.

The following elements lower eutectoid concentration of carbon: titanium (Ti), molybdenum (Mo), tungsten (W), silicon (Si), chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni).
y

Increase of corrosion resistance.

Aluminum (Al), silicon (Si), and chromium (Cr) form thin an strong oxide film on the steel surface, protecting it from chemical attacks. Characteristics of alloying elements Manganese (Mn) improves hardenability, ductility and wear resistance. Mn eliminates formation of harmful iron sulfides, increasing strength at high temperatures. Nickel (Ni) increases strength, impact strength and toughness, impart corrosion resistance in combination with other elements. Chromium (Cr) improves hardenability, strength and wear resistance, sharply increases corrosion resistance at high concentrations (> 12%). Tungsten (W) increases hardness particularly at elevated temperatures due to stable carbides, refines grain size.

56

Vanadium (V) increases strength, hardness, creep resistance and impact resistance due to formation of hard vanadium carbides, limits grain size. Molybdenum (Mo) increases hardenability and strength particularly at high temperatures and under dynamic conditions. Silicon (Si) improves strength, elasticity, acid resistance and promotes large grain sizes, which cause increasing magnetic permeability. Titanium (Ti) improves strength and corrosion resistance, limits austenite grain size. Cobalt (Co) improves strength at high temperatures and magnetic permeability. Zirconium (Zr) increases strength and limits grain sizes. Boron (B) highly effective hardenability agent, improves deformability and machinability. Copper (Cu) improves corrosion resistance. Aluminum (Al) deoxidizer, limits austenite grains growth.

Classification of steels and cast irons

Dr. Dmitri Kopeliovich
y y y

Classification of steels by composition Classification of steels by application Classification of cast irons

Classification of steels by composition Carbon steels

y y y

Low carbon steels (C < 0.25%); Medium carbon steels (C =0.25% to 0.55%); High carbon steels (C > 0.55%).

Designation system: American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) together with Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) have established four-digit (with additional letter prefixes) designation system: SAE 1XXX
57

First digit 1 indicates carbon steel (2-9 are used for alloy steels); Second digit indicates modification of the steel. 0 - Plain carbon, non-modified 1 - Resulfurized 2 - Resulfurized and rephosphorized 5 - Non-resulfurized, Mn over 1.0% Last two digits indicate carbon concentration in 0.01%. Example: SAE 1030 means non modified carbon steel, containing 0.30% of carbon. A letter prefix before the four-digit number indicates the steel making technology: A - Alloy, basic open hearth B - Carbon, acid Bessemer C - Carbon, basic open hearth D - Carbon, acid open hearth E - Electric furnace Example: AISI B1020 means non modified carbon steel, produced in acid Bessemer and containing 0.20% of carbon. Alloy steels
y y

Low alloy steels (alloying elements

8%);

High alloy steels (alloying elements > 8%).

According to the four-digit classification SAE-AISI system: First digit indicates the class of the alloy steel: 2- Nickel steels; 3- Nickel-chromium steels; 4- Molybdenum steels;
58

5- Chromium steels; 6- Chromium-vanadium steels; 7- Tungsten-chromium steels; 9- Silicon-manganese steels. Second digit indicates concentration of the major element in percents (1 means 1%). Last two digits indicate carbon concentration in 0,01%. Example: SAE 5130 means alloy chromium steel, containing 1% of chromium and 0.30% of carbon. to top Classification of steels by application Stainless steels: AISI has established three-digit system for the stainless steels: 2XX series chromium-nickel-manganese austenitic stainless steels; 3XX series chromium-nickel austenitic stainless steels; 4XX series chromium martensitic stainless steels or ferritic stainless steels; 5XX series low chromium martensitic stainless steels; Tool and die steels: Designation system of one-letter in combination with a number is accepted for tool steels. The letter means:
y y y y y

W - Water hardened plain carbon tool steels; O - Oil hardening cold work alloy steels; A - Air hardening cold work alloy steels; D -Diffused hardening cold work alloy steels; S Shock resistant low carbon tool steels;
59

y y y y

T High speed tungsten tool steels; M - High speed molybdenum tool steels; H Hot work tool steels; P Plastic mold tool steels.

to top Classification of cast irons

y

White cast irons - hard and brittle wear resistant cast irons consisting of pearlite and cementite. Grey cast irons - cast irons at slow cooling and consisting of ferrite and dispersed graphite flakes. Malleable cast irons - cast irons, produced by heat treatment of white cast irons and consisting of ferrite and particles of free graphite. Nodular (ductile) cast irons - grey cast iron in which Graphite particles are modified by magnesium added to the melt before casting. Nodular cast iron consists of spheroid nodular graphite particles in ferrite or pearlite matrix.

Carbon steels
Dr. Dmitri Kopeliovich Carbon steels are iron-carbon alloys containing up to 2.06% of carbon, up to 1.65% of manganese, up to 0.5% of silicon and sulfur and phosphorus as impurities. Carbon content in carbon steel determines its strength and ductility. The higher carbon content, the higher steel strength and the lower its ductility. According to the steels classification there are following groups of carbon steels:
y y y

Low carbon steels (C < 0.25%) Medium carbon steels (C =0.25% to 0.55%) High carbon steels (C > 0.55%) o Tool carbon steels (C>0.8%)

60

Designation system Chemical compositions Properties of some carbon steels Low carbon steels (C < 0.25%)

of of some

carbon carbon

steels steels

Properties: good formability and weldability, low strength, low cost. Applications: to top Medium carbon steels (C =0.25% to 0.55%) Properties: good toughness and ductility, relatively good strength, may be hardened by quenching Applications: rolls, axles, screws, cylinders, crankshafts, heat treated machine parts. to top High carbon steels (C > 0.55%) Properties: high strength, hardness and wear resistance, moderate ductility. Applications: rolling mills, rope wire, screw drivers, hammers, wrenches, band saws. to top Tool carbon steels (C>0.8%) subgroup of high carbon steels Properties: very high strength, hardness and wear resistance, poor weldability low ductility. Applications: to top Designation system of carbon steels American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) together with Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) have established four-digit (with additional letter prefixes) designation system: SAE 1XXX First digit 1 indicates carbon steel (2-9 are used for alloy steels); punches, shear blades, springs, milling cutters, knives, razors. deep drawing parts, chain, pipe, wire, nails, some machine parts.

61

Second digit indicates modification of the steel. 0 - Plain carbon, non-modified 1 - Resulfurized 2 - Resulfurized and rephosphorized 5 - Non-resulfurized, Mn over 1.0% Last two digits indicate carbon concentration in 0.01%. Example: SAE 1030 means non modified carbon steel, containing 0.30% of carbon. A letter prefix before the four-digit number indicates the steel making technology: A - Alloy, basic open hearth B - Carbon, acid Bessemer C - Carbon, basic open hearth D - Carbon, acid open hearth E - Electric furnace Example: AISI B1020 means non modified carbon steel, produced in acid Bessemer and containing 0.20% of carbon. to top Chemical compositions of some carbon steels SAE/AISI grade C, % Mn,% P,% max S,% max 1006 0.08 max 0.35 max 0.04 0.05 1010 0.08-0.13 0.30-0.60 0.04 0.05 1020 0.17-0.23 0.30-0.60 0.04 0.05 1030 0.27-0.34 0.60-0.90 0.04 0.05 1045 0.42-0.50 0.60-0.90 0.04 0.05 1070 0.65-0.76 0.60-0.90 0.04 0.05 1090 0.85-0.98 0.60-0.90 0.04 0.05 1117 0.14-0.20 1.10-1.30 0.04 0.08-0.13 1547 0.43-0.51 1.35-1.65 0.04 0.05

62

to top Properties of some carbon steels (Materials Data)

y y y y y y y y y

Carbon steel SAE 1006 Carbon steel SAE 1010 Carbon steel SAE 1020 Carbon steel SAE 1030 Carbon steel SAE 1045 Carbon steel SAE 1070 Carbon steel SAE 1090 Carbon steel SAE 1117 Carbon steel SAE 1547

Alloy steels
Dr. Dmitri Kopeliovich Alloy steels are iron-carbon alloys, to which alloying elements are added with a purpose to improve the steels properties as compared to the Carbon steels. Due to effect of alloying elements, properties of alloy steels exceed those of plane carbon steels. AISI/SAE classification divide alloy steels onto groups according to the major alloying elements:
y y

Low alloy steels (alloying elements

8%);

High alloy steels (alloying elements > 8%).

According to the four-digit classification SAE/AISI system: First digit indicates the class of the alloy steel: 2- Nickel steels; 3- Nickel-chromium steels; 4- Molybdenum steels; 5- Chromium steels; 6- Chromium-vanadium steels;
63

7- Tungsten-chromium steels; 9- Silicon-manganese steels. Second digit indicates concentration of the major element in percents (1 means 1%). Last two digits indicate carbon concentration in 0,01%. Example: SAE 5130 means alloy chromium steel, containing 1% of chromium and 0.30% of carbon. Chemical compositions of some alloy steels SAE/AISI grade 2340 3115 4027 4130 4340 5140 6150 8620 9255 C, % 0.380.43 0.130.18 0.250.30 0.270.33 0.380.43 0.380.43 0.480.53 0.180.23 0.510.59 Mn,% 0.700.90 0.400.60 0.700.90 0.350.60 0.600.80 0.700.90 0.700.90 0.600.90 0.751.00 P,% max 0.035 0.035 0.035 0.035 0.035 0.035 0.035 0.035 0.035 S,% max 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 Ni,% 3.253.75 1.1-1.4 1.652.00 0.400.70 Cr % 0.550.75 0.801.15 0.7-0.9 0.7-0.9 0.8-1.1 0.400.60 Mo% 0.200.30 0.150.25 0.200.30 0.150.25 V% 0.15 min -

Properties of some alloy steels (Materials Data)

y y y y y y

Alloy steel SAE 4027 Alloy steel SAE 4130 Alloy steel SAE 4340 Alloy steel SAE 5140 Alloy steel SAE 6150 Alloy steel SAE 8620
64

Alloy steel SAE 9255

Stainless steels
Dr. Dmitri Kopeliovich Stainless steels are steels possessing high corrosion resistance due to the presence of substantial amount of chromium. Chromium forms a thin film of chromium oxide on the steel surface. This film protects the steel from further oxidation, making it stainless. Most of the stainless steels contain 12% - 18% of chromium. Other alloying elements of the stainless steels are nickel, molybdenum, Nitrogen, titanium and manganese. According to the AISI classification Stainless steels are divided onto groups:
y y y y y

Austenitic stainless steels Ferritic stainless steels Martensitic stainless steels Austenitic-ferritic (Duplex) stainless steels Precipitation hardening stainless steels of some stainless steels

Chemical compositions Properties of some stainless steels Austenitic stainless steels

Austenitic stainless steels (200 and 300 series) contain chromium and nickel (7% or more) as major alloying elements. The crystallographic structure of the steels is austenitic with FCC crystal lattice. The steels from this group have the highest corrosion resistance, weldability and ductility. Austenitic stainless steels retain their properties at elevated temperatures. At the temperatures 900-1400F (482-760C) chromium carbides form along the austenite grains. This causes depletion of chromium from the grains resulting in decreasing the corrosion protective passive film. This effect is called sensitization. It is particularly important in welding of austenitic stainless steels.

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Sensitization is depressed in low carbon steels (0.03%) designated with suffix L (304L, 316L). Formation of chromium carbides is also avoided in stabilized austenitic stainless steels containing carbide forming elements like titanium, niobium, tantalum, zirconium. Stabilization heat treatment of such steels results in preferred formation of carbides of the stabilizing elements instead of chromium carbides. These steel are not heat treatable and may be hardened only by cold work. Applications of austenitic stainless steels: chemical equipment, food equipment, kitchen sinks, medical devices, heat exchangers, parts of furnaces and ovens. to top Ferritic stainless steels Ferritic stainless steels (400 series) contain chromium only as alloying element. The crystallographic structure of the steels is ferritic (BCC crystal lattice) at all temperatures. The steels from this group are low cost and have the best machinability. The steels are ferromagnetic. Ductility and formability of ferritic steels are low. Corrosion resistance and weldability are moderate. Resistance to the stress corrosion cracking is high. Ferritic steels are not heat treatable because of low carbon concentration and they are commonly used in annealed state. Applications of ferritic steels: decorative and architectural parts, automotive trims and exhausting systems, computer floppy disc hubs, hot water tanks. to top Martensitic stainless steels Martensitic stainless steels (400 and 500 series) contain chromium as alloying element and increased (as compared to ferritic grade) amount of carbon. Due to increased concentration of carbon the steels from this group are heat treatable. The steels have austenitic structure (FCC) at high temperature, which transforms to martensitic structure (BCC) as a result of quenching . Martensitic steels have poor weldability and ductility. Corrosion resistance of these steels is moderate (slightly better than in ferritic steels). Applications of martensitic stainless steels: turbine blades, knife blades, surgical instruments, shafts, pins, springs.

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to top Austenitic-ferritic (Duplex) stainless steels Austenitic-ferritic (Duplex) stainless steels contain increased amount of chromium (18% -28%) and decreased (as compared to austenitic steels) amount of nickel (4.5% - 8%) as major alloying elements. As additional alloying element molybdenum is used in some of Duplex steels. Since the quantity of nickel is insufficient for formation of fully austenitic structure, the structure of Duplex steels is mixed: austenitic-ferritic. The properties of Duplex steels are somewhere between the properties of austenitic and ferritic steels. Duplex steels have high resistance to the stress corrosion cracking and to chloride ions attack. These steels are weldable and formable and possess high strength. Applications of austenitic-ferritic stainless steels: desalination equipment, marine equipment, petrochemical plants, heat exchangers. to top Precipitation hardening stainless steels Precipitation hardening stainless steels contain chromium, nickel as major alloying elements. Precipitation hardening steels are supplied in solution treated condition. These steels may be either austenitic or martensitic and they are hardened by heat treatment (aging). The heat treatment is conducted after machining, however low temperature of the treatment does not cause distortions. Precipitation hardening steels have very high strength, good weldability and fair corrosion resistance. They are magnetic. Applications of precipitation hardening stainless steels: pump shafts and valves, turbine blades, paper industry equipment, aerospace equipment. to top Chemical compositions of some stainless steels No. AISI 201 AISI 304 Grade Austenite Austenite C max, Mn % max,% 0.15 0.08 6.0 2.0
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Cr,% Ni,% Mo,% N, % 17.0 4.5 19.0 9.5 0.25 max -

Cu,% Cb+Ta,% -

AISI 316 AISI 430 AISI 410 2205

Austenite Ferritic Martensitic

0.08 0.12 0.15 0.30 0.07

2.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.0

17.0 12.0 2.5 17.0 12.5 22.0 5.0 16.5 4.0 3 -

0.14 -

4.0

0.30

Duplex Precipit. 17-4PH hardening to top

Properties of some stainless steels (Materials Data)

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Stainless steel AISI 201 Stainless steel AISI 304 Stainless steel AISI 316 Stainless steel AISI 430 Stainless steel AISI 410 Stainless steel AISI 2205 Stainless steel AISI 17-4PH

Cast irons
Dr. Dmitri Kopeliovich Cast irons iron alloys containing between 2.06 to 4.3% of carbon. Cast irons are divided onto the following groups:
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White cast irons Grey cast irons Malleable cast irons Nodular (ductile) cast irons of some cast irons

Chemical compositions Properties of some cast irons White cast irons

White cast irons hard and brittle highly wear resistant cast irons consisting of pearlite and cementite.
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White cast irons are produced by chilling some surfaces of the cast mold. Chilling prevents formation of Graphite during solidification of the cast iron. Applications of white cast irons: brake shoes, shot blasting nozzles, mill liners, crushers, pump impellers and other abrasion resistant parts. to top Grey cast irons Grey cast irons cast irons, produced at slow cooling and consisting of ferrite and dispersed graphite flakes. Grey cast irons possess high compressing strength, fatigue resistance and wear resistance. Presence of graphite in grey cast irons impart them very good vibration dumping capacity. Applications of grey cast irons: gears, flywheels, water pipes, engine cylinders, brake discs, gears. to top Malleable cast iron Malleable cast iron cast irons produced by heat treatment of white cast irons and consisting of ferrite and particles of free graphite. Malleable cast irons have good ductility and machinability. Ferritic malleable cast irons are more ductile and less strong and hard, than pearlitic malleable cast irons. Applications of malleable cast irons: parts of power train of vehicles, bearing caps, steering gear housings, agricultural equipment, railroad equipment. to top Nodular (ductile) cast irons Nodular (ductile) cast irons grey cast iron, in which graphite particles are modified by magnesium added to the melt before casting. Nodular cast iron consists of spheroid nodular graphite particles in ferrite or pearlite matrix. Ductile cast irons possess high ductility, good fatigue strength, wear resistance, shock resistance and high modulus of elasticity. Applications of nodular (ductile) cast irons: automotive engine crankshafts, heavy duty gears, military and railroad vehicles.

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to top Chemical compositions of some cast irons Grade C,% Si,% Mn,% S,% P,% White 1.83.6 0.51.9 0.250.8 0.060.2 0.060.18 Grey 2.54.0 1.03.0 0.251.0 0.020.25 0.051.0 ASTM A220 2.02.6 0.91.6 0.21.25 0.040.18 0.18 max. A356 3.04.0 1.82.8 0.11.0 0.03 max. 0.1 max.

Steel making (introduction)

Dr. Dmitri Kopeliovich Steel is an alloy of iron, containing up to 2% of carbon (usually up to 1%). Steel contains lower (compared to pig iron) quantities of impurities like phosphorous, sulfur and silicon. Steel is produced from pig iron by processes, involving reducing the amounts of carbon, silicon and phosphorous. The main steel making methods are:
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Basic Oxygen Process (BOP) Electric-arc furnace Ladle refining (ladle metallurgy, secondary refining)

Basic Oxygen Process (BOP) The Basic Oxygen Process is the most powerful and effective method of steel manufacturing.

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The scheme of the Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF) (basic oxygen furnace, basic oxygen converter) is presented in the picture. Typical basic oxygen converter has a vertical steel shell lined with refractory lining. The furnace is capable to rotate about its horizontal axis on trunnions. This rotation is necessary for charging raw materials and fluxes, sampling the melt and pouring the steel and the slag out of the furnace. The Basic Oxygen is equipped with the water cooled oxygen lance for blowing oxygen into the melt. The basic oxygen converter uses no additional fuel. The pig iron impurities (carbon, silicon, manganese and phosphorous) serve as fuel. The steel making process in the oxygen converter consists of:
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Charging steel scrap.

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y y y y y y

Pouring liquid pig iron into the furnace. Charging fluxes. Oxygen blowing. Sampling and temperature measurement Tapping the steel to a ladle. De-slagging.

The iron impurities oxidize, evolving heat, necessary for the process. The forming oxides and sulfur are absorbed by the slag. The oxygen converter has a capacity up to 400 t and production cycle of about 40 min. to top Electric-arc furnace

The electric-arc furnace employs three vertical graphite electrodes for producing arcs, striking on to the charge and heating it to the required temperature.

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As the electric-arc furnace utilizes the external origin of energy (electric current), it is capable to melt up to 100% of steel scrap. The steel making process in the electric-arc furnace consists of:
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Charging scrap metal, pig iron, limestone Lowering the electrodes and starting the power (melting) Oxidizing stage

At this stage the heat, produced by the arcs, causes oxidizing phosphorous, silicon and manganese. The oxides are absorbed into the slag. By the end of the stage the slag is removed.
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De-slagging Reducing stage

New fluxes (lime and anthracite) are added at this stage for formation of basic reducing slag. The function of this slag is refining of the steel from sulfur and absorption of oxides, formed as a result of deoxidation.
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Tapping Lining maintenance

The advantages of the electric-arc furnace are as follows:

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Unlimited scrap quantity may be melt; Easy temperature control; Deep desulfurization; Precise alloying.

to top Ladle refining (ladle metallurgy, secondary refining) Ladle refining is post steel making technological operations, performed in the ladle prior to casting with the purposes of desulfurization, degassing, temperature and chemical homogenization, deoxidation and others. Ladle refining may be carried out at atmospheric pressure, at vacuum, may involve heating, gas purging and stirring. Sulfur refining (desulfurization) in the ladle metallurgy is performed by addition of fluxes (CaO, CaF2 and others) into the ladle and stirring the steel together with the slag, absorbing sulfur.
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In the production of high quality steel the operation of vacuum treatment in ladle is widely used. Vacuum causes proceeding chemical reaction within the molten steel: [C] + [O] = {CO} This reaction results in reduction of the quantity of oxide inclusions. The bubbles of carbon oxide remove Hydrogen, diffusing into the CO phase. An example of ladle refining method is Recirculation Degassing (RH) vacuum degasser, which consists of a vacuum vessel with two tubes (snorkels), immersed in the steel. In one of the tubes argon is injected. Argon bubbles, moving upwards, cause steel circulation through the vacuum vessel. Additions of fluxes in the vacuum vessel permits conducting desulfurization treatment by this method.

Basic principles of heat treatment

Dr. Dmitri Kopeliovich Heat treatment of a metal or alloy is a technological procedure, including controlled heating and cooling operations, conducted for the purpose of changing the alloy microstructure and resulting in achieving required properties. There are two general objectives of heat treatment: hardening and annealing. Hardening Hardening is a process of increasing the metal hardness, strength, toughness, fatigue resistance.
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Strain hardening (work hardening) strengthening by cold-work (cold plastic deformation).

Cold plastic deformation causes increase of concentration of dislocations, which mutually entangle one another, making further dislocation motion difficult and therefore resisting the deformation or increasing the metal strength.
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Grain size strengthening (hardening) strengthening by grain refining.

Grain boundaries serve as barriers to dislocations, raising the stress required to cause plastic deformation.
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Solid solution hardening strengthening by dissolving an alloying element.

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Atoms of solute element distort the crystal lattice, resisting the dislocations motion. Interstitial elements are more effective in solid solution hardening, than substitution elements.
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Dispersion strengthening strengthening by addition of second phase into metal matrix.

The second phase boundaries resist the dislocations motions, increasing the material strength. The strengthening effect may be significant if fine hard particles are added to a soft ductile matrix (composite materials).
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Hardening as a result of Spinodal decomposition. Spinodal structure is characterized by strains on the coherent boundaries between the spinodal phases causing hardening of the alloy.

Precipitation hardening (age hardening) strengthening by precipitation of fine particles of a second phase from a supersaturated solid solution.

The second phase boundaries resist the dislocations motions, increasing the material strength. The age hardening mechanism in Al-Cu alloys may be illustrated by the phase diagram of Al-Cu system (see figure below) When an alloy Al-3%Cu is heated up to the temperature TM, all CuAl2 particles are dissolved and the alloy exists in form of single phase solid solution ( -phase). This operation is called solution treatment. Slow cooling of the alloy will cause formation of relatively coarse particles of CuAl2 intermetallic phase, starting from the temperature TN.
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However if the the cooling rate is high (quenching), solid solution will retain even at room temperature TF. Solid solution in this non-equilibrium state is called supersaturated solid solution. Obtaining of supersaturated solid solution is possible when cooling is considerably faster, than diffusion processes. As the diffusion coefficient is strongly dependent on the temperature, the precipitation of CuAl2 from supersaturated solution is much faster at elevated temperatures (lower than TN).This process is called artificial aging. It takes usually a time from several hours to one day. When the aging is conducted at the room temperature, it is called natural aging. Natural aging takes several days or more. Precipitation from supersaturated solid solution occurred in several steps:
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Segregation of Cu atoms into plane clusters. These clusters are called Guinier-Preston1 zones (G-P1 zones). Diffusion of Cu atoms to the G-P1 zones and formation larger clusters, called GP2 zones or phase. This phase is coherent with the matrix . Formation of phase which is partially coherent with the matrix. This phase provides maximum hardening.

Annealing Annealing is a heat treatment procedure involving heating the alloy and holding it at a certain temperature (annealing temperature), followed by controlled cooling. Annealing results in relief of internal stresses, softening, chemical homogenizing and transformation of the grain structure into more stable state. Annealing stages:
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Stress relief (recovery) a relatively low temperature process of reducing internal mechanical stresses, caused by cold-work, casting or welding.

During this process atoms move to more stable positions in the crystal lattice. Vacancies and interstitial defects are eliminated and some dislocations are annihilated. Recovery heat treatment is used mainly for preventing stress-corrosion cracking and decreasing distortions, caused by internal stresses.
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Recrystallization alteration of the grain structure of the metal.

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If the alloy reaches a particular temperature (recrystallization or annealing temperature) new grains start to grow from the nuclei formed in the cold worked metal. The new grains absorb imperfections and distortions caused by cold deformation. The grains are equi-axed and independent to the old grain structure. As a result of recrystallization mechanical properties (strength, ductility) of the alloy return to the pre-cold-work level. The annealing temperature and the new grains size are dependent on the degree of cold-work which has been conducted. The more the cold-work degree, the lower the annealing temperature and the fine recrystallization grain structure. Low degrees of cold-work (less than 5%) may cause formation of large grains. Usually the annealing temperature of metals is between one-third to one-half of the freezing point measured in Kelvin (absolute) temperature scale.
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Grain growth (over-annealing, secondary recrystallization) growth of the new grains at the expense of their neighbors, occurring at temperature, above the recrystallization temperature.

This process results in coarsening grain structure and is undesirable.

Annealing and stress relief

Dr. Dmitri Kopeliovich Annealing is a heat treatment procedure involving heating the alloy and holding it at a certain temperature (annealing temperature), followed by controlled cooling. Annealing results in relief of internal stresses, softening, chemical homogenizing and transformation of the grain structure into more stable state. Annealing increases an extent of equilibrium of the metal structure resulting in softening and high ductility. Annealing temperature and the control cooling rate depend on the alloy composition and the type of the annealing treatment. The following types of annealing are used in heat treatment of alloys:
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Full annealing is a process in which a ferrous alloy (commonly hypoeutectoid steel) is heated to about 100F (55C) above the upper critical temperature, followed by soaking and slow cooling in the furnace or in some medium to a temperature below the critical temperature.

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For the non-ferrous alloys full annealing means full softening after cold work in contrast to partial annealing meaning partial softening.
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Subcritical annealing is annealing of cold-worked steel below the critical temperature on the iron-carbon phase diagram. Recrystallization annealing is a process of heating a cold worked metal to a temperature above the recrystallization temperature followed by soaking for a time required for the grain structure transformation.

Recrystallization annealing is widely used as an intermediate softening treatment between stages of cold work (cold rolling, drawing). Combination of recrystallization annealing and cold work allows to control the microstructure grains size.
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Stress relief (recovery) a relatively low temperature process of reducing internal mechanical stresses, caused by cold work, casting or welding.

The stress relief temperature is lower than the recrystallization temperature.

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Spheroidizing annealing is a process of controlled heating and cooling high carbon steels (tool steels) to produce spherical (globular) form of cementite inclusions.

This treatment improves the machining characteristics of the steel.

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Bright annealing is an annealing treatment which is carried out in furnaces with reducing atmosphere preventing surface oxidation of the steel parts. Homogenizing annealing is a durable high temperature annealing treatment intended to decrease chemical segregation by diffusion.

Homogenizing annealing is used for steel and aluminum ingots and castings. More homogeneous intercrystalline distribution of carbon, phosphorus sulfur and alloying elements in steel ingots is achieved in annealing at 2000F -2370F (1100C - 1300C) for 20-50 hrs. Aluminum alloys are treated at 790F - 970F (420C - 520C) for 16-30 hrs.

Normalizing
Dr. Dmitri Kopeliovich

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Normalizing is a process in which a steel is heated to about 100F (55C) above the upper critical temperature, followed by soaking and cooling in still air at room temperature. Normalizing treatment is similar to the full annealing treatment. The difference is in the cooling method and rate full annealing involves slow controlled cooling if the furnace or in some medium providing slow cooling rate. As normalizing requires less time, it is more economically efficient heat treatment method than full annealing. Normalizing relieves internal stresses caused by cold work while grain growth is limited by the relatively high cooling rate therefore the mechanical properties (strength, hardness) of a normalized steel are better than in an annealed steel. Since the cooling rate in the normalizing heat treatment is not controlled, the resulting structure is dependent on the thickness of the steel part, therefore the effect of increased mechanical properties is greater in thin parts. Quality of surface after machining of a normalized part is also better than in an annealed part. This effect is caused by increased ductility of annealed steel favoring formation of tearing on the machined surface.

Hardening
Dr. Dmitri Kopeliovich Hardening is a heat treatment process involving heating a steel above the phase transformation temperature (upper critical temperature, A3), followed by soaking and then rapid cooling (quenching). When steel is heated above the upper critical temperature, its structure becomes entirely austenitic. Then the article is cooled at a rate exceeding the critical rate value. Critical cooling rate is a function of the chemical composition and the grain size of austenite. If the critical cooling rate is not achieved, a mixture of ferrite and cementite forms. Depending on the cooling rate the following ferrite-cementite structures may form:
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pertlite ferrite-cementite structure, forming as a result of decomposition of austenite at slow cooling in annealing treatment;

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sorbite- ferrite-cementite perlite-like structure with finer (than in perlite) grain structure, forming as a result of decomposition of austenite at relatively high cooling rate (cooling in air); trostitefine ferrite-cementite perlite-like structure forming as a result of decomposition of austenite at high (but lower than critical) cooling rate (cooling in oil); bainite very fine ferrite-cementite mixture, forming in a mechanism similar to the mechanism of martensite transformation, as a result of decomposition of austenite at high (but lower than critical) cooling rate (cooling in a quenching medium);

Cooling in water usually provides cooling rate higher than the critical value. The structure forming as a result of quenching in water is called martensite (supersaturated solid solution of carbon in -iron). Martensite is hard and brittle phase, having hardness varying between 500 HB to 710 HB depending on the carbon content. The temperature interval at which the austenite-martensite transformation occurs is about 480F 400F (250C - 200C). Hardening temperature is the temperature to which a steel is heated before quenching. If the hardening temperature of a hypoeutectoid steel is at least 100F (55C) above the upper critical temperature, quencing will result in complete austenite-martensite transformation (full hardening). If the hypoeutectoid steel is heated to a temperature, lying between the upper critical temperature (A3) and the lower critical temperature (A1), quenching will result in formation of martensite with some amount of ferrite (partial hardening). This structure is softer than full-hard martensite structure. In the case of hypereutectoid steel partial hardening results in formation of a mixture of martensite and cementite, which is harder than full-hard martensite structure. Hardenability is the property of steel indicating the depth to which hardening effect penetrates. Hardenability depends on the chemical composition of the steel, hardening temperature, dimensions and shape of the article and other factors. Hardenability is detrmined by the Jominy test, in which a steel bar of 1 inch in diameter and 4 inch long is heated above the upper critical point and then one end of the bar is quenched by water jet. Results of the hardness measurements conducted along the bar after quenching indicate the hardenability of the steel. Isothermal hardening is a hardening method involving quenching in a medium (oil or molten salt) to minimize the part cracking and distortion.

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There are two pricipal isothermal methods:

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Martempering is the isothermal hardening method, in which a part is quenched in a quenching medium (oil or molten salt) and is left in it reaching uniform temperature distribution. The part is removed from the quenching medium before the bainite formation. Austempering is the isothermal hardening method, in which a part is quenched in a quenching medium (oil or molten salt) and is left in it reaching uniform temperature distribution. The part is removed from the quenching medium after the complete bainite formation.

Case hardening
Dr. Dmitri Kopeliovich Case hardening is the diffusion heat treatment operation which involves two stages:
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Heating a steel part to a temperature above the upper critical temperature in a medium, containing an element capable to saturate the surface layer of the part through diffusion; Heat treatment of the part in order to obtain the desired combination of mechanical properties of the hard outer case and the ductile core.

As a medium for the case hardening solid, liquid and gaseous substances may be used. The most widely used case hardening methods are: carburizing, nitriding and carbonitriding.
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Carburizing Nitriding Carbonitriding

Carburizing Carburizing is the process of diffusion enrichment of the surface layer of a part with carbon followed by heat treatment of the part. As carburizing medium the following substances are used:
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Charcoal or other carbon-containing solids mixed with sodium carbonate and barium carbonate accelerating the process of dissolving the carbon in steel.

The process is carried out in steel or cast iron boxes placed into a furnace at the temperature 1650F - 1750F (900C - 950C) resulting in formation of hard case of the thickness 0.020.08 (0.5mm 2mm) and containing 0.8-1% of carbon.
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y y

Kerosene or benzene liquid carbonizing mediums, which are usually used in dispersed form; Methane (CH4), propane (C3H8) gaseous carbonizing mediums.

The process is carried out in a furnace (batch or continuous) at the temperature 1650F - 1750F (900C - 950C) for 3-4 hrs. Thickness of the hard layer formed in the gaseous carburizing may reach 0.15 (4mm). Heat treatment after carburizing involves hardening-tempering treatments with purpose of controlling structure and properties of both the hard layer and the ductile core. to top Nitriding Nitriding is the process of diffusion enrichment of the surface layer of a part with Nitrogen. Gas nitriding is carried out at 930F - 1110F (500C - 600C) for 40-100 hrs.in the atmosphere of Ammonia, which dissociates to Hydrogen and nitrogen. The latter diffuses into the steel forming nitrides of iron, aluminum, chromium and vanadium. Ion nitriding (plasma nitriding) is a surface Hardening heat treatment, in which Nitrogen is delivered to the workpiece surface in form of ionized gas (plasma). The case formed as a result of nitriding has a hardness of about 1100 HV which is higher than the hardness after carburizing. Nitrided part possess also better wear resistance, increased fatigue strength, enhanced toughness and good resistance to corrosion. No to top Carbonitriding Carbonitriding is the process of diffusion enrichment of the surface layer of a part with carbon and nitrogen. Gaseous carbonitriding is carried out in gaseous medium, consisting of carburizing gas (methane, propane) with addition of 3-8% of Ammonia. There are two principal methods of the gaseous carbonitriding: additional heat treatment is required after nitriding.

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y y

Low temperature gaseous carbonitriding, conducted at 930F - 1110F (500C - 600C). The steel surface is enriched mostly with nitrogen in this process. High temperature gaseous carbonitriding, conducted at1470F - 1750F (800C - 950C). The steel surface is enriched mostly with carbon in this process. This process is followed by heat treatment.

Cyaniding is the carbonitriding process, conducted in molten salt, containing 20-25% of sodium cyanide (extremely toxic substance). The process is carried out at the temperatures 1500F - 1580F (820C - 860C) for 1 hour. Carbonitrided parts possess better (than carburized parts) wear resistance.

Tempering
Dr. Dmitri Kopeliovich Tempering is a heat treatment operation involving reheating hardened steel to a certain temperature below the lower critical point (A1) followed by soaking and then cooling. The steel structure after hardening consists mainly of martensite which is hard and brittle. Tempering is carried out in order to change the martensite structure and obtain a desired combination of strength and ductility. The object of tempering is also to reduce the internal stresses caused by quenching. Depending on the tempering temperature, the following stages of tempering take place:
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Tempering at temperatures 300F - 480F (150C - 250C). The soaking time is commonly about 1-3 hrs. At these temperatures low carbon (0.25%) tempered martensite and fine dispersed carbides form. The internal stresses are partially reduced and some softening (by 2-3 HB) occurs at this stage. Tempering at temperatures 570F - 750F (300C - 400C). Soaking time varies from 2 to 8 hours depending on the parts size. At these temperatures martensite transforms to trostite (very fine mixture of ferrite and cementite). Trostite is softer than martensite and more ductile. Tempering at temperatures higher than 750F (400C) but lower than lower critical point(A1). Soaking time varies from 2 to 8 hours depending on the parts size. At these temperatures martensite transforms to sorbite (fine mixture of ferrite and cementite). Sorbite and trostite are principally similar structures differing only in the particles size. Sorbite is more ductile and less strong than trostite. This kind of tempering is used for the parts exposed to impacts.

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If the tempering temperature is above 1020F (550C) strength decreases sharply without any notable increase of ductility. Batch type furnaces ( either air atmosphere or liquid bath) are used for the tempering heat treatment. Oil baths are widely used for tools tempering at relatively low tempering temperatures 300F 600F (150C - 315C). In order to prevent cracking the steel part should be preheated before immersing to hot oil. Molten salt baths are used for tempering at temperatures 400F - 1020F (200C - 550C). Mixtures of sodium nitrate and potassium nitrate are suitable as the bath medium.

Precipitation hardening
Dr. Dmitri Kopeliovich Precipitation hardening (age hardening) strengthening by precipitation of fine particles of a second phase from a supersaturated solid solution. The precipitation hardening heat treatment involves the following stages: Solution treatment During solution treatment a part is heated to a temperature above the solvus temperature in order to dissolve the second phase in the solid solution. The part is held at this temperature for a time varying from 1hour to 20 hrs. until the dissolving has been accomplished. The temperature and the soaking time of solution treatment should not be too high to prevent excessive growth of the grains. Quenching Quenching is carried out in water, water-air mixture or sometimes in air. Object of the quenching operation is obtaining supersaturation solid solution at room temperature. Since the second phase retains dissolved at this stage, hardness of the quenched alloy is lower than after age precipitation, however higher than hardness of the alloy in annealed state.

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Aging Depending on the temperature at which this operation is carried out aging may be artificial or natural.
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Artificial aging.

At this stage the part is heated up to a temperature below the solvus temperature, followed by soaking for a time varying between 2 to 20 hours. The soaking time depends on the aging temperature (the higher the temperature, the lower the soaking time). The aging temperature and the soaking time are also determined by the desired resulted combination of the strength and ductility of the alloy. Too high aging temperature and time result in overaging decrease of the strength and increase of ductility.
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Natural aging.

Natural aging is conducted at room temperature and it takes a relatively long period of time (from several days to several weeks). Precipitation hardening heat treatment is commonly used for the following alloys:
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Aluminum alloys: Al-Cu, Al-Mg-Si, Al-Cu-Mg, Al-Zn. Copper alloys: beryllium bronze,aluminum bronze, aluminum-nickel bronze, chromium copper. Stainless steels: iron-chromium-nickel alloys with additions of copper, aluminum, titanium and niobium. The precipitation hardening stainless steels are either austenitic or martensitic. Nickel alloys: nickel-copper alloys with additions of titanium, aluminum and iron. Titanium alloys: titanium-aluminum alloys, titanium-vanadium alloys.

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Cryogenic treatment of steel

Dr. Dmitri Kopeliovich Cryogenic treatment (tempering) is a processing of the material at a temperature below 80K (-

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315F / -193C) resulting in modification of its microstructure and improvement of its properties.
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Effects of cryogenic treatment on steel microstructure Benefits of cryogenic treatment Applications of cryogenic treatment of steels

Effects of cryogenic treatment on steel microstructure Cryogenic tempering of a steel is carried out as a supplemental process following after the heat treatment procedure (Hardening). conventional Hardening treatment comprises heating the steel above the phase transformation temperature (upper critical temperature), followed by soaking and then rapid cooling (quenching). When steel is heated above the upper critical temperature, its structure becomes entirely austenitic, which transforms into martensite (supersaturated solid solution of carbon in -iron) after quenching. Austenite-martensite transformation is never complete - a certain percentage of austenite is retained in the resulting microstructure. Austenite has face centered cubic (FCC) structure, which is denser than the body centred tetragonal (BCT) structure of martensite. The densities difference causes internal stresses in heat treated steels. Austenite is softer than martensite therefore high percentage of retained martensite decreases the steel hardness and wear resistance. Cryogenic treatment results in the following effects of the steel microstructure:
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Transformation of retained austenite into martensite; Internal stresses relief affecting most mechanical properties; Precipitation of fine carbide particles (ETA-carbides) uniformly distributed in the martensite grains. More homogeneous microstructure due to reduction of micro-voids (pores, cracks).

to the top Benefits of cryogenic treatment

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Wear resistance (due to higher hardness and the presence of hard ETA-carbides); Mechanical strength; Toughness; Fatigue strength (due to low residual stresses and homogeneous structure); Creep; Low coefficient of friction (due to higher hardness and the presence of hard ETAcarbides); Machining, grinding and polishing finish (due to no/little soft austenite);

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to the top Applications of cryogenic treatment of steels

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Cutting tools for different machining operations: sawing, milling, drilling, broaching, turning, slitting, shearing; Metal forming tools: dies, molds, punches. High precision parts: gauges, guides, shafts; Parts of high performance (sport) car engines and transmissions: crankshafts, connecting rods, piston rings, engine blocks, gear parts, camshafts.

Salt bath heat treatment

Dr. Dmitri Kopeliovich Salt bath heat treatment is a heat treatment process comprising an immersion of the treated part into a molten salt (or salts mixture).
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Benefits of heat treatment in salt baths Compositions of salt baths Heat treatments conducted in salt baths

Benefits of heat treatment in salt baths

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Fast heating. A work part immersed into a molten salt is heated by heat transferred by conduction (combined with convection) through the liquid media (salt bath). The heat transfer rate in a liquid media is much greater than that in other heating mechanisms: radiation, convection through a gas (e.g., air). Controlled cooling conditions during quenching. In conventional quenching operation either water or oil are used as the quenching media. High cooling rate provided by water/oil may cause cracks and distortions. Cooling in molten salt is slower and stops at lower temperature. Low surface oxidation and decarburization. The contact of the hot work part with the atmosphere is minimized when the part is treated in the salt bath.

to top Compositions of salt baths No. Composition Approximate melting poing Work temperature range NaOH 75% 1 KOH 320-752F (160-280C) 19% 284F (140C) H2O 6% KOH 50-60%% 2 572-752F (300-400C) NaOH 50-40%
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KNO3 100% 639F (337C) KNO3 50-60% 4 275F (135C) NaNO2 50-40% NaNO3 50-60% 5 293F (145C) NaNO2 50-40% KNO3 50-60% 6 437F (225C) NaNO3 50-40% 7 NaNO3 100% 698F (370C) NaCl 10-15% KCl 20-30% 8 752F (400C) BaCl2 40-50% CaCl2 15-20% NaCO3 45-55% 9 842F (450C) KCl 55-45% BaCl2 50% 30% 1004F (540C) 10 KCl2 NaCl 20% BaCl2 70-96% 11 1112-1472F (600-800C) NaCl 30-4%

662-930F (350-500C) 320-1022F (160-550C) 311-932F (150-500C) 500-1112F (260-600C) 752-1110F (400-600C) 932-1472F (500-800C)

1022-1652F (550-900C) 1058-1652F (570-900C) 1292-2282F (700-1250C)

to top Heat treatments conducted in salt baths

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Quenching of steels. Quenching is rapid cooling from the temperature above A3 (upper critical temperature). Relatively slow cooling rate provided by molten salts prevents the work part from cracking and distortion. Austempering. Austempering is the isothermal hardening method in which a part is quenched in a quenching medium (molten salt) and is left in it reaching uniform temperature distribution. The part is removed from the quenching medium after the complete bainite formation. Tha austempering temperature range is 400-750F (204399C). Nitrate salts No. 4-6 are used for austempering treatment. Martempering. Martempering is the isothermal hardening method in which a part is quenched in a quenching medium (molten salt) and is left in it reaching uniform temperature distribution. The part is removed from the quenching medium before the bainite formation. Martempering is performed at a temperature above the the temperature of martensite formation (austenite-martensite transformation), which is 400-480F (200250C). Nitrate salts No. 4-6 are used for martempering treatment of most alloys. Sodium nitrate (No.7) a potassium nitrate (No.3) are used for martempering tool steels (hot-work and high speed steel). Hardening. Hardening is performed at 1400-2300F (760-1260C) in chloride salts (No.8-11).

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Nitriding. Liquid nitriding is the process of diffusion enrichment of the surface layer of a part with Nitrogen provided by a molten cyanide base salt (extremely toxic substance). The process is carried out at the temperatures 950-1075F (510-580C) for about 4 hour. Carbonitriding. Liquid carbonitriding is the process of diffusion enrichment of the surface layer of a part with carbon and nitrogen provided by a molten salt containing 2025% of sodium cyanide (extremely toxic substance). The process is carried out at the temperatures 1500-1580F (820-860C). Carburizing. Liquid carburizing is the process of diffusion enrichment of the surface layer of a part with carbon provided by a molten salt containing 10-25% of sodium cyanide (extremely toxic substance). The process is carried out at the temperatures 15621742F (850-950C). Solution treatment of Aluminum alloys. Solution treatment is the operation of heating the work park to a temperature at which the hardening second phase particles dissolve in the matrix. Solution treatment of heat treatable aluminum alloys is carried out at 9001025F (482-551C). Fast solution heat treatment may be achieved by heating an aluminum alloy part in a molten salt bath. Nitrate salts No.4,5,6 are used for solution treatment of aluminum alloys. Deep brazing. Brazing is a method of joining two metal work pieces by means of a filler material at a temperature above its melting point but below the melting point of either of the materials being joined. Dip brazing is a brazing method in which the work pieces together with the filler metal are immersed into a bath with a molten salt. The filler material melts and flows into the joint. Chloride salts with addition of reactive agents are used for deep brazing. Cleaning. Polymeric contamination on metal parts surfaces may be effectively removed by immersion of the part into a molten salt. Polymers decompose and burn at the temperature of the molten salt. Mixtures of hydroxides and nitrates at a temperature within 650-950F (343-510C) are used for cleaning operation.

Furnaces for heat treatment

Dr. Dmitri Kopeliovich Batch furnaces
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Car bottom furnace

Furnaces of this type have a movable bottom (car). The car goes out of the furnace and may be loaded or unloaded with treated parts. The heating method may be either electric resistance or fuel/gas. Car bottom furnaces are suitable for various heat treatment operations of large and heavy parts.
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Bell type furnace

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Furnaces of this type have a movable vertically heating bell and a stationary bottom with the treated parts. The heating method may be either electric resistance or fuel/gas. Bell type furnaces are suitable for coiled strip annealing and other heat treatments including operations in controllable atmosphere.
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Vertical pit furnace

Furnaces of this type are used for heat treatment of shaft like parts (generator rotors, steam turbine rotors) which are loaded vertically through the top of the furnace. The heating method may be either electric resistance or fuel/gas. Continuous furnaces
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Belt furnace

Furnaces of this type have a mesh belt conveyor moving through a long tube like furnace. The heating method may be either electric (resistance or induction) or fuel/gas. Belt furnaces are suitable for heat treatment of relatively small parts.
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Roller furnace

Furnaces of this type have heat resistant steel rollers moving the parts through a long tube like furnace. The heating method may be either electric or fuel/gas. Roller furnaces are suitable for heat treatment of sheets, tubes and other long parts.
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Pusher furnace

Furnaces of this type have a pusher located at the furnace end and moving the parts through the furnace. The heating method may be either electric or fuel/gas. Pusher furnaces are generally used for heating parts before hot deformation.
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Continuous strip annealing furnace

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Coled rolled strip in uncoiled state passes through the long tube like or looped furnace with controlled reducing atmospere (commonly a mixture of Hydrogen and Nitrogen) preventing oxidation of the steel surface.. The heating method may be either electric or fuel/gas.

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