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FOUNDATIONS OF HIGH RISE BUILDINGS

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Dr.S.R.KULKARNI, Bharati Vidyapeeth University Subsurface Geological Exploration

1.
Introduction: Geological conditions 5. Observations and precautions during drilling: To ensure that drilling data are not misinterpreted

at tf:\ebuilding

and also that valuable' data are not lost certain foundations are precautions have to be taken and observations have to be recorded carefully during drilling. As drilling data cannot be interpreted without by

an important factor in the design of this structure. Detailed geological investigations have therefore to be carried out to find out the subsurface geological conditions before the design and the construction work is taken in hand. Numerous cases are on and has led to understanding possible of record in which neglect of geological conditions has

knowledge of local geology drilling should not be undertaken before establishing local geology surface geological work. The locations of drilled

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given rise to all sort of difficulties On the other hand ~ thorough geological condition has made

holes and depth to which they are to be taken must be decided taking into account the local geological structure and the nature of the infonnation required. Not taking into account the local geological,', conditions while deciding the depths of drill holes may result into the driU holes not yielding all .the information required.

avoidable delays and increases in cost of projects. large

,economies in the execution of many projects.

2.

Procedure: The preliminary geological investigations are aimed

As soon as core is removed from the core barrel all pieces of core' must be immediately numbered serially, their depths and serial numbers painted on them and their lower ends marked so as to ensure that all pieces are. kept in correct order exactly representing the depth from which they have been obtained. Lengths of all pieces of core must be placed in core boxes , and tall measured and recorded in the Daily Drill Report.

at finding out the nature and structure of the rocks at the work site, and to obtain correct information about these the investigations systematically. have to be carried out

3.

Subsurface

Exploration:

Type of Drilling Equipment Three types' of equipment are currently available;

Core must be immediately

.single tube, double tube and triple-tube. Single tube unit is mostly used which needs to be prohlblted. Most of the NITS, these days, provide for double tube but in practice it is not implemented. Even for

made-according-to-standarq-specification

the necessary information such as the name of the project, location of drill hole, drill hole number, etc. , must be painted on the box.

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4.

very large projects costing erores of Rupees single tube drilling is being adopted. In some regions, triple tube drilling may be needed where weak roeks such as shale, volcanic breccias, sedimentary rocks, breccias, Tachylytes, tuffs, tuff siltstones, laterites, weak slates, phyllites, fault zones, mudstones,

7.

Quality and quantity of Returning

drill water

To ensure that drilling data are not misinterpreted and also that valuable data are not lost, certain precautions have to be taken during drilling and observations carefully recorded. All the water that is fed into the drill comes back to the surface if, the rocks being drilled through, are water tight. If, however, the drill is passing through pervious rocks the water will leak into them and will not return to the surface. This drill water loss may be complete or partial depending on the nature of the rocks. As drill water loss indicates a leaky zone all drill water

.shear zones, crush zones, folded rocks ete occurs. In such zones only triple tube must be used. Location of Bore Holes Bore holes as far as practicable, shall be located at every comer of the building and one at the centre. If area of the building is small minimum three bore holes should be taken.

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losses must be carefully Observing important. carefully

recorded

during drilling. is

the core was quite sound when extracted, indicating that . it had come disintegrated in from the sound box. rock, As and had it is the core

the colour Experience

of drill water

Rate of drilling of each run gives inshows that these are usually neglected. It is

.valuable information.

disintegration of core in the core box that creates the wrotig impression that loose materials occurs at the level at which powder is seen, special precautions have to be taken during drilling to prevent such disintegration oftha core in the core box. For this purpose, core of such rocks when raised to the surface-shouldblt of wax by Immediately wax for preventing 11. Ease or dlfflculty drilling at different noted and recorded. To cool the drill water is continuously pumped in~o covered with a thin layer Immersing It In molten

important requirements

always important to know exactly where weak zones occur and what their nature is. But, routine drilling procedures will not provide adequate information on this vital point. In such cases another hole close to previous one is to be drilled in short runs in weak zone. Another alternative is to carry out nearly dry drilHng at a very slow rate. 8. Minimum depth of drilling Each and every be drill hole must be drilled minimum 5 to 6m in rock with minimum core recovery more than 80% and R.O.D more than 70%.

Its exposure to atmosphere. of drilling depths and the speed of must be carefully

9.

Length & Number of Pieces of Core In hard but jointed rock the core recovery may be very good, and consideration of the core recovery alone will lead to the conclusion that the rock is good. This, however, may be wrong, as because of its .fragmented condition, the rock will not be good from the engineering point of view.

the inside of the bit. This water goes down the hole to its bottom and rises to the surface on the outside of . bit. This water is called drill water. Drill water brings with it to the surface the rock cuttings produced by the cutting action of bit. While drilling through hard rock the amount of cuttings is small and the returning drill water is quite clear. If, however, soft material is being drilled through it is pulverized by the violence of drilling. and the chuming action of the drill forms a on suspension with the drill water. Therefore, no core is obtained as the soft material is pulverized and rises to the surface Because suspension indicates turbid in suspension in the drill water. ' of the presence of the soft material in

10. .Preservation

of Core Pieces

Preservation of cores of rocks that disintegrate exposure to atmosphere:

The cores of some soft & weak rocks such as shales, chlorophaeitic of basalt, basalts and red or black tachylytes mudstones, slates, phyliites, and volcanic breccias with lava matrix of these types shales, Jaterites disintegrate on exposure to atmosphere but as they are sound rocks when occurring in situ they give good core when exposed to atmosphere, the time in the core drilled through. However, when because of their tendency to disintegrate

in such cases the drill water becorr that the drill Is passing must through and

turbid. Turbidity of returning drill water theretr son the material which will not give core. In such cases the drill water be collected suspended matter allowed settling. As no core will be obtained this suspended material will be the only . indication available about the nature of the soft material, and it should therefore be preserved in . suitable containers and kept in the core box at the . appropriate place corresponding to the depth from which it comes. All the water th,!t is fed into the drill comes back to the surface if the rocks being drilled through are ' watertight. If, however the drill is passing through

the core disintegrates with box and falls to a loose heaps to loose powder

incoherent powder. Then when the core is examined some days after extraction loose material occurs conclusion are seen in .the core box, and it is concluded that at the level at which these material indicates the heaps of loose powder are seen in the core. But the that powdery
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occurrence 9f loose material is obviously wrong as

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previous rocks r"

the water

will leak into them and will

13.

Corelogs and Lithologs For obtaining from the core the required information useful for engineering purposes it has to be interpreted taking into account the various points discussed above. To be able to do this its relevant characters have to be recorded and for this purpose, core properly arranged in a core boxes according to depth is examined in detail, and the observations are recorded in the standard form. This is called core logging and the,record core log. During core logging every core piece has to be examined individually and all information about it. such as length, type of rock, state recorded recovery of preservation, structural features, nature of the fracture at the ends;' "etc. has to be in the successive in each. draws and the core it records the In addition

not return to the surface. this is called drill water loss . ~hich may be complete or partial depending on the nature of the rocks. As drill water loss indicates recorded during drilling.

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leaky zone all drill water losses must be carefully

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12. FractureSurfaces NatlHal Fractures and Mechanical Fractures: Core would normally break along pre-existing

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divisional planes only. However due to vibrations. during drilling, particularly with a defective machine or defective operation, core may also break even at places where joints do not exist. Such mechanical fractures do not indicate any weakness in rock as joints do, & therefore these fractures may be ignored while considering number & length of pieces of core. It is therefore necessary to distinguish & mechanical between fractures, will fractures due to jointing

observations

carried out during' drilling, such as

colour or turbidity of drill water, loss of drill water, etc., and result of percolation tests. Thus the core log serves as the basic record containing all field data obtained by drilling. Core logging arid preparation of lithologs graphic logs require not only geological expertise geological of higher order, ~ut also interpreting purposes, .and data for engineering

which can be done by examining fracture surfaces. As joints have plane surfaces joint fractures show plane surfaces. Also water circulating along the natural divisional planes will have brought about decomposition of the rock along joints or may have deposited dissolved material on the joint face. Joint fractures will therefore show decomposition, or a 14. stain of iron oxides, or a coating of iron oxides or silica or calcium carbonate. Amechanical fracture on the other hand will have clean rough surfaces without any stain or coating or decomposition. case of broken core therefore fractures. If fragmented rock has come from fault zone fracture surfaces will show parallel scratches because of the enforced movements of rocks against each other. Mechanical Fractures: Core would normally break along preexisting it is necessary In to

.hence these should not be attempted by anyone except an experienced engineering geologist. Interpretation The purpose of drilling is not just to find out the geological condition the location of each drill hole isolated geological from others, structure but also of the to workout entire the worksite

examine all fracture surfaces & to ignore mechanical

considered as a unit. However, such interpretation can be done only if the local geology is adequately known. Interpretation attempted without knowledge of local geology is likely to prove misleading and therefore before undertaking drilling local geology must be correctly workout by surface geological work. Also this interpretation requires knowledge of high degree and therefore it should not be attempted by anyone except the trained geologist conversant with local geology . 15. RQO, JFI and SCR : Core recovery <toes not take into account the

divisional planes only. However, due to vibrations during drilling, particularly with a defective machine .or defective operation, core may also break even at places where joints do not exists. It is necessary to distinguish between fractures due to jointing and mechanical fractures, which can be done by examining the fracture surfaces.

frequency of joints, which is a major short coming. To

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overcome this other methods of describing the state of the core have been devised. One is RQO (Rock Quality Designation), for which recovery is calculated by excluding the aggregate length of pieces less than 10em in length between joints. To overcome certain deficiencies in RQO the Joint Frequency Index (JFI) is calculated. this Is the number obtained bydividing recovery by the number 'of joints in' the draw. Sometimes Solid Core Recovery (SCR) is also used. For computing all these it is of vital importance to distinguish between joints & mechanical fractures, & these must be calculated only by a competent engineering geologist. QUANTITATIVE CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS OF . THE ROCK MASS - GUIDELINES ROCK MASS RATING (RMR) FOR PREDICTING ENGINEERING PROPERTIES 16. SCOPE: This standard covers the procedure for determining the class of rock mass based on geomechanics classification system. 17. PROCEDURE: To apply the geomechanics classification system, a given site 'should be divided into number of .geological structural units in such a way that each type of rock mass present in the area is covered. The following geological parameters are determined for each structural unit: a) Uniaxial compressive material(lS 8764), strength of intact rock

or IS 8764 or IS 10785 as applicable based on s. conditions. The rating based on unlaxt compressive strength and point load strength at. given InAnnex B (Iteml). Howeverthe use ofunlaxi compressive strength Is preferred over the poin load indexstrength. 17.2 Rock Quality Designation(RQO) Rock quality designation (RQD) should b determined specified in IS 11315 (Part 11). thE detail of rating are given InAnnex B (Item II).

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17.3 Spacing of Discontinuities The term discontinuity covers joints, beddings 01 foliations, shear zones, minor fault, or other surfaces of weakness. The linear distance betwee: '" adjacent discontinuities should be measured all sets of discontinuities. The details of ratings ar given inAnnex B. 17.4 Condition of Discontinuities This parameter includes roughness of discontinuit) surfaces, their separation, length or continuity weathering of the wall rock or the planes of weakness, and infilling (gauge) material. The detai~ of rating are given inAnnex B. The description of the term used in the classification is given in the I~ 11315(Part4)and IS 11315 (PartS) .

DATASHEET FOR GEOMECHANICAL CLASSIFICATION OF ROCK MASSES (RM~' I. STRENGTH OF INTACT ROCK MATERIAL (M
Compressive Strength Exceptionally strong >250 100-250 50-100 25-50 10-25

b) c) d) e) f)

Rockquality designation [IS 11315(Part 11)], Spacing of disconttnuitles [IS 11315(Part2)], Condition of discontinuities [IS 11315(Part4 )], Groundwater condition [IS 11315(Part8)] and Orientation of discontinuities [IS 11315(Part1)].
Very strong Strong Average Weak

Point Load Strength >8 4-8

Rating

15 12 7
4

24
1-2
Use of uniaxial com ressive strength is eferred

17~ Uniaxial Compressive Strength of Intact Rock . 1 Material(qc) The strength of the intact rock material should be obtained from rock cores in accordance with IS 9143

Very weak Extremely weak

210
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ROCK QUALITY DESIGNATION ROD Excellent

(RQD) Rating

Average dip direction ADJUSTMENT

Strike and dip orientation of pnls for Raft foundation

FOR JOINT ORIENTATION

vety F8WInbIe 0 FaYOll'able Far UnflMlurable -15

90-100 75-90 50-75 25-50 <25

20 17 13

! Vety (UnI 35

Good
Fair

I favourable I)

-7

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III.

Poor Very poor

Slopes Use slope mass rating (SMR) as per IS 13365 (Part 3) VI. ROCK MASS RATING (RMR)

SPACING OF DISCONTINUITIES

NET SAFE BEARING PRESSURES

BASED ON RMR

Spacing, m Very wide Wide Moderate Close Very close

NOTE

Rating

CLASSIFICATION Descriptio n of rock

Very

No. Good 80-61 300-200

>2 0.6-2 0.2-0.6 0.06-0.2 <0.06

20 15 10 8 5

Far
60-41 150-100

Poor

Very
POOl'

RMR
qns(t/m2)

aood 100-81 400

4021 . 20-0 80-50 40-0 'or < 40

CLASSIFICATION 1.

& CHARACTERISTICS
0. "

OF ROCKS

Characteristics of rock Parent strength of rock stratum is materially affected

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If more than one set of discontinuity the spacing of discontinuities consider the' set with lowest rating. IV. CONDmON OF DISCONTINUITIES
Rough <WId sligllty weathered wall rock surface, separation <1mm 25

is present and

by characteristics

like weathering,

hardness, joint

of each set varies,

spacing and bedding and rock quality designation (ROD). Broad recommended descriptions of these 'characteristics are given in tables below. The extent to which these characteristics will affect the parent

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Very rough andu~ wee!heled wall roct, tight and discorilnuous. no separation

I separation<1

I Sf19hUyrough I and moderately ! kl highly ! weathered walt i rock surface.

mm

Slicken sided wall rock surface Of 1Smmlhick gauge or 1Smmwlde

Smm thick sclt gauge Smm

strength of the rock will vary from case to case and will have to be decided upon based on engineering judgment allowed to access the factors for arriving at the of safety to be bearing allowable

I continuous
' discontinuity

I wide

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so

i
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aperlng.
COOtinuous

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pressures. These decisions should be taken as per the advice of the engineering geologist. Table 2 - Weathering

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GROUND WATER CONDITION
none <10 10-25 25-125 >125

i Inflow per 10m

: tunnel length, Oitrelmin) I Joint water : pressure/major Principal ! stress i General !description

Fresh
0-0.1 0.1-0.2 i ! 0.2-0.5 >0.5

Completely dry 15

Rock fresh, crystals bright, few joints may show slight staining. Rock rings under hammer if crystalline.
Rock generally fresh, joints stained,

Damp 10

Wet
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Dripping

Flowing 0

!Rating

some joints may show clay if open Very slight crystals in broken face show bright. Rock rings under hammer if crystalline.

V.ORIENTATION OF DISCONTINUITIES Oriel)tation of slope/foundation axis .

Average strike direction

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Note: For specific projects involving only desirable. Numerical

a limited number
subscripts

number of factors such foundation permissible material, differential

as soil

strata, bearing capacity of type of loads; etc.' and economy

of rock types, subdivisiOn of major groupings may be or alphabetical may be used to identify such subdMsions. Table 4.- Joints and Bedding In Rock Spacing Lessthan 50 an 50mmto 300mm JOOmmt01m 1mto3m Morethan 3m Joints Very dose Bedding Very thin Thin Medium Thick Very thick Massively bedded Massively bedded Remarks

type of structures, settlement,

Foundation may be broadly classified into two categories: 1) 2) Shallow foundations Deep foundations

dose
Moderatelyaose Wide VerytMde

18.1 SHALLOW FOUNDATION A shallow foundation transmits the loads to the strata at shallow depth. It is termed shallow if it is laid at a depth equal to or less than its width. Shallow foundation is located just below, the lowest part of the wall or a column

Note: joint spacing refers to the distance normal to the plane of the joints of spacing of each

which they support. Foundations are structural members made of brick work, masonry or concrete that is used to transmit the load of the wall or column such that the load is distributed over a large area. Shallow foundation includes spread or isolated footing, strip footing, combined footing, strap or cantilever footing, mat or raft foundations.

a single system "set" of joints

be described, if

which are parallel to each other or nearly so. The "set" should possible to establish. Table 5 Rock Quality Designator RQO Exceeding 90% 90-75 75-50 50-25 Lessthan25 (RQD)

SPREAD OR ISOLATED FOOTING. Diagnostic Description A spread or isolated or pad footing is provided to support Excellent Good Fair Poor Very poor an individual column. A spread footing is-eir~lar, square or rectangular slab of uniform thickness. Sometir:nes, it is stepped or haunched to spread the load over a large area. STRIP FOOTING A strip footing is provided for a load bearinq wall. A strip ~. footing is also provided for a row or columns.which are so closely spaced that their spread foo~ngs overlap or nearly 1. ROD should always be given in percentage. primarily for touch each other. In such a case, it is more economical to provide a strip footing than a number of spread footings in one line. A strip footing is also known as continuous footing. double tube N size core COMBINED FOOTING A combined footing supports two columns. It is used when . the two columns are two close to each other that their .. individual footings would overlap. A combined footing is also provided when the property line is so close to one elements that transfer the column that a spread footing would be eccentrically loaded when kept entirely within the property line. By combining with that of an interior column, the load is evenly distributed. A combine footing may be rectangular or trapezoidal in plan. STRAP OR CANTILEVER FOOTING A strap or cantilever fo<?~ing consists of two isolated Diagnostic rock. If ROD is to be determined, description is intended

evaluating problems with tunnels or excavations in

barrel with non-rotating inner barrels must be used.

18. FOUNDATIONS
INTRODUCTION Foundation is the structural

loadsfrom the building or individual columns to the earth. If these loads areto be properly transmitted, foundations must be designed to prevent excessive settlement or rotation, to minimize differential settlement and to provide adequate safety against sliding and overturning. The type of foundation used in a given situation depends on a

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footings connected with a structural strap or a lever. The straps connect the two footing such that they behave as one unit. The strap simply acts as connecting beam and does not take any soil reaction. The strap is designed as a rigid beam. The individual footings are so designed that their combined line of action passes through the resultant of the total load . A strap footing is more economical than a combined footing large. MAT OR RAFT FOUNDATIONS A mat or raft is a thick reinforced concrete slab which when the allowable soil pressure is

Pile foundations are used in the following conditions:

1.

When the strata at or just below the ground surfal .. highly compressible and very weak to support load transmitted by the structures.
1.

2.

Pile foundations are required for the transmissio .... the structural loads through deep water.

3.

Pile foundation are used to resist the horizon forces in addition to support the v~rtical subjected to horizontal earthquakes. loads.. earth retaining structures and tall structures that ~ forces due to wind a

relatively high and the distance between the columns is

supports all the load bearing walls and column loads of a structure or a portion of structure. A mat is required when the loads are heavy and the soil is very weak or highly compressible. A mat is more economical footings exceeds than individual by the

4.

Piles are used for the foundation of some structure, such as transmission towers. offshore platfom which are subjected to uplift.

5.

In case of expansive soils. such as black con". I sr. which swells or shrinks as the water conte changes piles are used to transfer the load below:" active zone.

footing when the total base area required for the individual about half the area covered structures. The matfoundations differential settlement. a mat must be safe against considerably reduces the shear failure and the

Like all other shallow foundations. limits. As raft

A pile may be classified based on classified based on or ofthe following criteria: a) Material of constructiontimber, steel, concre--

settlement should be within the allowable large volume of soil is excavated pressure on the soil is

are generally at some depth below the ground surface. a and. therefore. the net reduced. An considerably

composite materials b) c) d) Shape-Cylindrical. tapered or under ream Mode of load transfer-end bearing. friction. tensioi Method concrete. e) Method of installation- bored. driven. vibrated. of construction-Cast in situ reinfore=

advantage of this reduction in the pressure can be taken while designing a raft. 18.2 DEEP FOUNDATIONS When the soil at or near the ground surface is not capable of supporting a structures. deep foundations are required to transfer the loads to deeper strata. Deep foundations are therefore. used when the soil surface is unsuitable for shallow foundations. and a firm stratum is so deep that it by shallow foundations. cannot be reached economically a shallow foundation. shallow foundation

concrete. precast reinforced concrete. prestresse

18.4 Drilled Piers and Caisson foundations

A drilled pier is a large diameter concrete cylinder built i_ the ground. For construction of a drilled pier. a lal1 diameter hole is drilled pier and a bored pile is basically

A deep foundation is generally much more expensive than It should be adopted only when a is not feasible. The most common

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the size. Generally. bored piles are of diameter less tha or equal to O.6m.The shafts of size larger than O.6m argenerally designated as drilled piers. A drilled pier is ~ type of deep foundation. constructed surface. A caisson is a tYpe of foundation of the shape of a holle prismatic box, which is built above the ground level to transfer hea. axial or lateral loads to deep stratum below the groun,-

types cf deep foundations are piles. piers and caissons. 18.3 PILE FOUNDATIONS. Pile foundations consisting of vertical structural members which is driven or cast into the ground by suitable means. The piles are usually provided in groups for most structures. The piles may be subjected to vertical loads. horizontal loads or both.

anc_

then sunk to the"J;equired depth as a single unit. It is

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watertight chamber used for laying foundations following types: 1.) 2.) 3.) Open caissons Pneumatic caissons Floating caissons

under

generation hit the Inner phase of the firm ground with the unconsolidated sediments to types of

water as In rivers, lakes, harbour, etc. The caissons are of

body

waves are

.originated, namely Irrotational and pure shear waves. The irrotational waves travel with high velocity then the shear waves, and for translation require changes in the volume of soil.Therefore,ln saturated soil they produce high pore if the acceleration is high in. may be take place at the' .' pressures and eventually

19. FAILURE OF FOUNDATION: Foundation failures on solis be attributed to several things. failure Is caused footings. by the This

noncohesive soil liquefaction volume

ground surface, the shear waves do not produce the change in the soil during there propagation; may developed running however high shear stresses

Foundation failure-can Most commonly different sections

foundation of the

over the shear strength of the soil. From the above consideration two types of problems may be considered; 1) Problem Induced by irrotational waves; 2) Problem Induced by transverse waves. Irrotational seismic waves the cohesion less fine may be affected by

movement of expansive and highly plastic soils beneath

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foundation

movement can be In the form of shrinkage, which causes setUement, or expansion, which causes heave. When dry
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condition prevails, soils consistently

lose moisture and

"shrink. When moisture levels are very high, the opposite is true, and soils swells. Officially any structure movement is known as differential settlement. In addition to expansive soils, subsurface peat, which has a low bearing capacity and deteriorates also cause differential settlement. Other soil types such as sand and silt also have lowerthan required bearing capacities. Poor. drainage from yard run off and gutter downspouts discharging at the base of the foundations is among other causes. Excess moisture around the foundation can cause the soil to become over saturated and lose bearing pressure or the strength to support weight. When this , -'happens, structures settle or sink into the ground.
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The .stability of the foundation

sediments with very low cohesion

dilation, or irrotational waves. In a saturated soil the pore pressure originated during a strong ground motion may be high al1ri the shear strength and liquefaction of the soil may be completely lost may take place. The

over time, can

phenomenori is detected at the ground surface by boils appearing after the earthquake. Never the less even with small acceleration the shear strength is reduced to a point that the bearing capacity is affected and the foundations supported on the type of soil may suffer partial or total failure. The high pressure induced by strong earthquake may cause failure of the structural foundation on firm soil. Shear seismic waves The transverse or pure shear waves propagate from the Seismic forces create various problems in foundation such as settlement of structures, sliding, over tuming, liquefaction, heaves etc. A major earthquake produces a strong ground movement underground in the subsoil, consequently structure supported on and subsurface interface at the firm ground into unconsolidated sediments producing important shear distortion in the soil mass. Deep foundation and the under ground installation may be strong stressed when large displacement may be estimated with the knowledge shear modulus of elasticity subsurface determination shear history. investigation, Based on the above it is essential this are observed by the shear waves. The behaviors of the soil of the dynamic to carry out the will include permeability the and the and shear wave velocity.

ground mass will be induced to move and take dynamic forces. Their action in the foundation geology of the affected areas structure may be and the estimated knowing the subsurface behavior. The general is important startigraphy of the upper part of the subsoil comprises of soft sediments where the strong ground motions take place should be determined. When the seismic waves coming from the zone of

of grain size, the consolidation

strength

charactertstlcs,

characteristics of the soil as well as the previous stress

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of foundation solis under

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. 20. Liquefaction earthquake Introduction: Liquefaction is a phenomenon in which a saturated cohesion less soil looses strength during an earthquake and acquires a degree of mobility sufficient to permit a significant movement. ~en sand is not saturated the earthquake may cause significant compaction and subsidence. Catastrophic failures have occurred by liquefaction of cohesion less soil during recent earthquakes. Site and soil conditions: Because the foundation must be capable of adequately supporting a structure in an economical manner it is imperative that there be proper geotechnical investigation. This geotechnical investigation to be provide information about the soil types beneath the site and their physical characteristics (strength, compressibility, permeability etc) the investigation should provide economical and feasi~le altematives for the support of the structure. In the seismic environment geotechnical investigation would also need to evaluate behaviour of the supporting soils under earthquake excitation, predict the consequences for the structure and recommend the foundation types. Not only it is important to investigate the soil conditions, the general site conditions also need deep scrutiny. The investigation should indicate the features near the features near the building area and also distant features. Important nearby site features include water levels. Topographical features and the presence of other structure both above and below the ground for example the presences of fault, folds, fractures shear zones. Cavernous rocks, weak beading planes, dykes etc. will have the influence on the structure. Causes of Liquefaction Soil liquefaction during an earthquake leads to loss of strength and stiffness of soil. This could result in the settlement of the structure, causes land slides, over turning, precipitate failures of earth dams, or cause other types of hazards. The soil liquefaction has been observed to occur most often in loose saturated sand deposits. During strong earthquake shakinp the loose saturated
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sand deposits will have a tendency to compact and thus decreases in volume. If these deposits can not drain rapidly, there will be an increase in pore water pressure. Effective stresses in the sand deposits are equal to the difference between the overburden pressure and the pore water pressure. With increasing oscillations, the pore water pressure can increase to the value of overburden pressure. Since the shear strength of a cohesion lessSOil 'is directly proportional to the effective stress, the sandwill not haveany shearstrength, it is now in the liquefied state. Sand boils appearing at the ground surface during an earthquake are evidence that liquefaction has occurred. Factors known to Influence Liquefaction: Both laboratory investigation and observations of field performances have shown that the significant factors or which liquefaction potential of a soil deposit depends are: i) Soil type, Ii) Relative density or void ratio, Iii) Initial confining pressure, iv) Intensity of ground shaking andv) Durationof ground shaking Intensity and Duration of Ground Shaking: For a soil in a given condition and under a given confining pressure, the vulnerability to liquefaction during an earthquake depends on the magnitude of the stresses or strains induced in it by earthquake. These in turn are related to the intensity of ground shaking. Duration of ground acceleration also affect the susceptibility to liquefaction, naturally susceptibility increases with increasingduration. Liquefaction -Induced ground failures and effects .0" , Structures If a soil becomes liquefied and looses its shear strength, ground failures may result. If there are structures founded over or near ~~e soil deposits, they may be damaged. Youd has classified ground failures caused by liquefaction intothree categories . 1) 'Lateral spreading 2) 3) Flow failures loss of Bearing Capacity

lateral spreading is a movementof surficialsoil layersina direction parallel to the ground surface, which occurs when there is a loss of shearing strength in a subsurface layerdue to liquefaction. lateral spreading usually oCCUrs

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on very gentle slopes with a slope ofless than 5%. If there is a differential lateral spreading under a structure, there can be sufficient tensile stresses developed in the better structore to tear it apart. Flexible buildings have been observed to withstand extensional than stiff or brittle buildings. Mitigation Modification There are site modification Tllesemethods methods, which can reduce and Liquefaction Hazard displacements

pattern grained

may stone

be

able

to will

accomplish be very

this.

Vibro in

replacement

also utilizes this principle, as the coarse column permeable

comparison with the surrounding soils. Foundation of structures on Rocks

by Site

Until now foundation problems associated with soils have been discussed. It is general misconception that there will be no problems for foundations on rocks. But there are large no cases when structures founded on rocks, fresh or moderately weathered, have failed. This problem will be more aggravated in highly seismic areas. The rocks like shale, slates, phylites, tuffs, volcanic breccias with red tachylytic basalt matrix, volcanic breccias with tuff matrix, black, red, green, tachylyte and the geological structures like fault zones, shear zones, crush zones, folds, lime stones with solution cavities, and areas where mining activity is in progress etc. pose a lot of problems for foundations. strength Some rocks in dry condition leading to . uneven may have settlement. adequate strength, but soften with water.and loose there

susceptibility of the soils beneath a site to liquefaction. are summarized below.

Methods to mitigate soil liquefaction by site modification 1) Excavation and replacement of liquefiable soils. Excavation and engineered soils Excavation and engineered compaction of soils compaction of existing

improved with additives Excavation of e~sting soils and replacement with

to a great

p~perly compacted and non liquefiable soils 2) Densifications of in situ soils Compaction. floatation piles B. Vibratory probes
~.

Difference in the degree of weathering and deterioration in dry and wet condition also leads 10 settlement of the structures. Structures constructed 'on unstable slopes. due care with slope greater than dip of bed will fail when major shocks occur. Therefore during investigations must be taken while drilling not only through soils but also

C. Vibro

D. Compaction

grouting

E. Dynamic

'compaction or impact densification 3) In situ improvement of the soils by alterations

through weathered rocks and fresh rocks. All the features of rock like mineral composition, texture, state of preservation of rock masses i.e. degree of weathering. structure of rock masses like strike, dip, joints, bedding planes tension lamination, cracks, lineation, solution foliations, zones, cavities plane of schistocity, folds, faults, shear dykes, crush zones,

Mixing in situ soils with additives Removing in situ soils by jetting and replacement with no liquefiable soils
.i)

Grouting or chemical stabilization of liquefaction Hazard by Drainage

--;tlgatlon

and caves,

spheroidical weathering, sheeting etc must be recorded Dewatering systems may reduce potential for liquefaction carefully and taken cognizance of while deciding the

by removing the water from those layers. which could

liquefy. Also the resulting increase in effective overburden pressure will add to the resistance liquefaction. If total dewatering problem. Drainage providing some means of drainage of, the soils against of a site is not practical, may Olitigate the of liquefiable soil

(S.B.C.), type offoundation during the design of structure, in general and in earthquake prone areas in particular.

21. Land and Sliding

Landslide: Earthquakes may trigger landslides or other forms of

allows for the rapid dissipation

excess pore pressures in the potentially

layers. If the pore pressures can be relieved quickly, the effective stresses will not be decreased significantly and Soil ~iII retain most of its shear strength not allowing liqUefaction to occur. Vertical gravel drains placed in a grid

slopes instability. Slope failures may occur as a result of development of excess pore pressures which will reduce the shear strength of the soil or cause loss of strength along bedding or joints in the rock materials. Earthquakes

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/
may also cause shallow debris slides in areas with high, steep slopes. These slides can be minor or quite major. The 1970 debris avalanche triggered by the Peruvian earthquake of May 31, 1970 buried the towns of Yungay Ranrahirca, in which 18000 lives were lost Careful consideration should be given to structures, which are sighted in a location that could directly or indirectly be affected by some form of slope instability. A very careful Geotechnical and Geological investigation will be needed to determine if such hazards exist and if there are any practical means of mitigation. Earthquake Induced slope Instability 22. REFERENCES 1) 2)

. ' !. '

Gupte R.B., Preparationof Projects and Enginaerin Geology, P.W.D.handbook chapter VI (part II) 1980, 1994. Indian seismicity and past earthquakes-earthquak reslsitance design and construction ot buildings(August 2001). Indian Institute 0 Technology,Kanpur. Indian Standards of EarthquakeEngineering. 6926:1973 Code of practice for diamond core. drilling for site Investigationfor river valley projects. IS: 5313:1969 guidefor core drilling observations. IS: 4078:1967 Code of practice for Indexing and storage of drill cores. IS: 4464:1967 Code of practicefor presenting OT driJ information and core description in foundation investigation. IS: 13365 (part 1)-1998 Quantitative Classificatio Systems of Rock mass- Guidelines IS: 12070-1987 (Reaffirmed 1995) Code of practice for Design and Construction of Shallow foundation. on Rocks

3) 4)15:

While scientist are busy, analyzing the recent major earthquakes, that have occurred in recent years in India e.g. the one at Latur. Uttar Kashi and Jabalpur, which have taken a high toll of human life and have also threatened the structures. Engineers are, at the same time engaged in research and developmental activity for making safe a seismic structure. Studies carried out after 22nd May 1977 earthquake of Jabalpur have gathered evid~nces to prove that large scale upliftment of geological terrain takes place near and around epicenter as an immediate effect of seismic activity. This causes maximum damage to human life and structures due to differential upliftment.Where the earthquakes occur in sparsely populated areas or uninhabited areas, the phenomenon of differential upliftment goes unnoticed as it does not manifests itself immediately through damage to manmade structures but causes damage to stability of the slopes of the' hilly mountains and ridges to become seriously unstable. Recent major landslide of Gandhawai regions are in fact connected with the earthquake. They have their genesis in the previous seismic activities that haveoccurred there.

5) 6)

7)

8)

9)'

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