Steel Design

Fatigue

S.F. Stiemer

FATIGUE
ABSTRACT
An overview of the fatigue process and behaviour of fatigue loading is given. Design requirements as per CAN/CSA S16-01and AISC LRFD1999 are given.

INTRODUCTION
Figure 1. Fracture surface of a typical paper clip broken by 6 cycles of repeated bending (80x).1

Under certain conditions a material may fail due to the repeated application of loads that are not large enough to cause failure in a single application. This phenomenon is referred to as fatigue failure. The existence of fatigue failure implies that, under repeated stresses, materials undergo some internal progressive, permanent structural changes. Fatigue failures are often more dangerous than other typical failures because they generally occur suddenly, without significant prior deformations. Figure 1 shows a fatigue induced fracture surface. Fatigue failure in bolted connections is generally caused by repeated cycles of tension loading. Although failures under repeated cyclic compression loads are know, these are rare and will be ignored in this discussion.

THE FATIGUE PROCESS

Fatigue failure will only occur if the following essential conditions are present: cyclic tensile loads, stress levels above a threshold value, fatigue susceptible material, and a flaw in the material. If these conditions are present, then the following events can occur, leading to fatigue failure (Figure 2): 1. Crack initiation 2. Crack growth 3. Crack propagation 4. Final rupture

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crack to propagate into the still undamaged material ahead of it. The crack only propagates a finite distance in each loading cycle; this advance may by as much as 25 m/cycle.1 The back stresses exerted on the material during unloading cause deformation markings often called striations or beach marks, as shown in Figure 3.

Figure 2. Fatigue sequence - the stages of failure are: (1) initiation, (2) growth, (3) propagation, and (4) rupture. 2.1 CRACK INITIATION Generally, fatigue cracks will originate on a free surface at a point of high stress concentration in the material. This may often be due to a preexisting flaw in the material; or perhaps a human made discontinuity, such as the root of a thread, a tool mark, corrosion, or any point at which there is a sharp change in size or shape of the material. It would be safe to say that no connection is entirely free from defects of this type. 2.2 CRACK GROWTH As the part is subjected to cyclic tensile loads, the material around the stress concentrations undergoes a slip mechanism. Slip occurs by the movement of dislocation displacement of the atomic matrix. Under cyclic loading, reverse slip on adjacent slip planes may lead to the formation of extrusions and intrusions at the surface. These will act as the starting point of the crack. Initially the crack will grow along the slip plane, but will eventually change direction until it is growing in a plane perpendicular to the principle tensile stress. 2.3 CRACK PROPAGATION Fatigue cracks will propagate under shear and tensile loads, but not under compressive loading since these cracks will close rather than open. During each tensile loading cycle, very high stresses occur at the crack tip (due to the stress concentrating effect of the sharp crack), causing the Figure 3. Micrograph of fatigue fracture, with characteristic beach marks. 2.4 FINAL RUPTURE The crack grows more rapidly as stress levels increase. The process of crack growth is repeated until the crack reaches some critical length, at which time a sudden failure occurs, in either a ductile or brittle manner, depending on the characteristics of the material. The fatigue life of a bolt and connection depends a great deal on the location and magnitude of the initial crack, but more importantly on factors such as bolt and joint stiffness, initial preload, alloy content, heat treatment, location and magnitude of external tension loads, etc. Therefore, there is a lot of scatter in the fatigue life of a bolted connection, making it difficult to accurately determine.

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BEHAVIOUR OF FATIGUE LOADING

The fatigue life, or endurance, of a material refers to the number of repeated cycles of loading (N) that a material will undergo before it fails. N will depend on the particular set of loading conditions. However, the general rule of thumb is that the higher the fatigue stress levels, the fewer number of loading cycles are required to cause failure. In most well designed bolted joints, however, fatigue failure will occur under highcycle loading. Fatigue data is most commonly presented in terms of S-N curves (maximum stress versus the number of cycles), as shown in Figure 4.

1. Shape of the connection. 2. Magnitude of stress excursions or variations. 3. Mean stress level. 4. Choice of material. Other conditions such as corrosive environments and extreme temperatures also can affect the fatigue performance.

PREDICTING FATIGUE LIFE

There are several methods for predicting fatigue life; essentially they all involve the concept of the gradual accumulation of damage during the process of cyclic loading. The two most common methods are based on linear cumulative damage, and the Palmgren Miners Rule. The linear cumulative damage is based on specific S-N data for each particular specimen type. This method is adopted in many design codes including the Canadian CSA S16.1-94 and American AISC LRFD-1999, which are discussed in a later section. A formatted spreadsheet has also been developed to implement the fatigue requirements of these codes. The Palmgren-Miner rule is used to determine the level of fatigue damage. In the calculation procedure, the existing number of stress cycles ni are divided by the allowed number of stress cycles Ni, and added for each stress cycle. If this total is less than 1.0 the connection has not failed in fatigue. Miners rule follows the expression:

Figure 4. S-N Curve for varying magnitude of altering stress. As Figure 4 shows, the material undergoes a definite fatigue limit. That is, it may withstand infinite cycles of loading without failing, as long as the applied stress is less than the fatigue limit. Although S-N curves are often produced based on tension loading along the axis of the fastener, it is important to recognize that if the fastener is subjected to some other form of stress as well as tension, its fatigue life will be adversely affected. Shear stress for example, would make it more susceptible to fatigue. There are many factors that will affect the fatigue life, each resulting in a different S-N curve. The major factors in order of importance that affect fatigue life are:

4.1

CAN/CSA S16-01 FATIGUE REQUIREMENTS

Fatigue requirements are addressed in Section 26 of the CAN/CSA S1601. The code states that fatigue is generally not a design consideration for buildings such as commercial or residential. However, industrial buildings may have members, such as crane girders, for which fatigue is a design consideration; other structures such as amusement rides and sign supports, for example may also be susceptible to fatigue.

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When looking at the fatigue limit state, emphasis is placed on fatigue cracks that result from live load effects and those that result in local distortions. It is also important to determine the number of cycles to which a detail may be subjected. When carrying out the fatigue resistance analysis, only variable and impact loads contribute to the stress range. Further, the designer only needs to consider regions that are subjected to tensile stresses or stress reversals. Compressive stress regions may be ignored. Fatigue design in this specification is based on experimental data in which various fatigue susceptible details were tested to develop corresponding S-N curves. Details are assigned to one of eight stress range categories (A to E1). Appendix illustrates various details and gives some guidance on how to assign a detail to a category. Figure 15 shows the allowable stress range versus the number of stress cycles for each category.

The fatigue life of a detail is inversely proportional to the cube of the stress range for values above the constant threshold stress range. The detail is considered to be satisfactory in fatigue if the applied stress range is less than that corresponding to the expected number of cycles of loading for the design life of the structure, as shown below.

Fsr f sr
3 Fsr = fatigue _ res. Fsrt nN
Fsr = fatigue resistance, including adjustment for the number of stress range cycles for each passage of load fsr = calculated stress range at the detail due to the passage of the fatigue load = fatigue life constant pertaining to the detail category [Table 10] n = number of stress range cycles at given detail passage of the moving load [Table 10] N = number of passages of the moving load Fsrt = constant amplitude threshold stress range [Table 10] For the fatigue resistance of high strength tension bolts, the code requires that the bolts are tensioned to the required pre-load and that prying action is considered. From reviewing the detail categories given in Appendix Fig2 ff, we can see that the code gives very little guidance on how to check a bolted connection for fatigue resistance. It is left up to the designer to use his/her judgement. 4.2 AISC LRFD-1999 FATIGUE REQUIREMENTS Fatigue requirements are addressed in Section K3 of the AISC LRFD1999. The AISC fatigue criteria are very similar to those found in CSA S16.1-94; however, there are additional requirements given for bolts and threaded parts. The considered stress range is defined as the magnitude of the change in stress due to the application or removal of the unfactored live load. In the
1

Figure 15. Fatigue resistances for categories A to E1 CAN/CSA S16-01

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case of a stress reversal, the stress range shall be computed as the numerical sum of maximum repeated tensile and compressive stresses or the numerical sum of maximum shearing stresses of opposite direction at the point of probable crack initiation. 5 No evaluation of fatigue resistance is required if the live load stress range is less than the threshold stress range, FTH, or if the number of cycles of application of live load is less than 2 x 104. As in the CSA S16.1-94, the fatigue life of a detail is inversely proportional to the cube of the stress range for values above the constant threshold stress range. The detail is considered to be satisfactory on fatigue if the applied stress range is less than that corresponding to the expected number of cycles of loading for the design life of the structure, as shown below. (Note all calculations shown are in SI units). .
F SR F TH
1 3

equation above. The factor Cf shall be taken as 3.9 x 108 (as for category E). The threshold stress, Fth shall be taken as 48 MPa (as for category D). The net tensile area for metric bolts is given as:
At 4

(db 0.9382P)2

P = pitch, (mm/thread) db = nominal diameter (body or shank diameter), (mm) When dealing with bolts and threaded parts, the designer must also consider any prying action and the relative stiffness of the connected parts. Although the AISC LFD does provide a little more guidance than the CSA S16.1-94, it still does not adequately take into account all of the effects, which may influence the fatigue life of a bolted connection. It is, therefore, left to the designers to use their professional judgment.

MINIMIZING FATIGUE PROBLEMS

F SR

C f 327 N

FSR = design stress range, (MPa) FTH = threshold fatigue stress range, maximum stress range for indefinite design life [Table A-K.3.1], (MPa) Cf = Constant [Table A-K3.1] N = number of stress range fluctuations in design life = number of stress range fluctuations per day x 365 x years of design life The AISC LRFD also has additional requirements for bolts and threaded parts. For mechanically fastened connections loaded in shear, the maximum range of stress in the connected material at service loads shall not exceed the design stress computed using the equation given above. For high-strength bolts, common bolts, and threaded anchor bolts with cut, ground or rolled threads, the maximum range of tensile stress on the net tensile area from applied axial load and moment plus load due to prying action shall not exceed the design stress range computed using the

There are many steps that a designer can take to minimize fatigue related problems. Each of these is related to the conditions that are necessary for fatigue to occur: cyclic tensile loads, stresses above an endurance limit, a susceptible material, and an initial flaw. In general, most of the steps that we can take are intended to reduce stress levels (and concentrations) and/or to reduce the load excursion seen by the bolt. 5.1 MINIMIZING STRESS LEVELS The following are just a few of the steps that a designer can take to minimize stress levels. Many of these are incorporated in fatigue resistant fasteners, which are available from some fastener manufacturers. Rolling treads instead of cutting them provides a smother thread finish (fewer initial cracks). The rolling process induces a residual compressive stress in the bolts, which acts as a compressive preload, thereby helping to reduce the tensile load excursions. A generous fillet between the head and shank will reduce stress concentrations. The exact shape is also important; an elliptical fillet, for

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example, is better than a circular one.2 Increasing the radius of a circular fillet will also help If the face of the nut, the undersides of the bolt head, and/or joint surface are not perpendicular to the thread axis and the boltholes, the fatigue life can be seriously affected.2 Bolts under tension see stress concentrations at the head-to-shank fillet, first threads to engage the nut, and at the thread run-out. Anything that may impose additional loading to these regions will be detrimental. Some of these situations are shown in Figure 16.

Figure 17. Thread run-out should be gradual.2 Anything that can be done to minimize corrosion will reduce the possibilities of crack initiation and/or crack growth and will, therefore, extend fatigue life. Figure 18 shows a proposed fastener, which, because of its geometry, can greatly reduce stress concentrations and, therefore increase the fatigue life of the connection.

Figure 18. Flanges, dished, and undercut nut and bolt head used to improve stress distribution.2 Figure 16. Joints should be designed so that maximum loads do not fall on stress concentration points of the fastener.2 The thread run-out should be gradual rather than abrupt. It has been suggested that a taper of 15o should be used to minimize stress concentrations at this critical point (Figure 17). 2 5.2 REDUCING LOAD VARIATIONS Nothing can help extend the fatigue life of a bolt or joint more dramatically than a reduction in load variations. It will greatly help to correctly identify and apply the maximum safe preload that the joint can withstand. Minimizing the bolt-to-joint stiffness ratio, (as well as proper location of contact forces), so that the load excursions and external loads will be seen by the joint and not the bolt, will reduce fatigue problems.

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5.3

RESIDUAL STRESSES

Contraction of the hot metal of the weld zone during cooling causes certain effects to the joint, even if no distortion shows in the welded assembly. During cooling, the hot metal tries to contract, while the surrounding cooler parts of the base metal keep it from shrinking. The results are residual stresses in the weld line in the form of tension and in the base metal in the form of compression. The tensile residual stress can be as high as the yield stress Fy of the weld metal. As a result of shrinkage in the weld, transverse residual stresses will also occur. For fillet welds the residual stresses will be tensile along the length and across the face of the weld. Residual stresses can have two major effects: they produce distortion or cause failure of the weldment. Residual compressive stresses combined with any distortion that may be present decreases the buckling strength of a metal structure. Residual tensile stresses can effect the fatigue strength and fracture toughness of the weldment. During the welding process it is impossible to eliminate residual stresses. However, it is possible to reduce their magnitude. This can be achieved by: - preheating the joint prior to welding, - reducing the amount of weld metal used. For instance, use a U-groove weld instead of a V-groove. Also decrease the groove angle and root opening if possible. - avoiding rigid alignment and complete restraint for the joint during welding, - peening of the weld beads. Although this practice may help reduce residual stresses it may cause other problems. Certain codes such as CSA W59 place restrictions on this operation. The only way to completely eliminate residual stresses is through a properly executed postweld heat treatment. Vibratory stress relief is another way in which residual stresses can be reduced. It is possible to measure residual stresses in metals. The methods used can be placed in the following three groups: - stress relaxation techniques. This is a destructive process that requires metal to be removed from the weldment. The residual stresses are determined by measuring the amount of elastic strain released from the metal removal process with strain gauges, photoelastic or brittle coatings. These techniques are the most widely used for measuring residual stresses in weldments. x-ray diffraction, observation of cracks in test specimens. Cracking iCracking is the most serious of all the weld faults: the results of which can be complete collapse of a structure. As shown on the adjoining page they can occur in the weld metal, base metal and the heat-affected zone. Cracks can occur either during welding or after. Sometime they don't appear until days or weeks after the weld has been completed. Cracking is divided into two categories, based on when it occurs: Hot Cracking, Cold Cracking.

Hot cracks are those which occur right away (while the weldment is still hot). This takes place at the time the weld metal is solidifying and results from restraint forces acting on the cooling weld metal. As the weld metal cools, it is shrinking and trying to pull the joint together. While the weld metal is hot, it is weaker than the colder material around it and is therefore forced to stretch. Hot cracking commonly occurs when the weld stretches beyond its ability to carry the shrinkage stresses. One easy way to prevent this from happening is to preheat the joint. Preheating expands the weldment in the area next to the joint and ultimately reduces the amount of stretching the weld is forced to do. Cracking due to Material Composition: Hot cracking resulting from the chemical composition of the materials is the result of the formation or accumulation of 'low freezing temperature compounds' in the weld or heat affected zone. These materials separate from the weld metal to form areas of low strength in between the grains. As the weld shrinks, cracking occurs through these low strength regions. Some materials are unweldable for this reason i.e. high phosphorus or sulphur content steels, and certain grades of aluminum and copper. Hydrogen-induced cold cracking occurs when the hydrogen level is high, the weld metal and HAZ show a brittle microstructure, and when mechanical restraints produce high stresses due to the thermal cycle. These conditions are mostly met in the grain growth region of the HAZ. The detection of cracks due to hydrogen embrittlement is difficult since they are generally small, internal, and because their formation can be time delayed. These cracks can propagate at service conditions. This phenomenon can be promoted by strain ageing embrittlement, if any, or other mechanisms such as stress corrosion. There are four factors which act together to cause hydrogen cracking: - chemistry of the steel, - amount of hydrogen in the weld, - external forces on the weldment, - residual stresses in the weldment. Cold cracks are those which typically occur at temperatures below 200C. These cracks can occur right away or they can be delayed up to two weeks after welding is completed, although the greatest danger is said to be within the first two days. For this reason, cold cracking is often called delayed hydrogen cracking. Hydrogen in a weld may stem from the electrode coating, flux or other source of wetness and moisture. Flux and coating picks up moisture from air depending on the exposure time and temperature. The exact mechanisms for the hydrogen cracking is yet not clearly understood. For practical purposes: hydrogen is trapped at dislocations or other lattice defects in the grain and at location of impurities along grain boundaries in atomic form at high temperatures. Once dissolved in the weld metal, hydrogen atoms tend to diffuse in the HAZ (the diffusivity is temperature dependent) and is effective in promoting cracking. Cold cracks are caused by hydrogen atoms trapped in the weld metal. The hydrogen enters the liquid metal during the welding process and is trapped there when the metal freezes. Hydrogen comes from contaminants on the surface of the joint such as oil, grease, paint, or heavy scale. Excessive moisture in electrode coatings or flux introduces too much hydrogen into the weld. In some situations it takes very little hydrogen to cause a failure. The best solution to the problem is to prevent hydrogen from entering the weld. Storing basic electrodes in hermetically sealed containers or heated storage ovens will prevent the

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welding process from introducing excess hydrogen into the deposit. Proper cleaning of the joint surfaces prior to welding will prevent the process from picking it up from contaminants. Recommendations to prevent cold cracking: 1. Reduce hydrogen content of the weld deposit. 2. Develop a non-sensitive microstructure. 3. Avoid excessive restraint during fabrication. 4. Apply heat treatment when necessary: pre-heat to reduce the cooling rate. 5. Select a welding process, which has less tendency to transfer hydrogen into the weld. 6. Choose proper material: all of the structural quality steels are weldable with minimum risk of hydrogen-induced cold cracking, provided that precautions are taken in some particular cases such as high hardenability and thick material. Use the carbon equivalent (CE) formula as a guide to relate the chemical composition to hardenability and the resulting susceptiblity to cracking (typical limit for weldable steels is 0.4 to 0.5). However, this method does not include all the factors related to embrittlement.

The fatigue life can be calculated from N = K

m / .

Constant m is about equal to 3 for most welded details. In welded details, mean stress and strength have generally little influence on fatigue life.

5.6

S-N-CURVE

The expression linking fatigue life and stress range can be plotted on a logarithmic scale as a straight line and is referred to as an S-N Curve. The straight line is limited at the low-endurance end by static failure when the ultimate material strength is exceeded. In the high-endurance range the stress ranges are generally too small to initiate propagation and this limit is called non-propagating stress. The design S-N curve (which is used to design structural members) is usually 25% below the mean failure values. Detail Categories. The fatigue strength of different welded details varies according to the severity of the stress concentration effect. As there are a wide variety of details in common use, those with similar strength values are grouped together into a single detail category.

5.4

FATIGUE FAILURES

Fracture of metals is not always preceded by yielding and the subsequent elongation of the material. Instead, it may occur at stresses even less than the yield stress if a load is repeated a large number of times. This kind of failure is called fatigue. Fatigue failures experience three stages: 1. crack initiation by localized plastic shear strain, 2. crack growth by distributed tensile stress, and 3. fracture. In welded steel structures fatigue cracks are likely to grow from welds rather than from other details. This is because: 1. The welding process leaves minute metallurgical discontinuities from which cracks may grow. 2. Most structural welds have a rough profile which causes local stress concentration. Sharp changes in direction of stresses generally occur at the toes of butt welds and at the toes and roots of fillet welds.

5.7

DETAIL CATEGORIES

Detail Category: There are a number of detail categories within each class. Each category has a specific description which defines the geometry. The main features that affect the detail category and hence its classification are: 1. Form of the member (plate, rolled section, reinforcing bar) 2. Location of anticipated crack initiation. This must be defined with respect to the direction of stress fluctuation. 3. Leading dimensions (weld shape, etc.) 4. Fabrication requirements. 5. Inspection requirements. The s-n-curves for the various detail categories according to CAN/CSA-S16.1-M94 - Limit States Design of Steel Structures [CAN389] are shown to the right.

5.5

FATIGUE STRENGTH 5.8 LOADING FOR FATIGUE

If the structure is loaded by more than one load system, all load systems should be considered. For convenience, loadings are usually simplified into a load spectrum, which defines a series of bands of constant load levels and the number of times that each band is experienced. Under variable amplitude loading, the life is estimated by calculation of the total damage done by each cycle in the stress spectrum. The total damage is defined as:

The fatigue strength of a welded component is defined as the stress range, which fluctuating at constant amplitude, causes failure of the component after a specified number of cycles (N). The stress range is the difference between the maximum and minimum stress in the cycle. The number of cycles to failure is known as the fatigue life or endurance limit. There are two main factors which affect the fatigue life of a weld joint: 1. The stress range at the location of crack initiation. 2. The fatigue strength of the detail. This is primarily a function of its geometry and is defined by the parameter K .
0

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where ni is the estimated number of cycles in the band during the design life, and Ni is the endurance under that stress range. According to Miner's Rule, the total damage must not exceed unity. Under certain conditions, i.e. for ascending loads, this value can go up to an average of 1.1 and above. For descending loads, this value can be reduced to 0.7 and below.

5.9

PREVENTION OF FATIGUE FAILURES

Many steps can be taken in design and fabrication to reduce the risk of failure by fatigue. Some of these are summarized below. Many of them relate to a single idea such as minimizing stress concentrations. Not all of these are embodied in fabrication standards such as CSA W59 and may need to be specified separately. The large number of options for minimizing risk of fatigue failure allows the designer to aim at a balanced approach taking into consideration end use, design life, and cost: - use smooth shapes and transitions; avoid re entrant, notch-like corners. - taper material for welds between plates of differing thickness or width. - put welds, where possible, in low stress areas. Consider a bolted assembly as an option if relocation is not possible. - check weld detail category carefully making sure that the actual detail realistically matches that given in the standard. - takes steps in fabrication that raise the category status such as grinding groove welds flush in the direction of the applied stress. - use butt joints for carrying high loads rather than lap or tee joints made with fillet welds. - align parts to eliminate eccentricity and minimize secondary bending. - avoid attachments to members subject to fatigue loading or account for them correctly by a careful choice of a stress range category. - keep attachment welds about 12 mm (1/2 in) from the edge of plates. Do no weld on the edge of flanges unnecessarily. - stop fillet welds 12 mm (1/2 in) short of the end of the attachment provided this will not have any other effect on the structure. - check if a detail is highly sensitive to weld defects, such as a transversely loaded groove weld with reinforcement removed, and specify an appropriate quality and inspection requirement. - consider enhancement techniques. When grinding is appropriate, specify grinding in the direction of stress. - provide for in-service inspection on critical details. - avoid intermittent stitch welds. - do not allow unauthorized attachments to be made by field or maintenance personnel.

5.10

REFERENCES

[ADAM79] Adams, P.F., Krentz, H.A., Kulak, G.L. (1979): " Limit States Design in Structural Steel - SI Units", Canadian Institute of Steel Construction, Toronto, Canada. [ALEX63] Alexander, J.M., Brewer, R.C. (1963): "Manufacturing Properties of Materials", Van Nostrand, London, Great Britain. [ALGO83] Algoma Steel (1983): "Standards and Specifications", Fourth Edition, The Algoma Steel Corporation Ltd., Sault Ste-Marie, Ontario. [AMSM49] American Society of Metals (1949): "Cold Working of Metals", Proceedings of a Seminar on Cold Working of Metals held at Philadelphia in 1948, American Society for Metals, Cleveland, Ohio.

[AMSM73] American Society of Metals (1973): "The Inhomegeneity of Plastic Deformation", Proceedings of a Seminar on Plastic Deformation in 1948, American Society for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio. [BAIL70] Bailey, N. (1970): "Welding Carbon Manganese Steels", Metal Construction, 2, No.10, 442. [BANN90] Bannantine, J.A., Corner, J.J., Handrock, J.L. (1990): "Fundamentals of Metal Fatigue Analysis", Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, ISBN 0-13-340191-X [BURG83] Burgess, N.T. (1983): " Quality Assurance of Welded Construction", Applied Science Publishers, Barking, Essex, England, Great Britain. [CAN381] CAN3-G40.21-M81 (1981): "Structural Quality Steels", Canadian Standards Association, Rexdale, Ontario, Canada. [CHAJ63] Chajes, A., Britvee, S.J., Winter, G. (1963): "Effects of Cold-Straining on Structural Sheet Steels", Journal of the Structural Division, American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 89, No. ST 2. [CSAW89] CSA W59-M1989, (1989): " Welded Steel Construction (Metal Arc Welding)", Canadian Standards Association, Rexdale, Ontario, Canada. [FUCH80] Fuchs, H.O., Stephens, R.I. (1980): "Metal Fatigue in Engineering", John Wiley & Sons, New York, ISBN 0-471-05264-7. [EISE71] Eisenstadt, M.M., (1971): "Introduction to Mechanical Properties of Material", The McMillan Company, New York, USA. [GIBA85] Gibala, R. Hehemann, R.F. (1985): "Hydrogen Embrittlement and Stress Corrosion Cracking", Second Printing, American Society for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio. [GRAV75] Graville, B.A. (1975)" "Cold Cracking Control", Dominion Bridge Company, Montreal, Quebec, Canada. [GRAY82] Gray, T.G.F., Spence, J. (1982): "Rational Welding Design", Second Edition, Butterworth, London, Great Britain. [JAST59] Jastrzebski, Z.D., (1959): "Engineering Materials", John Wiley & Sons, New York, USA. [LANC87] Lancaster, J.F. (1987): "Metallurgy of Welding", Allen & Unwin Publishers Ltd., London, Great Britain. [LESL81] Leslie, W.C. (1981): "The Physical Metallurgy of Steels", Hemisphere Publishing Corporation, New York, USA. [LUBA61] Lubahn, J.D., Felger, R.P. (1961): "Plasticity and Creep of Metals", John Wiley & Sons, New York, USA. [MCGU68] McGuire, W. (1968): "Steel Structures", Prentice-Hall International Series in Theoretical and Applied Mechanics, Structural Analysis and Design Series, Prentice-Hall, Englewook Cliffs, New Jersey, USA. [MILL92] Miller, K.J., de los Rios, E.R.(1992): "Short Fatigue Cracks", European Structural Integrity Society, Mechanical Engineering Publications Ltd., London, ISBN 0-85298-809-5. [SIND87] Sindo Kou (1987): "Welding Metallurgy", John Wiley & Sons, New York, USA. [STEL83] Stelco (1983): "Structural Steels: Selection and Uses", Fifth Edition, Stelco Inc., Toronto, Ontario, Canada. [THEL84] Thelning, K.E. (1984): " Steel and its Heat Treatment", Second Edition, Butterworth, London, Great Britain. [VLAC77] van Vlack, L.H. (1977): "Elements of Materials Science and Engineering," Third Edition, Addison Wesley Publishing Company, Reading, Massachusetts, ISBN 0-20108073-7. [WEIW85] Wei-Wen Yu (1985): " Cold Formed Steel Design", John Wiley & Sons, New York, USA.

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