1.

Introduction Air pollution

Air pollution is the modification of the natural characteristics of the atmosphere by a chemical, particulate matter, or biological agent. The atmosphere is a complex, dynamic natural gaseous system that is essential to support life on planet Earth. Stratospheric ozone depletion due to air pollution has long been recognized as a threat to human health as well as to the Earth's ecosystems. Worldwide air pollution is responsible for large numbers of deaths1. And cases of respiratory disease. 2. While major stationary sources. Are often identified with air pollution, the greatest source of emissions is actually mobile sources, mainly automobiles. Gases such as carbon dioxide, which contribute to global warming, have recently gained recognition as pollutants by climate scientists, while they also recognize that carbon dioxide is essential for plant life through photosynthesis. Apart from fighting the greenhouse gases that cause climate change, a key objective of environmental legislation is to improve the quality of our air, the pollution of which has repercussions in particular on people's health and, in the form of phenomena such as acidification and eutrophication, on the environment. European policies are targeting the various types and sources of pollutant. Also, in 2005 the Commission proposed a thematic strategy for reducing the number of deaths linked to air pollution by 40% (of 2000 levels) by 2020. Air pollution is a mixture of solid particles and gases in the air. Car emissions, chemicals from factories, dust, pollen and mold spores may be suspended as particles. Ozone, a gas, is a major part of air pollution in cities. When ozone forms air pollution, it's also called smog. Some air pollutants are poisonous. Inhaling them can increase the chance you'll have health problems. People with heart or lung disease, older adults and children are at greater risk from air pollution. Air pollution isn't just outside the air inside buildings can also be polluted and affect your health.

What is air pollution?

Ill go out for a breath of fresh air is an often-heard phrase. But how many of us realize that this has become irrelevant in todays world, because the quality of air in our cities is anything but fresh. The moment you step out of the house and are on the road you can actually see the air getting polluted; a cloud of smoke from the exhaust of a bus, car, or a scooter; smoke billowing from a factory chimney, flyash generated by thermal power plants, and speeding cars causing dust to rise from the roads. Natural phenomena such as the eruption of a volcano and even someone smoking a cigarette can also cause air pollution.

The gaseous composition of unpolluted air

The Gases Nitrogen Oxygen Water Argon Carbon Dioxide Neon Helium Methane Krypton Nitrous oxide Hydrogen Xenon Organic vapours

Parts per million (vol) 756,500 202,900 31,200 9,000 305 17.4 5.0 0.97-1.16 0.97 0.49 0.49 0.08 ca.0.02

Air pollution is aggravated because of four developments: increasing traffic, growing cities, rapid economic development, and industrialization. The Industrial Revolution in Europe in the 19th century saw the beginning of air pollution as we know it today, which has gradually become a global problem.

2. Types of Air Pollution

Particulates of both natural and human origin also cause pollution. Smoke both natural from fires and human activities cause from industries and other sources are major and cause much damage . The chemicals that are most trouble-some in air pollution are formed in the atmosphere by gases. The pollutant introduced into the atmosphere in the largest quantities by human activity is carbon monoxide. It is the product of incomplete combustion and the largest contribution comes from exhaust. Carbon monoxide is a colorless, odorless, tasteless gas, with the formula CO. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is also a product of combustion of fossil fuels. It is a minor constituent of natural air (about 0.03%), but the increased use of fossil fuels may cause an increase in the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. The gases given off by engine exhaust are the oxides of nitrogen and the unburned hydrocarbons. The energy that causes these gases to react to form new compounds, comes from the sun. This reaction is called a photochemical reaction. The air that is exhausted from diesel engines is also too poor to breathe, although it contains more oxygen per cubic foot, but more particles. Ozone is a chemically reactive substance (03) that is sometimes used to deodorizing exhausts by oxiding them to less objectionable odorous products before they are released to the atmosphere. Industrial or gray smog is considered the most serious type of air pollution. Smoke and oxides of that are released by burning coal and oil containing minor amounts of sulfur is the cause. The oxides of sulfur form sulfuric acid in the atmosphere which is both toxic to life and damaging to many materials. The smoke gives the air a gray color. Industrial smog has been known to cause air pollution disasters. One of the worst occurred in London in December of 1952. Five days of stagnant air brought about high pressure systems caused between 3,500 and 4,000 deaths. In Donora, Pennsylvania 20 died and 6,000 became ill in 1948 because of a similar instance. Photochemical smog also know as brown smog is largely caused by exhaust gases. It is common in warm cities in dry areas with lots of sunshine, such as Los Angeles, Denver, and Salt Lake City. This type of smog can obscure vision, cause plant damage, and irritate eyes.

3. Causes of Air Pollution

History
Humans probably first experienced harm from air pollution when they built fires in poorly ventilated caves. Since then we have gone on to pollute more of the earth's surface. Until recently, environmental pollution problems have been local and minor because of the Earth's own ability to absorb and purify minor quantities of pollutants. The industrialization of society, the introduction of motorized vehicles, and the explosion of the population, are factors contributing toward the growing air pollution problem. At this time it is urgent that we find methods to clean up the air. The primary air pollutants found in most urban areas are carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, hydrocarbons, and particulate matter (both solid and liquid). These pollutants are dispersed throughout the world's atmosphere in concentrations high enough to gradually cause serious health problems. Serious health problems can occur quickly when air pollutants are concentrated, such as when massive injections of sulfur dioxide and suspended particulate matter are emitted by a large volcanic eruption.

Air Pollution in the Home

We cannot escape air pollution, not even in our own home. "In 1985 the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) reported that toxic chemicals found in the air of almost every American home are three times more likely to cause some type of cancer than outdoor air pollutants". (Miller 488) The health problems in these buildings are called "sick building syndrome". "An estimated one-fifth to one-third of all U.S. buildings are now considered "sick". (Miller 489) The EPA has found that the air in some office buildings is 100 times more polluted than the air outside. Poor ventilation causes about half of the indoor air pollution problems. The rest come from specific sources such as copying machines, electrical and telephone cables, mold and microbe-harboring air conditioning systems and ducts, cleaning fluids, cigarette smoke, carpet, latex caulk and paint, vinyl molding, linoleum tile, and building materials and furniture that emit air pollutants such as formaldehyde. A major indoor air pollutant is radon-222, a colorless, odorless, tasteless, naturally occurring radioactive gas produced by the radioactive decay of uranium-238. "According to studies by the EPA and the National Research Council, exposure to radon is second only to smoking as a cause of lung cancer". (Miller 489) Radon enters through pores and cracks in concrete when indoor air pressure is less than the pressure of gasses in the soil. Indoor air will be healthier than outdoor air if we use an energy recovery ventilator to provide a consistent supply of fresh filtered air and then seal air leaks in the shell of our home.

4.Sources of air pollution

USources of air pollution refer to the various locations, activities or factors which are responsible for the releasing of pollutants in the atmosphere. These sources can be classified into two major categories which are: Anthropogenic sources (human activity) mostly related to burning different kinds of fuel

"Stationary Sources" as smoke stacks of power plants, manufacturing facilities, municipal waste incinerators "Mobile Sources" as motor vehicles, aircraft etc. Combustion-fired power plants Controlled burn practices used in agriculture and forestry management Motor vehicles generating air pollution emissions. Marine vessels, such as container ships or cruise ships, and related port air pollution. Burning wood, fireplaces, stoves, furnaces and incinerators Oil refining, power plant operation and industrial activity in general. Chemicals, dust and crop waste burning in farming, (see Dust Bowl). Fumes from paint, hair spray, varnish, aerosol sprays and other solvents. Waste deposition in landfills, which generate methane. Military uses, such as nuclear weapons, toxic gases, germ warfare and rocketry.

Natural sources

Dust from natural sources, usually large areas of land with little or no vegetation. Methane, emitted by the digestion of food by animals, for example cattle. Radon gas from radioactive decay within the Earth's crust. Smoke and carbon monoxide from wildfires.

Volcanic activity, which produce sulfur, chlorine, and ash particulates

5.Pollutants

Before flue gas desulfurization was installed, the emissions from this power plant in New Mexico contained excessive amounts of sulfur dioxide. There are many substances in the air which may impair the health of plants and animals (including humans), or reduce visibility. These arise both from natural processes and human activity. Substances not naturally found in the air or at greater concentrations or in different locations from usual are referred to as pollutants. Pollutants can be classified as either primary or secondary. Primary pollutants are substances directly emitted from a process, such as ash from a volcanic eruption or the carbon monoxide gas from a motor vehicle exhaust. Secondary pollutants are not emitted directly. Rather, they form in the air when primary pollutants react or interact. An important example of a secondary pollutant is ground level ozone - one of the many secondary pollutants that make up photochemical smog. Note that some pollutants may be both primary and secondary: that is, they are both emitted directly and formed from other primary pollutants. Major primary pollutants produced by human activity include:

Sulfur oxides (SOx) especially sulfur dioxide are emitted from burning of coal and oil. Nitrogen oxides (NOx) especially nitrogen dioxide are emitted from high temperature combustion. Can be seen as the brown haze dome above or plume downwind of cities. Carbon monoxide is colourless, odourless, non-irritating but very poisonous gas. It is a product by incomplete combustion of fuel such as natural gas, coal or wood. Vehicular exhaust is a major source of carbon monoxide. Carbon dioxide (CO2), a greenhouse gas emitted from combustion. Volatile organic compounds (VOC), such as hydrocarbon fuel vapors and solvents.

Particulate matter (PM), measured as smoke and dust. PM10 is the fraction of suspended particles 10 micrometers in diameter and smaller that will enter the nasal cavity. PM2.5 has a maximum particle size of 2.5 m and will enter the bronchies and lungs. Toxic metals, such as lead, cadmium and copper. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), harmful to the ozone layer emitted from products currently banned from use. Ammonia (NH3) emitted from agricultural processes. Odors, such as from garbage, sewage, and industrial processes Radioactive pollutants produced by nuclear explosions and war explosives, and natural processes such as radon.

Secondary pollutants include:

Particulate matter formed from gaseous primary pollutants and compounds in photochemical smog, such as nitrogen dioxide. Ground level ozone (O3) formed from NOx and VOCs. Peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) similarly formed from NOx and VOCs.

Minor air pollutants include:

A large number of minor hazardous air pollutants. Some of these are regulated in USA under the Clean Air Act and in Europe under the Air Framework Directive. A variety of persistent organic pollutants, which can attach to particulate matter.

6. Sources of Pollutants

The two main sources of pollutants in urban areas are transportation (predominantly automobiles) and fuel combustion in stationary sources, including residential, commercial, and industrial heating and cooling and coal-burning power plants. Motor vehicles produce high levels of carbon monoxides (CO) and a major source of hydrocarbons (HC) and nitrogen oxides (NOx). Whereas, fuel combustion in stationary sources is the dominant source of sulfur dioxide (SO2). Carbon Dioxide Carbon dioxide (CO2) is one of the major pollutants in the atmosphere. Major sources of CO2 are fossil fuels burning and deforestation. "The concentrations of CO2 in the air around 1860 before the effects of industrialization were felt, is assumed to have been about 290 parts per million (ppm). In the hundred years and more since then, the concentration has increased by about 30 to 35 ppm that is by 10 percent". (Breuer 67) Industrial countries account for 65% of CO2 emissions with the United States and Soviet Union responsible for 50%. Less developed countries (LDCs), with 80% of the world's people, are responsible for 35% of CO2 emissions but may contribute 50% by 2020. "Carbon dioxide emissions are increasing by 4% a year". (Miller 450) In 1975, 18 thousand million tons of carbon dioxide (equivalent to 5 thousand million tons of carbon) were released into the atmosphere, but the atmosphere showed an increase of only 8 billion tons (equivalent to 2.2 billion tons of carbon". (Breuer 70) The ocean waters contain about sixty times more CO2 than the atmosphere. If the equilibrium is disturbed by externally increasing the concentration of CO2 in the air, then the oceans would absorb more and more CO2. If the oceans can no longer keep pace, then more CO2 will remain into the atmosphere. As water warms, its ability to absorb CO2 is reduced. CO2 is a good transmitter of sunlight, but partially restricts infrared radiation going back from the earth into space. This produces the so-called greenhouse effect that prevents a drastic cooling of the Earth during the night. Increasing the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere reinforces this effect and is expected to result in a warming of the Earth's surface. Currently carbon dioxide is responsible for 57% of the global warming trend. Nitrogen oxides contribute most of the atmospheric contaminants. 8

 N0X - nitric oxide (N0) and nitrogen dioxide (N02)

Natural component of the Earth's atmosphere. Important in the formation of both acid precipitation and photochemical smog (ozone), and causes nitrogen loading. Comes from the burning of biomass and fossil fuels. 30 to 50 million tons per year from human activities, and natural 10 to 20 million tons per year. Average residence time in the atmosphere is days. Has a role in reducing stratospheric ozone.

N20 - nitrous oxide

Natural component of the Earth's atmosphere. Important in the greenhouse effect and causes nitrogen loading. Human inputs 6 million tons per year, and 19 million tons per year by nature. Residence time in the atmosphere about 170 years. 1700 (285 parts per billion), 1990 (310 parts per billion), 2030 (340 parts per billion). Comes from nitrogen based fertilizers, deforestation, and biomass burning.

7. Indoor air quality (IAQ)

A lack of ventilation indoors concentrates air pollution where people often spend the majority of their time. Radon (Rn) gas, a carcinogen, is exuded from the Earth in certain locations and trapped inside houses. Researchers have found that radon gas is responsible for over 1,800 deaths annually in the United Kingdom.[citation needed] Building materials including carpeting and plywood emit formaldehyde (H2CO) gas. Paint and solvents give off volatile organic compounds (VOCs) as they dry. Lead paint can degenerate into dust and be inhaled. Intentional air pollution is introduced with the use of air fresheners, incense, and other scented items. Controlled wood fires in stoves and fireplaces can add significant amounts of smoke particulates into the air, inside and out. Indoor pollution fatalities may be caused by using pesticides and other chemical sprays indoors without proper ventilation. Carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning and fatalities are often caused by faulty vents and chimneys, or by the burning of charcoal indoors. 56,000 Americans died from CO in the period 1979-1988. Chronic carbon monoxide poisoning can result even from poorly adjusted pilot lights. Traps are built into all domestic plumbing to keep sewer gas, hydrogen sulfide, out of interiors. Clothing emits tetrachloroethylene, or other dry cleaning fluids, for days after dry cleaning. Though its use has now been banned in many countries, the extensive use of asbestos in industrial and domestic environments in the past has left a potentially very dangerous material in many localities. Asbestosis is a chronic inflammatory medical condition affecting the tissue of the lungs. It occurs after long-term, heavy exposure to asbestos from asbestos-containing materials in structures. Sufferers have severe dyspnea (shortness of breath) and are at an increased risk regarding several different types of lung cancer. As clear explanations are not always stressed in non-technical literature, care should be taken to distinguish between several forms of relevant diseases. According to the World Health Organisation (WHO), these may defined as; asbestosis, lung cancer, and mesothelioma (generally a very rare form of cancer, when more widespread it is almost always associated with prolonged exposure to asbestos).*Biological sources of air pollution are also found indoors, as gases and airborne particulates. Pets produce dander, people produce dust from minute skin flakes and decomposed hair, dust mites in bedding, carpeting and furniture produce enzymes and micron-sized fecal droppings, inhabitants emit methane, mold forms in walls and generates mycotoxins and spores, air conditioning systems can incubate Legionnaires' disease and mold, and houseplants, soil and surrounding gardens can produce pollen, dust, and mold. Indoors, the lack of air circulation allows these airborne pollutants to accumulate more than they would otherwise occur in nature

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8.Health Effects of Air Pollution

The human health effects of poor air quality are far reaching, but principally affect the body's respiratory system and the cardiovascular system. Individual reactions to air pollutants depend on the type of pollutant a person is exposed to, the degree of exposure, the individual's health status and genetics. People who exercise outdoors, for example, on hot, smoggy days increase their exposure to pollutants in the air. The health effects caused by air pollutants may range from subtle biochemical and physiological changes to difficulty breathing, wheezing, coughing and aggravation of existing respiratory and cardiac conditions. These effects can result in increased medication use, increased doctor or emergency room visits, more hospital admissions and even premature death. The World Health Organization states that 2.4 million people die each year from causes directly attributable to air pollution.[2] Many of these mortalities are attributable to indoor air pollution. Worldwide more deaths per year are linked to air pollution than to automobile accidents. Published in 2005 suggests that 310,000 Europeans die from air pollution annually. Direct causes of air pollution related deaths include aggravated asthma, bronchitis, emphysema, lung and heart diseases, and respiratory allergies. The US EPA estimates that a proposed set of changes in diesel engine technology (Tier 2) could result in 12,000 fewer premature mortalities, 15,000 fewer heart attacks, 6,000 fewer emergency room visits by children with asthma, and 8,900 fewer respiratory-related hospital admissions each year in the United States. The worst short term civilian pollution crisis in India was the 1984 Bhopal Disaster. Leaked industrial vapors from the Union Carbide factory, belonging to Union Carbide, Inc., U.S.A., killed more than 2,000 people outright and injured anywhere from 150,000 to 600,000 others, some 6,000 of whom would later die from their injuries. The United Kingdom suffered its worst air pollution event when the December 4th Great Smog of 1952 formed over London. In six days more than 4,000 died, and 8,000 more died within the following months. An accidental leak of anthrax spores from a biological warfare laboratory in the former USSR in 1979 near Sverdlovsk is believed to have been the cause of hundreds of civilian deaths. The worst single incident of air pollution to occur in the United States of America occurred in Donora, Pennsylvania in late October, 1948, when 20 people died and over 7,000 were injured.[3] The health effects caused by air pollutants may range from subtle biochemical and physiological changes to difficulty in breathing, wheezing, coughing and aggravation of existing respiratory and cardiac conditions. These effects can result in increased medication use, increased doctor or emergency room visits, more hospital admissions and premature death. The human health effects of poor air quality are far reaching, but principally affect the body's respiratory system and the cardiovascular system. Individual reactions to air pollutants depend on the type of pollutant a person is exposed to, the degree of exposure, the individual's health status and genetics. People

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who exercise outdoors, for example, on hot, smoggy days increase their exposure to pollutants in the air

Pollution Damage to Plants

With the destruction and burning of the rain forests more and more CO2 is being released into the atmosphere. Trees play an important role in producing oxygen from carbon dioxide. "A 115 year old Beech tree exposes about 200,000 leaves with a total surface to 1200 square meters. During the course of one sunny day such a tree inhales 9,400 liters of carbon dioxide to produce 12 kilograms of carbohydrate, thus liberating 9,400 liters of oxygen. Through this mechanism about 45,000 liters of air are regenerated which is sufficient for the respiration of 2 to 3 people". (Breuer 1) This process is called photosynthesis which all plants go though but some yield more and some less oxygen. As long as no more wood is burnt than is reproduced by the forests, no change in atmospheric CO2 concentration will result. Pollutants such as sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, ozone and peroxyacl nitrates (PANs), cause direct damage to leaves of crop plants and trees when they enter leaf pores (stomates). Chronic exposure of leaves and needles to air pollutants can also break down the waxy coating that helps prevent excessive water loss and damage from diseases, pests, drought and frost. "In the midwestern United States crop losses of wheat, corn, soybeans, and peanuts from damage by ozone and acid deposition amount to about $5 billion a year". (Miller 498)

Reduction efforts
There are many air pollution control technologies and urban planning strategies available to reduce air pollution; however, worldwide costs of addressing the issue are high. Of course, these costs are a small fraction of the economic damage that air pollution will inflict on every nation of earth. Within the last decade the cost of air pollution annually in most of Europe is between 1-3 percent GDP and is at least 5 percent GDP of China. Many countries have programs to or are debating how to reduce dependence on fossil fuels for energy production and shift toward renewable energy technologies or nuclear power plants. Efforts to reduce pollution from mobile sources includes primary regulation (many developing countries have permissive regulations), expanding regulation to new sources (such as cruise and transport ships, farm equipment, and small gas-powered equipment such as lawn trimmers, chainsaws, and snowmobiles), increased fuel efficiency (such as through the use of hybrid vehicles), conversion to cleaner fuels (such as bioethanol, biodiesel, or conversion to electric vehicles with renewable energy sources (batteries or clean fuel such as hydrogen being used for transport and storage).

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Structure and Function

The human respiratory system is dominated by our lungs, which bring fresh oxygen (O 2) into our bodies while expelling carbon dioxide (CO2). The oxygen travels from the lungs through the bloodstream to the cells in all parts of the body. The cells use the oxygen as fuel and give off carbon dioxide as a waste gas. The waste gas is carried by the bloodstream back to the lungs to be exhaled. The human respiratory system can be divided into the upper respiratory tract and the lower respiratory tract. The upper respiratory tract includes the following rigid structures: Nasal cavities: Filter the air we breathe and provide a sense of smell. Pharynx: Acts in the respiratory and the digestive system. Larynx: Link between the pharynx and the trachea. Generates the voice with the presence of vocal folds. Trachea: The trachea is the bond with the lower respiratory tract. This is a flexible structure allowing the air to go down to the lungs. In addition to gas exchange, the lungs and the other parts of the respiratory system have important jobs to do related to breathing. These include: Bringing all air to the proper body temperature. Moisturizing the inhaled air for necessary humidity. Protecting the body from harmful substances by coughing, sneezing, filtering or swallowing them, or by alerting the body through the sense of smell. Defending the lungs with cilia (tiny hair-like structure), mucus and macrophages, which act to remove harmful substances deposited in the respiratory system.

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Human Respiratory System

The health of our lungs and entire respiratory system is affected by the quality of the air we breathe. In addition to oxygen, this air contains other substances such as pollutants, which can be harmful. Exposure to chemicals by inhalation can negatively affect our lungs and other organs in the body. The respiratory system is particularly sensitive to air pollutants because much of it is made up of exposed membrane. Lungs are anatomically structured to bring large quantities of air (on average, 400 million litres in a lifetime) into intimate contact with the blood system, to facilitate the delivery of oxygen. Lung tissue cells can be injured directly by air pollutants such as ozone, metals and free radicals. Ozone can damage the alveoli -- the individual air sacs in the lung where oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged. More specifically, airway tissues which are rich in bioactivation enzymes can transform organic pollutants into reactive metabolites and cause secondary lung injury. Lung tissue has an abundant blood supply that can carry toxic substances and their metabolites to distant organs. In response to toxic insult, lung cells also release a variety of potent chemical mediators that may critically affect the function of other organs such as those of the cardiovascular system. This response may also cause lung inflammation and impair lung function.

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9. Prevention of Air Pollution

How can we prevent the damaging effects of air pollution?
In many countries in the world, steps are being taken to stop the damage to our environment from air pollution. Scientific groups study the damaging effects on plant, animal and human life. Legislative bodies write laws to control emissions. Educators in schools and universities teach students, beginning at very young ages, about the effects of air pollution. The first step to solving air pollution is assessment . Researchers have investigated outdoor air pollution and have developed standards for measuring the type and amount of some serious air pollutants. Scientists must then determine how much exposure to pollutants is harmful. Once exposure levels have been set, steps can be undertaken to reduce exposure to air pollution. These can be accomplished by regulation of man-made pollution through legislation. Many countries have set controls on pollution emissions for transportation vehicles and industry. This is usually done to through a variety of coordinating agencies which monitor the air and the environment. At the United Nations, the Atmosphere Management Program carries out world wide environmental projects. In the United States, the primary federal agency is the Environmental Protection Agency. Many state and local organizations also participate in monitoring and controlling the environment. These include the San Francisco Bay Area's Air Quality Management District (B.A.A.Q.M.D.), the Air Quality Management District in southern California, the Environmental Protection Agency of California, SmogBusters of southern California, and the Galveston-Houston Association for Smog Prevention (GHASP). Prevention is another key to controlling air pollution. The regulatory agencies mentioned above play an essential role in reducing and preventing air pollution in the environment. In addition, it is possible to prevent many types of air pollution that are not regulated through personal, careful attention to our interactions with the environment. In the United States, most household products come with instructions about safe use. Additional information about product chemical safety are available in an article and a fact sheet from Enviro$en$e, and in Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS). Building materials should be reviewed for potential harmful effects. Information on building materials can be found in LBNL's Center for Building Science newsletter. Additional information is available from EcoTech.

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Adequate ventilation is also a key to controlling exposure to indoor air pollution. Home and work environments should be monitored for adequate air flow and proper exhaust systems installed. Additional information is available in a book titled Understanding Ventilation . One of the most dangerous air pollutants is cigarette smoke. Restricting smoking is an important key to a healthier environment. Legislation to control smoking is in effect in some locations, but personal exposure should be monitored and limited wherever possible. Additional information about the effects of "secondhand" cigarette smoke is available from the American Association for Respiratory Care (AARC) and Medicine On-line. The Air Pollution Prevention and Control Division (APPCD) within the National Risk Management Research Laboratory, conducts research, develops and demonstrates air pollution prevention and control technologies for key industries, electric power plants, incinerators, indoor environments and sources of greenhouse gases. Research includes characterization of major sources of air pollution and verification of the performance of innovative technologies. APPCD maintains a close working relationship with trade and professional organizations, industry, and academia to design and develop innovative pollution management methodologies. APPCD is also involved in international clean stechnology development projects. The Division concentrates its efforts in six main program areas: Air Toxics, Fine Particles, Indoor Air Quality, Ozone, and Global Climate Change. The research, conducted and managed by engineers, scientists, and administrative professionals, is accomplished through a variety of mechanisms including: inhouse research, cooperative agreements with academia and non-profit organizations; interagency agreements with other federal entities; and contracts with environmental consultants and forprofit companies.

Control devices
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The following items are commonly used as pollution control devices by industry or transportation devices. They can either destroy contaminants or remove them from an exhaust stream before it is emitted into the atmosphere. Particulate control Mechanical collectors (dust cyclones, multicyclones) Electrostatic precipitators Baghouses Particulate scrubbers Scrubbers Baffle spray scrubber Cyclonic spray scrubber Ejector venturi scrubber Mechanically aided scrubber Spray tower Wet scrubber NOx control Low NOx burners Selective catalytic reduction (SCR) Selective non-catalytic reduction (SNCR) NOx scrubbers Exhaust gas recirculation Catalytic converter (also for VOC control) VOC abatement Adsorption systems, such as activated carbon

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Flares Thermal oxidizers Catalytic oxidizers Biofilters Absorption (scrubbing) Cryogenic condensers Vapor recovery systems Acid Gas/SO2 control Wet scrubbers Dry scrubbers Flue gas desulfurization Sorbent Injection Technology

Mercury control Electro-Catalytic Oxidation (ECO) K-Fuel Dioxin and furan control Miscellaneous associated equipment Source capturing systems Continuous emissions monitoring systems (CEMS)

10 Air quality standards

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Smog in Cairo
In general, there are two types of air quality standards. The first class of standards (such as the U.S. National Ambient Air Quality Standards) set maximum atmospheric concentrations for specific pollutants. Environmental agencies enact regulations which are intended to result in attainment of these target levels. The second class (such as the North American Air Quality Index) take the form of a scale with various thresholds, which is used to communicate to the public the relative risk of outdoor activity. The scale may or may not distinguish between different pollutants.

Canada
In Canada, air quality is typically evaluated against standards set by the Canadian Council of Minister for the Environment (CCME), an inter-governmental body of federal, provincial and territorial Ministers responsible for the environment. The CCME has set Canada Wide Standards (CWS).These are:CWS for PM2.5 = 30 g/m3 (24 hour averaging time, by year 2010, based on 98th percentile ambient measurement annually, averaged over 3 consecutive years). CWS for ozone = 65 ppb (8-hour averaging time, by year 2010, achievement is based on the 4th highest measurement annually, averaged over 3 consecutive years. Note that there is no consequence in Canada to not achieving these standards. In addition, these only apply to jurisdictions with populations greater than 100,000. Further, provinces and territories may set more stringent standards than those set by the CCME.

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European Union
National Emission Ceilings (NEC) for certain atmospheric pollutants are regulated by Directive 2001/81/EC (NECD).[6] As part of the preparatory work associated with the revision of the NECD, the European Commission is assisted by the NECPI working group (National Emission Ceilings Policy Instruments).[7]

United Kingdom
Air quality targets set by the UK's Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) are mostly aimed at local government representatives responsible for the management of air quality in cities, where air quality management is the most urgent. The UK has established an air quality network where levels of the key air pollutants[8] are published by monitoring centers.[9] Air quality in Oxford, Bath and London[10] is particularly poor. One controversial study[11] performed by the Calor Gas company and published in the Guardian newspaper compared walking in Oxford on an average day to smoking over sixty light cigarettes. More precise comparisons can be collected from the UK Air Quality Archive[12] which allows the user to compare a cities management of pollutants against the national air quality objectives[13] set by DEFRA in 2000. Localized peak values are often cited, but average values are also important to human health. The UK National Air Quality Information Archive offers almost real-time monitoring of "current maximum" air pollution measurements for many UK towns and cities.[14] This source offers a wide range of constantly updated data, including: Hourly Mean Ozone (g/m) Hourly Mean Nitrogen dioxide (g/m) Maximum 15-Minute Mean Sulphur dioxide (g/m) 8-Hour Mean Carbon monoxide (mg/m) 24-Hour Mean PM10 (g/m Grav Equiv) DEFRA acknowledges that air pollution has a significant effect on health and has produced a simple banding index system[15] is used to create a daily warning system that is issued by the BBC Weather Service to indicate air pollution levels.[16] DEFRA has published guidelines for people suffering from respiratory and heart diseases.[17]

United States

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Looking down from the Hollywood Hills, with Griffith Observatory on the hill in the foreground, air pollution is visible in downtown Los Angeles on a late afternoon. In the 1960s, 70s, and 90s, the United States Congress enacted a series of Clean Air Acts which significantly strengthened regulation of air pollution. Individual U.S. states, some European nations and eventually the European Union followed these initiatives. The Clean Air Act sets numerical limits on the concentrations of a basic group of air pollutants and provide reporting and enforcement mechanisms.S In 1999, the United States EPA replaced the Pollution Standards Index (PSI) with the Air Quality Index (AQI) to incorporate new PM2.5 and Ozone standards. The effects of these laws have been very positive. In the United States between 1970 and 2006, citizens enjoyed the following reductions in annual pollution emissions:[18] carbon monoxide emissions fell from 197 million tons to 89 million tons nitrogen oxide emissions fell from 27 million tons to 19 million tons sulfur dioxide emissions fell from 31 million tons to 15 million tons particulate emissions fell by 80% lead emissions fell by more than 98% In an October 2006 letter to EPA, the agency's independent scientific advisors warned that the ozone smog standard needs to be substantially reduced and that there is no scientific justification for retaining the current, weaker standard. The scientists unanimously recommended a smog threshold of 60 to 70 ppb after they conducted an extensive review of the evidence. [19] The EPA has proposed, in June 2007, a new threshold of 75 ppb. This falls short of the scientific recommendation, but is an improvement over the current standard. Polluting industries are lobbying to keep the current (weaker) standards in place. Environmentalists and public health advocates are mobilizing to support compliance with the scientific recommendations.[citation needed]

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The National Ambient Air Quality Standards are pollution thresholds which trigger mandatory remediation plans by state and local governments, subject to enforcement by the EPA.

Most Polluted World Cities by PM[21] Particulate matter, g/m (2004) 169 150 City Cairo, Egypt Delhi, India Kolkata, India (Calcutta) Tianjin, China Chongqing, China Kanpur, India Lucknow, India Jakarta, Indonesia

Geographic areas affected by air pollution

Cities

128 Air pollution is usually concentrated in densely 125 populated metropolitan areas, especially in developing countries where environmental regulations are generally 123 relatively lax. However, even populated areas in 109 developed countries attain unhealthy levels of pollution. 109 104

101 Shenyang, China counties in the United States that violate National Ambient Air Quality Standards, as of June 2007. Air pollution is a health concern even in developed countries like the U.S. Countries The source of these data is the Carbon Monitoring for Action (CARMA) database produced by the Center for Global Development.[22] Total carbon dioxide emissions 106 Tons of CO2 per year: United States: 2,790 China: 2,680 Russia: 661 India: 583 Japan: 400 Germany: 356 Australia: 226 South Africa: 222

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United Kingdom: 212 South Korea: 185 Per capita carbon dioxide emissions Tons of CO2 per year per capita: Australia: 10 United States: 8.2 United Kingdom: 3.2

Atmospheric dispersion modeling

Main article: Atmospheric dispersion modeling

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The basic technology for analyzing air pollution is through the use of a variety of mathematical models for predicting the transport of air pollutants in the lower atmosphere. The principal methodologies are: Point source dispersion, used for industrial sources. Line source dispersion, used for airport and roadway air dispersion modeling Area source dispersion, used for forest fires or duststorms Photochemical models, used to analyze reactive pollutants that form smog Visualization of a buoyant Gaussian air pollution dispersion plume as used in many atmospheric dispersion models The point source problem is the best understood, since it involves simpler mathematics and has been studied for a long period of time, dating back to about the year 1900. It uses a Gaussian dispersion model for buoyant pollution plumes to forecast the air pollution isopleths, with consideration given to wind velocity, stack height, emission rate and stability class (a measure of atmospheric turbulence).[23][24] This model has been extensively validated and calibrated with experimental data for all sorts of atmospheric conditions. The roadway air dispersion model was developed starting in the late 1950s and early 1960s in response to requirements of the National Environmental Policy Act and the U.S. Department of Transportation (then known as the Federal Highway Administration) to understand impacts of proposed new highways upon air quality, especially in urban areas. Several research groups were active in this model development, among which were: the Environmental Research and Technology (ERT) group in Lexington, Massachusetts, the ESL Inc. group in Sunnyvale, California and the California Air Resources Board group in Sacramento, California. The research of the ESL group received a boost with a contract award from the United States Environmental Protection Agency to validate a line source model using sulfur hexafluoride as a tracer gas. This program was successful in validating the line source model developed by ESL inc. Some of the earliest uses of the model were in court cases involving highway air pollution, the Arlington, Virginia portion of Interstate 66 and the New Jersey Turnpike widening project through East Brunswick, New Jersey. Area source models were developed in 1971 through 1974 by the ERT and ESL groups, but addressed a smaller fraction of total air pollution emissions, so that their use and need was not as widespread as the line source model, which enjoyed hundreds of different applications as early as the 1970s. Similarly photochemical models were developed primarily in the 1960s and 1970s, but their use was more specialized and for regional needs, such as understanding smog formation in Los Angeles, California.

Greenhouse effect and ocean acidification

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Main article: Greenhouse effect The greenhouse effect is a phenomenon whereby greenhouse gases, create a condition in the upper atmosphere causing a trapping of heat and leading to increased surface and lower tropospheric temperatures. It shares this property with many other gases, the largest overall forcing on Earth coming from water vapour. Other greenhouse gases include methane, hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, chlorofluorocarbons, NOx, and ozone. Many greenhouse gases, contain carbon, and some of that from fossil fuels. This effect has been understood by scientists for about a century, and technological advancements during this period have helped increase the breadth and depth of data relating to the phenomenon. Currently, scientists are studying the role of changes in composition of greenhouse gases from natural and anthropogenic sources for the effect on climate change. A number of studies have also investigated the potential for long-term rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide to cause slight increases in the acidity of ocean waters and the possible effects of this on marine ecosystems. However, carbonic acid is a very weak acid, and is utilized by marine organisms during photosynthesis.

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11. Examples of the air pollution

1. Acid rain

Acid rain is rain or any other form of precipitation which is unusually acidic. It has harmful effects on plants, aquatic animals and buildings. Acid rain is mostly caused by human emissions of sulfur and nitrogen compounds which react in the atmosphere to produce acids. In recent years, many governments have introduced laws to reduce these emissions. Definition The term "acid rain" is commonly used to mean the deposition of acidic components in rain, snow, fog, dew, or dry particles. The more accurate term is "acid precipitation." Distilled water, which contains no carbon dioxide, has a neutral pH of 7. Liquids with a pH less than 7 are acidic, and those with a pH greater than 7 are bases. "Clean" or unpolluted rain is slightly acidic, its pH being about 5.0, because carbon dioxide and water in the air react together to form carbonic acid, a weak acid. H2O (l) + CO2 (g) H2CO3 (aq) Carbonic acid then can ionize in water forming low concentrations of hydronium ions: 2H2O (l) + H2CO3 (aq) CO32- (aq) + 2H3O+(aq) The extra acidity in rain comes from the reaction of primary air pollutants, primarily sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides, with water in the air to form strong acids (like sulfuric and nitric acid). The main sources of these pollutants are vehicles and industrial and power-generating plants. History

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Since the Industrial Revolution, emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides to the atmosphere have increased.[1] Acid rain was first found in Manchester, England. In 1852, Robert Angus Smith found the relationship between acid rain and atmospheric pollution.[2] Though acid rain was discovered in 1852, it wasn't until the late 1960s that scientists began widely observing and studying the phenomenon. Canadian Harold Harvey was among the first to research a "dead" lake. Public awareness of acid rain in the U.S increased in the 1990s after the New York Times promulgated reports from the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest in New Hampshire of the myriad deleterious environmental effects demonstrated to result from it.[3] Occasional pH readings of well below 2.4 (the acidity of vinegar) have been reported in industrialized areas.[1] Industrial acid rain is a substantial problem in China[4], Eastern Europe, Russia and areas down-wind from them. These areas all burn sulfur-containing coal to generate heat and electricity.[5] The problem of acid rain not only has increased with population and industrial growth, but has become more widespread. The use of tall smokestacks to reduce local pollution has contributed to the spread of acid rain by releasing gases into regional atmospheric circulation. Often deposition occurs a considerable distance downwind of the emissions, with mountainous regions tending to receive the most (simply because of their higher rainfall). An example of this effect is the low pH of rain (compared to the local emissions) which falls in Scandinavia.[6]

Human activity

The coal-fired Gavin power plant in Cheshire, Ohio The principal cause of acid rain is sulphuric and nitrogen compounds from human sources, such as electricity generation, factories and motor vehicles. Coal power plants are one of the most polluting. The gases can be carried hundreds of kilometres in the atmosphere before they are converted to acids and deposited. In the past, factories had short funnels to let out smoke, but this caused many problems; thus, factories now have longer smoke funnels. However, this causes pollutants to be carried farther, causing greater ecological damage.

Chemical processes
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Gas phase chemistry In the gas phase sulfur dioxide is oxidized by reaction with the hydroxyl radical via a intermolecular reaction: SO2 + OH HOSO2 which is followed by: HOSO2 + O2 HO2 + SO3 In the presence of water sulfur trioxide (SO3) is converted rapidly to sulfuric acid: SO3(g) + H2O(l) H2SO4(l) Nitric acid is formed by the reaction of OH with Nitrogen dioxide: NO2 + OH HNO3 For more information see Seinfeld and Pandis (1998).[2] Chemistry in cloud droplets When clouds are present the loss rate of SO2 is faster than can be explained by gas phase chemistry alone. This is due to reactions in the liquid water droplets Hydrolysis Sulfur dioxide dissolves in water and then, like carbon dioxide, hydrolyses in a series of equilibrium reactions: SO2 (g)+ H2O SO2H2O SO2H2O H++HSO3HSO3- H++SO32Oxidation There are a large number of aqueous reactions that oxidize sulfur from S(IV) to S(VI), leading to the formation of sulfuric acid. The most important oxidation reactions are with ozone, hydrogen peroxide and oxygen (reactions with oxygen are catalyzed by iron and manganese in the cloud droplets).

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Acid deposition

Processes involved in acid deposition (note that only SO2 and NOx play a significant role in acid rain).

Wet deposition
Wet deposition of acids occurs when any form of precipitation (rain, snow, etc) removes acids from the atmosphere and delivers it to the Earth's surface. This can result from the deposition of acids produced in the raindrops (see aqueous phase chemistry above) or by the precipitation removing the acids either in clouds or below clouds. Wet removal of both gases and aerosol are both of importance for wet deposition.

Dry deposition
Acid deposition also occurs via dry deposition in the absence of precipitation. This can be responsible for as much as 20 to 60% of total acid deposition.[8] This occurs when particles and gases stick to the ground, plants or other surfaces.

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Adverse effects

This chart shows that not all fish, shellfish, or the insects that they eat can tolerate the same amount of acid; for example, frogs can tolerate water that is more acidic (i.e., has a lower pH) than trout. Acid rain has been shown to have adverse impacts on forests, freshwaters and soils, killing off insect and aquatic lifeforms as well as causing damage to buildings and having possible impacts on human health.

Surface waters and aquatic animals

Both the lower pH and higher aluminum concentrations in surface water that occur as a result of acid rain can cause damage to fish and other aquatic animals. At pHs lower than 5 most fish eggs will not hatch and lower pHs can kill adult fish. As lakes become more acidic biodiversity is reduced. Acid rain has eliminated insect life and some fish species, including the brook trout in some Appalachian streams and creeks.[9] However, there has been some debate on the extent to which acid rain contributes to lake acidity (i.e., that many acid lakes may result primarily from characteristics of the surrounding watershed, and not the rain itself).[10] The EPA's website states: "Of the lakes and streams surveyed, acid rain caused acidity in 75 percent of the acidic lakes and about 50 percent of the acidic streams".[9]

Soils
Soil biology can be seriously damaged by acid rain. Some tropical microbes can quickly consume acids[11] but other microbes are unable to tolerate low pHs and are killed. The enzymes of these microbes are denatured (changed in shape so they no longer function) by the acid. The hydronium ions of acid rain also mobilize toxins and leach away essential nutrients and minerals[12] nH+ (aq)+ Mn2+ (clay) nH+ (clay)+ Mn2+(aq)

Forests and other vegetation

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Effect of acid rain on a forest, Jizera Mountains, Czech Republic Acid rain can slow the growth of vulnerable forests and cause leaves and needles to turn brown and fall off.[13]. Adverse effects may be indirectly related to acid rain, like the acid's effects on soil (see above) or high concentration of gaseous precursors to acid rain. High altitude forests are especially vulnerable as they are often surrounded by clouds and fog which are more acidic than rain. Other plants can also be damaged by acid rain but the effect on food crops is minimized by the application of fertilizers to replace lost nutrients. In cultivated areas, limestone may also be added to increase the ability of the soil to keep the pH stable, but this tactic is largely unusable in the case of wilderness lands. Acid Rain depletes minerals from the soil and then it stunts the growth of the plant.

Emissions of chemicals leading to acidification

The most important gas which leads to acidification is sulfur dioxide. Emissions of nitrogen oxides which are oxidized to form nitric acid are of increasing importance due to stricter controls on emissions of sulfur containing compounds. 70 Tg(S) per year in the form of SO2 comes from fossil fuel combustion and industry, 2.8 Tg(S) from wildfires and 7-8 Tg(S) per year from volcanoes.[7]

Natural Phenomena
The principal natural phenomena that contribute acid-producing gases to the atmosphere are emissions from volcanoes and those from biological processes that occur on the land, in wetlands, and in the oceans. The major biological source of sulfur containing compounds is dimethyl sulfide. The effects of acidic deposits have been detected in glacial ice thousands of years old in remote parts of the globe.

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Health effects of acid rain

Some scientists have suggested direct links to human health, but none have been proven. . However, fine particles, a large fraction of which are formed from the same gases as acid rain (sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide), have been shown to cause illness and premature deaths such as cancer and other deadly diseases[15] For more information on the health effects of aerosol see particulate health effects.
[14]

Other adverse effects

Effect of acid rain on statues

Acid rain can also cause damage to certain building materials and historical monuments. This is because the sulfuric acid in the rain chemically reacts with the calcium compounds in the stones (limestone, sandstone, marble and granite) to create gypsum, which then flakes off. CaCO3 (s) + H2SO4 (aq) CaSO4 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l) This is also commonly seen on old gravestones where the acid rain can cause the inscription to become completely illegible. Acid rain also causes an increased rate of oxidation for iron.[16] Visibility is also reduced by sulfate and nitrate in the atmosphere.[17]

2. Smog

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Photochemical smog is also appearing in regions of the tropics and subtropics where savanna grasses are periodically burned. Smog's unpleasant properties result from the irradiation by sunlight of hydrocarbons caused primarily by unburned gasoline emitted by automobiles and other combustion sources. The products of photochemical reactions includes organic particles, ozone, aldehydes, ketones, peroxyacetyl nitrate, organic acids, and other oxidants. Ozone is a gas created by nitrogen dioxide or nitric oxide when exposed to sunlight. Ozone causes eye irritation, impaired lung function, and damage to trees and crops. Another form of smog is called industrial smog. This smog is created by burning coal and heavy oil that contain sulfur impurities in power plants, industrial plants, etc... The smog consists mostly of a mixture of sulfur dioxide and fog. Suspended droplets of sulfuric acid are formed from some of the sulfur dioxide, and a variety of suspended solid particles. This smog is common during the winter in cities such as London, Chicago, Pittsburgh. When these cities burned large amounts of coal and heavy oil without control of the output, large-scale problems were witnessed. In 1952 London, England, 4,000 people died as a result of this form of fog. Today coal and heavy oil are burned only in large boilers and with reasonably good control or tall smokestacks so that industrial smog is less of a problem. However, some countries such as China, Poland, Czechoslovakia, and some other eastern European countries, still burn large quantities of coal without using adequate controls.

Health effects of Smog

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Smog is a problem in a number of cities and continues to harm human health.[1] Groundlevel ozone, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and carbon monoxide are especially harmful for senior citizens, children, and people with heart and lung conditions such as emphysema, bronchitis, and asthma[2]. It can inflame breathing passages, decreasing the lungs' working capacity, and causing shortness of breath, pain when inhaling deeply, wheezing, and coughing. It can cause eye and nose irritation and it dries out the protective membranes of the nose and throat and interferes with the body's ability to fight infection, increasing susceptibility to illness. Hospital admissions and respiratory deaths often increase during periods when ozone levels are high [3].

Areas affected
Smog can form in almost any climate where industries or cities release large amounts of air pollution. However, it is worse during periods of warmer, sunnier weather when the upper air is warm enough to inhibit vertical circulation. It is especially prevalent in geologic basins encircled by hills or mountains. It often stays for an extended period of time over densely populated cities or urban areas, such as London, New York, Los Angeles, Mexico City, Houston, Toronto, Athens, Beijing, Hong Kong, the Randstad or Ruhr Area and can build up to dangerous levels. Historically, there have been acute incidents where smog has killed thousands of people in a single metropolitan area.

3. Ozone (O3)
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Ozone (O3) is a gas that can form and react under the action of light and that is present in two layers of the atmosphere. High up in the atmosphere, ozone forms a layer that shields the Earth from ultraviolet rays. However, at ground level, ozone is considered a major air pollutant. Ground-level ozone the focus of this study is formed from other pollutants and can react with other substances, in both cases under the action of light. Concentrations are often low in busy urban centres and higher in suburban and adjacent rural areas, particularly on sunny days in summer. However, ozone can be transported through air over long distances and across borders. Ozone is known to cause adverse health effects, but more research is needed. Ozone (O3) is a gas that can form and react under the action of light and that is present in two layers of the atmosphere: the stratosphere and the troposphere. In the stratosphere, ozone forms a layer that shields the Earth from ultraviolet rays. However, in the lower atmosphere (troposphere), ozone (O3) is the most important photochemical oxidant. There, it is a secondary pollutant formed when precursor pollutants such as nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile organic compounds react under the action of light. Near strong emission sources of nitrogen oxides (NOx), where there is an abundance of NO, ozone is scavenged as it reacts with NO. As a result its concentrations are often low in busy urban centres and higher in suburban and adjacent rural areas. However, ozone is also transported long distances in the atmosphere and is therefore considered a trans-boundary problem. Because the formation of ozone requires light, ozone concentrations fluctuate depending on season and time of day, with higher concentrations in the summer and in the afternoons. Controlled exposure studies on humans and animals have provided evidence that ozone can cause adverse health effects. However, more research is needed, especially addressing the spatial and seasonal patterns of ozone exposure and related health effects.

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WHO states: "Ozone is the most important photochemical oxidant in the troposphere. It is formed by photochemical reactions in the presence of precursor pollutants such as NOx and volatile organic compounds. In the vicinity of strong NOx emission sources, where there is an abundance of NO, O3 is scavenged and as a result its concentrations are often low in busy urban centres and higher in suburban and adjacent rural areas. On the other hand, O 3 is also subject to longrange atmospheric transport and is therefore considered as a trans-boundary problem. As a result of its photochemical origin, O3 displays strong seasonal and diurnal patterns, with higher concentrations in summer and in the afternoon. The correlation of O 3 with other pollutants varies by season and location.

There is evidence from controlled human and animal exposure studies of the potential for O 3 to cause adverse health effects. Epidemiological studies have also addressed the effects of short and long-term exposures to O3 and provided important results. However, the health effects of O3 have been less studied than those of PM and thus more research is needed, especially addressing the spatial and seasonal patterns and misclassification of individual exposure in association with health outcomes."

Ozone formation

Ozone health effects

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Ozone is a highly reactive gas that affects the respiratory system by severely irritating the mucous membranes of the nose and throat. Since 90% of the ozone breathed into the lungs is never exhaled, ozone molecules react with sensitive lung tissue to cause several health consequences. Ozone's effects are more severe in individuals with preexisting respiratory disease. The length and frequency of exposure, as well as concentration, are significant factors in determining the many effects, which may include the following: Increased susceptibility to respiratory infection. Impaired lung function and reduced ability to perform physical exercise. (Recent studies suggest that healthy exercising individuals exposed to 120 parts per billion (ppb) of ozone for one hour experience significant shortness of breath. Similar decreases are also seen upon a 6 hour exposure to 80 ppb.) Severe lung swelling and death, due to short-term exposures greater than 300 ppb. Increased hospital admissions and emergency room visits for respiratory diseases, which may be associated with exposures to one-hour ozone concentrations greater than 120 ppb. Activity levels (e.g. moderate-heavy exercise) and environmental stress (e.g. humidity and high temperatures) also affect susceptibility. Other factors include: Individual sensitivity. Age (children and young adults appear to be more sensitive than older adults). Smoking status (smokers appear to be less sensitive than non-smokers). Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease or asthma, which may increase susceptibility to ozoneinduced decreases in lung function. (Decreases in lung function are greater in asthmatics concurrently exposed to ozone and pollen than for either pollutant alone.) Possibly additive or synergistic effects when ozone combines with sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, sulfuric acid, or other particulate aerosols. Effects of chronic ozone exposure are not as well characterized. Epidemiologic studies suggest lung function generally decreases in people living in areas with high ozone levels. Animal studies indicate chronic ozone exposure may contribute to the development of chronic lung diseases and bacterial infections and may accelerate lung aging. Other photochemical oxidants, for example peroxyacetyl nitrate, may make eyes water. Some may have bad odors, like those in Los Angeles-type smog. Very few of these other types of oxidants are present in Wisconsin's ambient air.

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Other Effects
Ozone causes noticeable leaf damage in many crop and tree species. Research indicates this damage occurs at concentrations commonly monitored during the warm months (i.e. 60 ppb to 120 ppb). Certain varieties of soybeans, clover, onions, spinach, muskmelon and alfalfa are especially susceptible. (Nation-wide, ozone is responsible for agricultural crop yield losses of several billion dollars.) Trees, such as lilac, aspen and ash are also sensitive. Plant injury surveys by WDNR Air Monitoring staff have documented ozone damage on white pine and common milkweed. Ozone can also weaken materials such as rubber and fabrics.

12. What we can do to reduce air pollution?

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 Encourage family to walk to the neighbourhood market. Whenever possible take bicycle. As far as possible use public forms of transport. Dont let father drop you to school, take the school bus. Encourage family to form a car pool to office and back. Reduce the use of aerosols in the household. Look after the trees in neighbourhood. Begin a tree-watch group to ensure that they are well tended and cared for. Switch-off all the lights and fans when not required. If possible share room with others when the airconditioner, cooler or fan is
on.

Do not burn leaves in garden; put them in a compost pit. Make sure that the pollution check for family car is
intervals

done at regular

Cars should, as far as possible, be fitted with catalytic converters. Use only unleaded petrol.

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