Urban Energy Source Book

Urban Energy Sourcebook
Final Draft UN HABITAT
In 1900 the world produced 150 million barrels of oil. In 2000, it produced 28 billion barrels, an increase of more than 180-fold. In 1900 there were only a handful of cities with a million people. Today 414 cities have at least that many inhabitants. Lester R. Brown, Plan B July 2009 1
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Cover Picture:
http://www.treehugger.com/files/2008/02/picture-hong-kong-at-night.php by Trey Ratcliff. (Photo credits awaited)
This Urban Energy Sourcebook has been prepared by a team led by Dr. Brahmanand Mohanty, visiting Faculty in the School of Environment, Resources and Development (SERD) at the Asian Institute of Technology (AIT). The following team members from BCIL Altech Foundation have helped put the ideas together: Krish Murali Eswar, Chief Innovation Officer Shashi Kad, Sustainable Development Director Radha Eswar, Chief Knowledge Officer AmitKumar Gope, Researcher Jitendar, Researcher Thanks are due to Dr. Chandrasekhar Hariharan, Founder, BCIL Alt Tech Foundation, Bangalore, India for invaluable mentoring from time to time. Thanks are also due to Mr. Bernard Barth of the Training and Capacity Building Branch of UN-Habitat for his continuous guidance, constructive criticism and encouragement for the preparation of this document.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SUMMARY.......................................................................................................................................................10 CHAPTER 1......................................................................................................................................................14 THE URBAN ENERGY SWEEPSTAKES.............................................................................................................14 1.1 CITIES HOLD THE KEY TO ENERGY SUSTAINABILITY.........................................................................15 1.2 THE MANY FACETS OF URBAN NEEDS...............................................................................................20 1.3 THE TIPPING SCALE OF ENERGY IN URBAN METABOLISM..................................................................25 CHAPTER 2......................................................................................................................................................31 SUSTAINABLE ENERGY IN AN URBAN CONTEXT.............................................................................................31 2.1 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK.................................................................................................................31 2.2 WHO DECIDES WHO NEEDS ENERGY?................................................................................................33 2.3 LOOPHOLES IN ENERGY SYSTEMS........................................................................................................37 2.4 LACK OF SYSTEMS-BASED APPROACHES:...............................................................................................41 CHAPTER 3....................................................................................................................................................45 METAMORPHOSIS INTO SUSTAINABLE CITIES.............................................................................................45 3.1 UNDERSTANDING THE URBAN FABRICTHE BOTTOM-UP APPROACH................................................45 3.2 FROM CONSUMPTION TO PROSUMPTION: ROLE OF RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES (RET)....59 3.3 THE WORLD OF EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES.......................................................................................67 3.4 KNOW YOUR CITY- AN EXERCISE FOR POLICY MAKERS.......................................................................74 CHAPTER 4.......................................................................................................................................................78 LEADING FOR ENERGY SUSTAINABILITYIMPLEMENTING SUCCESSFUL POLICIES.......................................78 4.1 URBAN AUTHORITIES LEADING THE WAY............................................................................................78 4.2 INTEGRATED ENERGY PLANNING............................................................................................................83 4.3 CHOOSING THE RIGHT TOOLS AND INSTRUMENTS................................................................................89 4.4 IMPLEMENTING THE IDEAS FOR SUSTAINABLE ENERGY.......................................................................98 REFERENCES:......................................................................................................................................................103 ANNEXE 1: DESIGNING THE FUTURE OF TRANSPORTATION IN CITIES.............................................................119 ANNEXE 2: IMPACT OF RECYCLING ALUMINIUM.........................................................................................120 ANNEXE 3: URBAN ENERGY SUSTAINABILITY INDICATORS..............................................................................120 ANNEXE 4: COMPUTER MODELS THAT HELP WITH ENERGY PLANNING..........................................................122 ANNEXE 5: IMPACT OF POLICIES ON SUSTAINABILITY AND COST...................................................................124 ANNEXE 6: BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVENESS OF POLICIES....................................................................................125 ANNEXE 7: STRATEGIES TO PICK UP FROM INITIATIVES AROUND THE WORLD:..............................................126 ANNEXE 8: THE URBAN ENERGY SUSTAINABILITY PLEDGE.............................................................................127 ANNEXE 9: TRAINING ACTIVITIES...................................................................................................................129 ANNEXE 10: A SAMPLE SCRIPT FOR ROLE PLAY..............................................................................................136 ANNEXE 11: FURTHER READING....................................................................................................................143
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE 1.1 : URBAN AND RURAL POVERTY PERCENTAGES IN ASIAN COUNTRIES............................................18 TABLE 1.2 : SECTORAL SHARE OF URBAN ENERGY CONSUMPTION IN FOUR ASIAN CITIES IN 1998.............21 TABLE 1.3 : EMBODIED ENERGY OF COMMONLY USED CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS ....................................22 4

TABLE 1.4: PASSENGER VEHICLE OWNERSHIP PER THOUSAND POPULATIONS IN SOME ASIAN CITIES..........24 TABLE 2.1: POWER CONSUMPTION FOR DIFFERENT GADGETS IN WATTS ON VARIOUS MODES....................39 TABLE 2.2: ELECTRICITY TARIFFS IN INDIAN STATES SHOWING PRICE DISTORTIONS FOR POWER SECTOR.....43 TABLE 3.1: SMART GROWTH VS SPRAWL IMPACTS ENERGY USE- ESPECIALLY TRANSPORTATION NEEDS......48 TABLE 3.2: CONVERTING DIESEL POWERED VEHICLES TO ELECTRIC VEHICLES IN KATHMANDU, NEPAL........50 TABLE 3.3: ANNUAL SAVINGS DUE TO CLEANER PRODUCTION FROM ALL INDUSTRIES.............................52 TABLE 3.4: ENERGY EFFICIENT TECHNOLOGIES AND PRACTICES FOR BUILDINGS......................................55 TABLE 3.5: CATEGORIES OF RENEWABLE ENERGY CONVERSION TECHNOLOGIES........................................63 TABLE 3.6: CURRENT STATUS AND POTENTIAL COSTS FOR FUTURE RET.......................................................66 TABLE 4.1: IEP PROCESSES FOR DESIGN OF ECO-CITY.................................................................................84 TABLE 4.2: VARIOUS INSTRUMENTS THAT POLICY MAKERS CAN USE FOR ACHIEVING THEIR POLICY GOALS......89
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE 1.1: URBAN SHARE OF GDP.................................................................................................................14 FIGURE 1.2: ASIAN URBAN POPULATION IN 2005 AND 2015............................................................................17 FIGURE 1.3: WORLD PRIMARY ENERGY SUPPLY IS DOMINATED BY FOSSIL FUELS............................................18 FIGURE 1.4: PRIMARY ENERGY SUPPLY BY SOURCE FOR ASIA (1971-2020)..................................................19 FIGURE 1.5: URBAN HEAT ISLANDS FIND SOLUTIONS THAT ARE IN A VICIOUS SPIRAL......................................23 FIGURE 1.6: AIR POLLUTANTS IN ASIAN CITIES................................................................................................26 FIGURE 1.7: SHARE OF ASIAN URBAN POPULATION BY PERCENTAGE IN LOW ELEVATION COASTAL ZONES...27 FIGURE 1.8: FLOW OF OIL FROM EXTRACTION TO CONSUMPTION SITES. .......................................................28 FIGURE 1.9: ENERGY FLOW THROUGH THE CITY LINEAR IS FINITE.............................................................29 FIGURE 2.1: ENERGY STAKEHOLDERS- LOCAL GOVERNMENTS AT INTERFACE BETWEEN ALL STAKEHOLDERS......33 FIGURE 2.2: URBAN SLUM POPULATION IN SOME ASIAN COUNTRIES..............................................................34 FIGURE 2.3: WORLD ENERGY CONSUMPTION INEQUITIES DUE TO USE OF ENERGY IS HIGH...........................35 FIGURE 2.4: PER CAPITA ANNUAL CO2 EMISSIONS FROM INDIAN HOUSEHOLDS..............................................35 FIGURE 2.5: LOSSES ALONG THE POWER HIGHWAY...........................................................................................38 FIGURE 2.6: ENERGY FLOW LOSSES IN A PUMPING SYSTEM ALL ALONG THE CHAIN........................................39 FIGURE 2.7: AVERAGE POWER RATING AND USAGE OF ELECTRIC APPLIANCES IN CAMBODIA........................40 FIGURE 3.1: ENERGY SERVICE, THE END OBJECTIVE......................................................................................46 FIGURE 3.2: CLOSING THE LOOP AT THE SOURCE FOR WATER, ENERGY AND WASTE.................................47 FIGURE 3.3: UNDERSTANDING MOBILITY ISSUES..........................................................................................50 FIGURE 3.4: TECHNIQUES INVOLVED IN CLEANER PRODUCTION OF ENERGY...................................................51 FIGURE 3.5: COGENERATION VS. SEPARATE GENERATION............................................................................53 FIGURE 3.6: PROGRESSIVE STEPS TO ENERGY EFFICIENCY IN INDUSTRY......................................................53 FIGURE 3.7: BUSINESS AS USUAL SCENARIO IN A CAMBODIAN HOUSEHOLD FOR ITS MONTHLY POWER BILL.......56 FIGURE 3.8: ENERGY EFFICIENCY SCENARIO IN A CAMBODIAN HOUSEHOLD FOR ITS MONTHLY ELECTRICITY BILL...56 FIGURE3.9: ENERGY EFFICIENT T ZED HOUSES IN BANGALORE.......................................................................57 FIGURE 3.10: USE OF RETS AROUND THE WORLD, SOLAR AND WIND TAKE THE MAJOR SHARE...................61 FIGURE 3.11: ENERGY DEMAND MANAGEMENT................................................................................................62 FIGURE 3.12: POSSIBLE REDUCTION IN CARBON EMISSION WITH EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES......................73 FIGURE 3.13 : ENVIRONMENTAL, SOCITAL, ECONOMIC AND NATURAL RESOURCE INDICATORS..................75 FIGURE 4.1: PARTICIPATORY PROCESS FOR URBAN PLANNING.....................................................................79 5

FIGURE 4.2: INTEGRATED ENERGY PLANNING................................................................................................85 FIGURE 4.3: SUSTAINABLE URBAN ENERGY GOALS PLAN AND INSTRUMENTS..................................................87 FIGURE 4.4: SPECIFIC THERMAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION COMPARISONS FOR CEMENT MANUFACTURING......93 FIGURE 4.5: EARLY START WITH ENERGY POLICIES.......................................................................................95 FIGURE 4.6: POLICY INSTRUMENTS .....................................................................................................................96 FIGURE 4.7: THE 3 PS (PATH, PROCEDURE AND PARTNERS) PROCESS..........................................................98
LIST OF BOXES
BOX 1: JOURNEY OF A TOOTHPICK.....................................................................................................................29 BOX 2: WASTE TO MANURE............................................................................................................................47 BOX 3: CITY FARMING, EVERY LITTLE HELPS.....................................................................................................51 BOX 4: MAP THA PHUT ECO INDUSTRIAL COMPLEX.....................................................................................54 BOX 5: COOL AIRPORT.........................................................................................................................................54 BOX 6: BANGLADESH LOW COST HOUSING....................................................................................................55 BOX 7: ENERGY SAVINGS DURING CONSTRUCTION-THINKING OUT OF THE BOX.............................................57 BOX 8: WHAT ARE THE OPTIONS FOR MALDIVES?............................................................................................58 BOX 9: LESSON IN SELF-HELPNEED BASED SOLUTIONS................................................................................64 BOX 10: PIONEERS IN RET USE AROUND THE WORLD.....................................................................................68 BOX 11: TIANJIN AND DONGTAN..........................................................................................................................75 BOX 12: THE CITY OF RIZHAO...........................................................................................................................80 BOX 13: ANN ARBOR MUNICIPAL ENERGY FUND.............................................................................................91 BOX 14: MULTIPLYING BENEFITS.....................................................................................................................91 BOX 15: CREATING JOBS THAT CLEAN UP THE CITIES..........................................................................................92 BOX 16: A WELFARE ASSOCIATION IN THE CITY...........................................................................................96 BOX 17: AUCKLAND ECOWISE.............................................................................................................................99
LIST OF ACRONYMS
ADB ADEME BELP BIM BMRC BP BTU CFL CHP CCS CO 2 COGEN DEFENDUS EIC EPA EPR ESCAP GDP GWe GWth H2 HDI ICICI IT ICT IDA IEA IEP IGES IPCC KPI kWh LECZ LED LNG MBD Mtoe MWe NASA NGO Asian Development Bank Agence de lEnvironnement et de la Matrise de lEnergie (French Environment and Energy Management Agency) BESCOM Efficient Lighting programme Building Information Modelling Building Management Resource Centre British Petroleum British Thermal Units Compact Fluorescent Lamp Combined Heat and Power Carnon capturing and sequestration Carbon dioxide Cogeneration Development Focused End Use Oriented Service Energy Information Centres Environmental Protection Agency Extended producer responsibility Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific Gross Domestic Product Gigawatt electricity Gigawatt thermal Hydrogen Human Development Index Industrial Credit and Investment Corporation of India Information technology Information and Communication technology International Development Agency International Energy Agency Integrated Energy Planning Institute for Global Environmental Strategies Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change Key Performance Indicators Kilowatt-hour Low Elevation Coastal Zone Light Emitting Diode Liquid Natural Gas Million Barrels a day Million tonnes of oil equivalent Megawatt electricity National Aeronautics and Space Administration Non Governmental Organisation 7

NPCL PJ RES RET RMB ROI SME t TWh UNDP US USD VMC VQS WEA ZJ Noida Power Company Limited Peta Joule Reference Energy System Renewable Energy Technology Ren Min Bi (official currency in China) Return on Investment Small and Medium Enterprises tonne Terawatt - hour United Nation Development Programme. United States United States Dollar Vijayawada Municipal Corporation Vehicle Quota System World Energy Assessment Zettajoule or zeptojoule
UNIT PREFIXES
K M G T P E kilo mega giga tera peta exa (103) (106) (109) (1012) (1015) (1018)
CONVERSIONS
1 metric tonne = 2204.62 lb= 1.1023 short tons 1 kilolitre = 6.2898 barrels = 1 cubic metre 1 kilocalorie (kcal) = 4.187kJ = 3.968 Btu 1 kilojoule (kJ) = 0.239kcal = 0.948 Btu 1 British thermal unit (Btu) = 0.252 kcal = 1.055 kJ 1 kilowatt-hour (kWh) = 860 kcal = 3600 kJ = 3412 Btu
Summar y
There can be no sustainable development without sustainable energy development. Margot Wallstrom, European Union Environmental Commissioner (2004)
With urban population having outpaced the rural number for the
first time in the world in 2008, urban energy has assumed centrestage. Asia, which is home to about four billion people, is witnessing a sudden surge in economic growth with its cities emerging as major activity centres. It is increasingly becoming a challenge for Asia to provide access to energy to billions who do not yet have access to clean and affordable energy and at the same time to decarbonise and reduce risk of local and global environmental catastrophes. The challenge is difficult to address, as energy underpins almost all infrastructural initiatives. Maintaining economic growth and providing access to basic shelter, transport, education, health and sanitation, all assume uninterrupted, stable, secure and affordable energy. While this could have been met by energy from fossil fuels, as it has been for industrialized countries, worlds finite reserves of fossil fuels are dwindling rapidly and the threat of global warming and climate change make Asian cities and many island countries very vulnerable. An alternative model of development is the need of the hour. The challenge is to sustain the economic growth but make a tangible shift to decarbonised energy systems. It seems possible and promising based on the various initiatives across the world, and also from Asia, which have impacted environmental, social and economic spheres positively. What we now need to do is to replicate and scale up these efforts in the Asian context, keeping the urgency of the issues in mind. This source book is akin to a manual for city managers with illustrative plates, and an engaging account of the renewed quest, isolated but inspiring, among many cities across Asia and the world, for exemplarsof models of good practices in the formidable interact between people and their cities amid the hovering dark clouds of the environment and energy security threats. This quest has several dimensions, and underlying the theme of this book is a historical search that seeks examples of ecological harmony and learning, to either live within our natural means, or to stretch the value of every resource we extract. Here is a comprehensive narrative that can serve as a guide to the how-tos of designing cities through new planning, and reinventing lifestyles through systems that demand reduced energy. 10

Business as usual is not an option at all. Developing in a way the industrialised world grew will cost far more in terms of energy, pollution, traffic chaos and global catastrophes such as climate change, which threaten the very existence of certain communities in Asia. There are indeed no precedents from post-industrial society that can offer solutions to this future that is already upon us. We need to ensure that there is no false concern on meeting arbitrary short-term targets, but instead a genuine desire to improve the social, economic and environmental context, in the local, regional and national framework of every city across Asia with an eye, always, on the long term. The efforts of city administration for providing and facilitating new and efficient technologies, incentives and regulation cannot be delayed without facing the problems which have started surfacing already. This sourcebook serves as an informative document that can help Local Governments to take stock of their own situation, analyse the system wastages, and look for innovative solutions to reduce energy demand. Energy supply has to come from clean sources. Wherever possible, renewable options should be explored. Local Governments need to be aware of options for them, which they can adopt independently without having to pass on the responsibility to other agencies, and enhance access to clean energy for their cities. This effort needs to be made in every city, small or big in Asia. A primary goal should be to have well-planned, well-managed and well-governed cities in the spheres of sustainable urban energy, in Asia. In an attempt to understand this journey towards sustainable energy for the cities, this sourcebook provides appropriate and relevant information in the Asian context. The first chapter introduces some of the key challenges that cities of Asia face. Target readers will identify some of these challenges as problems in their own cities. This chapter also highlights the local and global implications of unrelenting energy use in cities of Asia. The second chapter introduces the conceptual framework for the sourcebook and deals with the sectoral entry points for managing urban energy. Chapter three is a detailed description of various solutions that have the potential to change the energy map of the cities. What cities can do to address the problem of energy crisis is demonstrated through carefully selected case studies that can inspire the Local Governments to replicate the measures. The last chapter is focussed on providing a road map to local leaders to move towards the goal of energy-frugal and low carbon cities 11

through certain innovative tools and instruments. It outlines the importance of integrated energy planning and details how a city can achieve low carbon status by taking comprehensive energy planning and policy, and implementation measures. The annexes provide interesting information including a table showing possible indicators for energy sustainability. This annexe is intended for local government authorities to help them kick-start their local action plan for urban sustainable energy. For this sourcebook Sustainable energy may be defined in a systemic way as the energy system put in place that meets the energy needs of the present generation without compromising on the ability of the future generations to meet their own energy needs. It becomes clear therefore that amongst many ways of managing energy, those that enable energy efficiency and demand management are an inseparable part of the solution for sustainable energy. Objectives of this sourcebook are To understand the challenges before developing Asia to meet the energy demand and provide basic energy access to all. To understand the concept of sustainable energy in the urban Asian context. To understand the linkages of various sectors and subsectors and therefore a need for understanding the integrated holistic approach to address the energy issues. To find solutions for sustainable energy, balancing economic, environmental and social criteria. To learn from the experiences of other local leaders. To assist in designing policies or planning and executing local action to help cities march towards carbon neutrality. To achieve these objectives: A review of existing toolkits was carried out to get relevant information. In the Asian context, an updated source which provides concise and relevant information for urban energy is required. This sourcebook, particularly targeted towards local governments, attempts to fill that gap. Extensive review has been carried out for all urban energy sectors and sub sectors. Data sources are predominantly secondary and draw on a wide range of sources primarily from the experience of donor agencies, NGOs, government agencies, local governments, multi-stakeholder partnerships and communities through case-study method. Analysis of case studies carefully selected through a reiterative process has helped in presenting relevant themes for urban energy management in Asia. The constraint however is the availability of material from Asia for all thematic areas which are considered as priority in the urban context. Some examples of case studies are taken from the European 12

and Latin American countries purely because of material constraint from Asia. Some topics that are fairly important in an energy sourcebook are not discussed in detail because of the focus on the urban context. This sourcebook is not a primary research product. It builds upon the real practical experiences of local task managers and leaders as presented in various case studies. The emphasis on local action that this source book talks about has a firm basis in experiences on the ground and particularly from developing Asia. Wherever there are experiences shared from other parts of the world, these are analysed in the context of Asia or presented because the authors think that they are relevant for Asia. The sourcebook aims to deliver practical advice, information and guidelines which have already worked to achieve the goals of sustainable energy at the local level.
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Chapter 1.
The Urban Energy Sweepstakes

Energy for cities is emerging as one of the key developmental concerns across the globe, particularly for Asia. There is no activity that human beings perform that does not require energy; life in the city today exerts a phenomenally high demand on energy. This chapter touches upon how crucial energy services are for growing urban centres and the challenge before developing Asia to provide energy to millions who do not yet have access to it. And just having access to energy is not enough. It needs to be done without impacting local or global environment adversely, and by sustaining economic growth required to draw millions out of poverty. Energy is all pervasive and is one of the key facilitators of human life. All essentials of modern-day urban living such as water supply, waste management, transportation, housing, industry and running of a commercial or social enterprise, depend on energy. For all these services, different sources and forms of energy are used depending upon a countrys geographic location, resource reserves, status of development, and the prevailing socio-economic context. Asia is a very diverse continent with varying physical conditions ranging from landlocked cities like Chengdu, Delhi and Lahore to
Energy is all pervasive and is one of the key facilitators of human life. All essentials of modern-day urban living such as water supply, waste management, transportation, housing, industry and running of a commercial or social enterprise, depend on energy.
Figure 1.1 Urban share of GDP The figure shows percentage of urban contribution to national GDP GDP= Gross domestic product, PRC = Peoples Republic of China, ROK= Republic of Korea. Source: Compiled from United Nations Human Settlements Programme database in ADB, 2008
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coastal cities such as Hong Kong, Manila, Seoul and Tokyo. While some of these cities may be nearer to sources of primary energy, others are dependent on distant energy sources. Urban areas in Asia are major energy consumers, and they contribute about 60-80 per cent to national Gross Domestic Product (GDP) on an average and provide greater employment opportunities. However, they are also big contributors to pollution, waste, congestion and resource degradation. Figure.1.1 shows the percentage share of national GDP of many Asian countries. The question then arises as to how energy can be managed and used sustainably. Further, it is concomitant to provide drinking water, sanitation, transportation services and shelter to urban poor, too. But how would all these services be secured for an ever-increasing urban population without having enough, clean and affordable energy? What are the constraints before local leaders, decision makers, and task managers to supply the quantum of energy required to make Asia a developed continent? The aim of this chapter is to introduce the key challenges that developing Asias urban decision makers and managers face to provide continuous supply of energy.
1.1
Cities Hold the Key to Energy Sustainability
Cities all over the world are getting bigger as more and more people move from rural to urban sites, but that has created enormous problems with respect to environmental pollution and the general quality of life. Alan Dundes (2002) Cities across the globe account for two per cent of the earths landmass and host about fifty per cent of the worlds population as of 2008. This fifty per cent consumes about seventy five per cent of total energy available (UNESCAP, 2008). Asian cities are on the path of economic growth and population increase. With dependence on
Cities across the globe account for two per cent of the earths landmass and host about fifty per cent of the worlds population as of 2008. This fifty per cent consumes about seventy five per cent of total energy available (UNESCAP, 2008).
Plate 1 : Emerging cityscapes: Energy guzzling concrete jungles Such high-rise buildings marked the skyline of Tokyo and Hong Kong in the past; however it is no longer characteristic of these places as more and more urban areas all over Asia have similar high-rise buildings. Photo Credit: http://www.flickr.com/photos/travel_aficionado/3374852585
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fossil fuels, there are huge constraints that growing Asia faces. This sub section outlines the major issues facing Asian cities that have an implication on its energy use. It also talks about the dependence on limited resources such as fossil fuels which cannot quench Asias thirst for more and more energy. Pinning the problem down It is estimated that the urban population will increase to about sixty per cent in 2030, adding about 77 million people a year to cities (Johnson, 2007). Asia, which is still more rural than urban as of now, is only likely to remain so until 2030 and by 2050, it is estimated to reach sixty three per cent or about 3.3 billion people. It is interesting to note that in 1950, only 231 million (17.1 per cent) people lived in urban areas in Asia, and by 2000 they had increased five times to about 1.22 billion (34.9 per cent) (Hugo,2003). Two of the most populated countries in the world are in Asia, seven of its cities rank among the top ten in the world population list, with only one featuring in the top ten by area (CM, 2006). One of the key drivers of energy demand growth in Asia, therefore, is the urban population explosion1. Twin forces of industrialization and globalization have accelerated urbanization in Asia at a faster rate than it happened in the western world. Many cities were minor settlements for a thousand or more years, but the spurt of urbanization has changed the face of these small towns as they expanded to host more and more inhabitants. Such unbridled exponential growth of Asian cities against the more stable growth patterns of the early 20 th century has thrown unprecedented challenges that were nonexistent during the time when the western world developed.
Asia, which is still more rural than urban as of now, is only likely to remain so until 2030 and by 2050, it is estimated to reach sixty three per cent or about 3.3 billion people.
Plate 2: Earth at night showing extent of urbanization on earth. Photo credit: C. Mayhew & R. Simmon (NASA)
1
Urban population explosion is a result of local population increase and migration. It is beyond the scope of this book to discuss reasons behind Asian urbanization in detail.
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The major challenges before developing Asia is to expand infrastructure and services in these growing urban centres, to alleviate poverty and to provide basic living conditions to millions. This has to be done along with having to deal with the economic, social and environmental problems that emerge as a consequence of providing these services in a resource-constrained, energyinsecure and an ever-warming world (UNESCAP, 2008). Providing these services depends considerably on the availability of cheap, clean and affordable energy. However it may not be an overstatement to say that days of cheap affordable energy are over. Where do we begin? The imperative now is not only on development but also on survival strategies for future. While there are challenges for both small and large cities, it is the smaller cities like those which currently have more than 500,000 to one million people that will see most growth and new cities will emerge from rural settlements (ABC, 2008). Figure 1.2 shows the expected growth of some cities in Asia from 2005 to 2015. Cities that have 1 to 5 million people will also witness considerable growth (UNESCAP, 2008). However, small and medium towns find the going tough, as they lack necessary human, institutional, financial and political capital (UNESCAP, 2008). One third of Asian population lived in slums as of 2005. This has gone up and will continue to rise with the rise in population in these small and medium-sized cities. Although rural poverty is still more acute than urban poverty in many Asian countries, with an exception of Mongolia (Table 1.1), the situation is slowly changing as more and more migrant workers from villages make a move for urban areas.
While there are challenges for both small and large cities, it is the smaller cities like those which currently have more than 500,000 to one million people that will see most growth and new cities will emerge from rural settlements (ABC, 2008).
Figure 1.2 .Asian urban population in 2005 and 2015 It is clear that the number of cities with 1 to 5 million people will rise sharply over a decade. Source: (World Urbanization Prospects, 2005).
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Table 1.1 Urban and rural poverty percentages in Asian countries (Source: World Development Report 2005). Country Population in Poverty (per cent) National Poverty Line Total Mongolia Indonesia Malaysia Myanmar Bangladesh India Nepal Pakistan Sri Lanka 35.6 18.2 7.5 26.6 49.8 26.1 30.9 32.6 22.7 Urban 39.4 14.5 3.4 20.7 36.6 23.6 10.0 25.9 7.9 Rural 32.6 21.1 12.4 28.4 53.0 27.1 35.0 34.8 24.7 1998 2002 1999 2001 2000 1999 2004 1999 2002 Year data collected
Around the world, oil reserves in 2008 stood at 1258 billion barrels, and at the current rate of consumption of 87 million barrels a day (mbd), it will last only for around 42 years (BP2009) (OPEC, 2008).
The Eye of the storm Kenneth Boulding (1965) used the term Spaceship Earth to describe our planet, highlighting its limited resources for extraction. Fossil fuels, which are finite, supply over ninety per cent of primary energy globally (WEI, 2006) (Figure 1.3). Around the world, oil reserves in 2008 stood at 1258 billion barrels, and at the current rate of consumption of 87 million barrels a day (mbd), it will last only for around 42 years (BP2009) (OPEC, 2008). Similarly, coal, at the current rate of extraction, in the best scenario, would be around only for another 150 years (Strahan, 2008). Moreover, these resources are not uniformly used across the world
Figure 1.3: World Primary Energy Supply is dominated by fossil fuels. Source: EIA, 2008. * includes wind, waste, solar and wind.
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or a country. In developing Asia, it is the cities that account for most of the energy consumption. In India, one third of the population that lives in cities consume 87 per cent of the nations electricity while in China, 40 per cent more energy is used commercially in urban than in rural sector (Starke, 2007). The increase in the use of primary energyof around 80 per cent from now to 2030 is expected predominantly from rapidly urbanizing non-OECD countries of which Asia (Taylor et al, 2008) depends primarily on coal and will continue so till 2020. Coal is followed by oil, natural gas and nuclear energy (Figure 1.4).
Figure 1.4: Primary energy supply by source for Asia (1971-2020) Asian dependency is primarily on coal and oil and this likely to remain so in near future. Source: Institute for Energy Economics, Japan (2006)
Asian dependency on energy is mainly on fossil fuels. The dependence on these limited finite resources will have ramifications far beyond just supplying of energy. It will be detrimental to social, economic and environmental health of countries, especially those with limited purchasing capacity and huge environmental constraints. With the threat of global warming looming large, incessant use of coal and oil will further contribute to greenhouse gas emissions, the impact of which is likely to be felt more by developing Asia and many other poor countries of the world. How can dependency on finite resources be reduced while providing required energy services to a city? How can we do away with the expensive and the imported when it comes to fuel procurement? How can the threat to global warming be arrested so that ongoing development is not undermined? Local governments are best suited
The increase in the use of primary energy (80 per cent) from now to 2030 is expected predominantly from rapidly urbanizing non OECD countries of which Asia (Taylor et al, 2008) depends primarily on coal and will continue till 2020.
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to tackle these questions related to sustainability of cities of the future. Key message: The limits to growth While cities across the globe are major consumption centres of energy, significant increase will come from growing urban Asia, especially from its small and medium-sized towns because of population and economic growth. Fossil-fuel based energy sources on which the world runs today are finite. An ever-increasing dependence on these resources can put tremendous pressure on Asian economy and environment. The single, pressing agenda before city leaders today, is urban energy sustainability. Points to ponder: Per capita energy consumption in cities is 1.8 times higher than national averages in 2006 (WEO, 2008) Cities are expected to increase energy use from 7,903 Mtoe to 12,374 Mtoe by 2030. (WEO, 2008). Will existing exhaustible fossil reserves continue to support this? Until the recession closed down activities dramatically, China added the equivalent of nearly the entire UK power grid each year for nearly 20 years (CATF, 2007). In 1973, Asia and the Pacific consumed only 13.3 per cent of the worlds total primary energy supply (TPES). By 2003, energy consumption had grown by 230 per cent and the region accounted for over 25 per cent of the worlds TPES. Between 2003 and 2030, energy use in Asia and the Pacific was estimated to increase another 89 per cent, accounting for around 30 per cent of total world energy consumption (ADB, 2007). 1.6 billion people in Asia live in urban areas (Zlotnik, 2008) and worldwide 1.2 billion live in extreme poverty (UNHSP, 2003). How can equitable energy access for all be accomplished? There are 25,339 power plants around the world that emit carbon dioxide. If these got replaced or converted to enable carbon-free energy production, at the rate of one plant a day, they would all become carbon neutral in 70 years (CSTPR, 2008).
1.2
Our
The Many Facets of Urban Needs
modern industrial economy takes a mountain covered with trees, lakes, running streams and transforms it into a mountain of junk, garbage, slime pits, and debris. Edward Abbey Energy should be seen in the context of activities it enables and sectors it serves within any city. Brought to a finer detail, the amount of energy required by consumers varies with the level of service desired and also with the efficiency of the energy carrier (Reddy et al, 1995). This demand for a desired service cumulatively builds sectoral demand for each energy service which varies from one city to another. Sectoral share of energy in four big cities in Asia is shown 20

in Table 1.2. For all these cities the share for industrial, commercial, transportation and residential energy is very different. Most significant range seems to be of that related to industry, ranging from 62 per cent for industry in Beijing to 11 per cent in Tokyo (APERC, 2006).
Table 1.2 : Sectoral share of urban energy consumption in four Asian cities in 1998. (Source: APERC, 2006)
Cities Beijing Shanghai Seoul Tokyo
Industry 62% 80% 18% 11%
Transport Residential Commercial 8% 10% 25% 37% 17% 7% 37% 22% 13% 3% 20% 30%
The way a city has developed also determines its energy footprints. As land prices increase in the heart of the city, the city starts to expand horizontally. Some cities end up consuming more energy than cities that have allowed denser growth around city centres. Urban sprawl, as these horizontally expanded cities are known as, is very energy inefficient. Sprawl leads to more travel, more fuel consumption, more air pollution, and also to inefficiencies in infrastructure provision. It is estimated that sprawl development uses five times more pipe and wire, five times more energy for heating and cooling, twice as many building materials, three times more automobiles, and causes four times more driving. It also consumes 35 times as much land, and requires 15 times as much pavement as compact urban living (Sierra Club, 2009). As an example, the daily residential energy need for Hong Kong, one of the densest cities in the world, is just 20 mega joules (MJ) per capita compared to, say, the average consumption of an OECD country of 70 MJ/capita. The energy needed for its transport is just 8 MJ/ capita compared to Houstons at 75 MJ/capita (UN HABITAT, 2006). A closer look at where energy gets spent shows that substantial energy is used by the built environment and transportation. These also serve the residential, commercial and other industrial sectors. The following sections discuss these sectors in detail. Energy and the built environment Skylines of Asian cities are changing rapidly. While high-rise buildings have become a norm for most cities, the peri-urban and rural areas have made way for multi-storied apartments, building complexes and malls. Building sector has been one of the booming industries in Asian cities. It is estimated that more than half of the worlds new construction is taking place in China and India alone (BEC, 2009). Buildings account for around 30-40 per cent of the worlds total energy consumption and a similar percentage of the worlds greenhouse gas emissions. This figure goes up to 50 per cent and more when embodied energy of building materials and processes are also 21

included (ABC, 2008). The embodied energy of a given product represents the sum of all the energy inputs into it, during all stages of its life cycle. For example, the embodied energy of the clay brick commonly used in buildings includes the energy to extract the clay, transport it to the brickworks, mould the brick, fire it in the kiln, transport it to the building site and put the brick into place. It also includes all the indirect energy required, i.e. all the energy required to manufacture the equipment and materials needed to manufacture a brick, e.g. trucks, kilns and mining equipment. All have a proportion of their energy invested in that brick. For a full product system or service, the use and disposal phase may also be included in that value. Most buildings in Asia are surprisingly inefficient at using energy for lighting, heating and cooling. It will ultimately have a strong bearing on Asian energy consumption (BEE, 2009). Moreover, the way buildings are built today is bound to have a strong impact on the energy demand due to the high embodied energy of most construction materials that are employed to suit the present trend of urban architecture. Materials such as steel, cement and glass are produced in energy-intensive industries and are transported over long distances to reach the cities. Table 1.3 shows embodied energy of commonly used building material, highlighting the fact that steel can have 24 times the embodied energy of wood and aluminium a whopping 124 times.
Table 1.3: Embodied energy of commonly used construction materials (expressed in terms of kWh of energy used per kg weight). (Based on some buildings in UK) (TSG, 2009)
Embodied energy of Materials Wood Brick Concrete Plastic Glass Steel Aluminium
640kWh/ton=X
kWh/ton 640 4X 5X 6X 14X 24X 124X
We think that systems with high embodied energy are the price we pay for progress and development but their hidden costs are more telling than they appear. If as a society we do not consider life-cycle costs of materials, we would soon end up having to pay dearly for such excesses. Built environments designed with little concern for bioclimatic
2
Heat Island: The buildings, concrete, asphalt, and human and industrial activities of urban areas have caused cities and spaces within cities to maintain higher temperatures than their surrounding areas. This increased heat is known as an urban heat island. The air in an urban heat island can be as much as 5-10C higher than surrounding areas (Geography2009)
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parameters create heat islands2 (Figure 1.5) that necessitate the use of air-conditioning, causing energy wastages. In some of the Asian cities such as Tokyo and Shanghai, the rise in temperature is found to be about five degrees higher than the surroundings. This starts the vicious cycle of more and more air-conditioning (UN HABITAT, 2006), which is growing as a huge urban demand and is responsible for more than half of peak power demand in many Asian cities (UN HABITAT, 2006). Japan heads the list with hundred per cent air conditioning in the service sector (APERC, 2006).
Figure 1.5: Urban heat islands find solutions that are in a vicious spiral. One of the principal reasons behind this rise is the use of air conditioners. (Source: ROTH, 2002)
Energy in mobility systems The increase in disposable income of urban dwellers and a demand for mobility and comfort have triggered the growth of motorised transport in Asian cities. Independent vehicle ownership owing to poor mass transit systems or inadequate public transport system is becoming a norm. This is a sector that is mostly dependent on oil. Roads form the most used mode of transportation within cities. For some cities like Beijing and Shanghai, they bear over 95 per cent of passenger transportation. Transport sector in Asia in 2002 accounted for 21 per cent of the total energy consumed by all sectors and was projected to generate over 60 per cent of increase in the total energy use by 2025 (ADB, 2008). Much of this growth will come from emerging economies of Asia. Also, transport-sector related emissions in Asia are expected to grow thrice in the next 25 years. Congestion, air pollution and global warming potential of increased transportation growth, mostly
Roads form the most used mode of transportation within cities. For some cities like Beijing and Shanghai, they bear over 95 per cent of passenger transportation.
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attributed to personal possession of vehicles, can have grave consequences for Asia (ADB, 2006). These would include damage to the health of the environment in alarming ways in the decades to come. Congestion and road safety are other important issues that emerge because of the mismanaged transport issues. The economic cost of traffic congestion for Asian nations is estimated to be 4.4 per cent of GDP in the Republic of Korea and as high as 6 per cent of GDP in Thailand (Shuien, 2006). Walking on the streets in many Asian cities is almost like manoeuvring between life and death, as poor traffic management which does not favour pedestrians, leads to many accidents almost every day. This also results in motivating more and more pedestrians to get onto a vehicle to feel safer. Table 1.4 shows passenger vehicle ownership per thousand people which increased for all countries, but was maximum for Beijing and Seoul from 1980 to 2002 (Shrestha, 2007).
Table 1.4: Passenger vehicle ownership per thousand people in some Asian cities. Source: Shrestha, 2007 (APERC database)
The industrial sector in Shanghai uses 80 per cent of its total energy
Economy China Beijing Shanghai HKC Indonesia Jakarta Japan Tokyo Korea Seoul Thailand Bangkok
1980 2002 2020 1980-2002(%) 2002-2020(%) 2 9 5 41 5 34 203 159 7 15 19 80 47 59 16 143 428 266 204 205 100 324 65 177 100 70 26 161 522 271 284 288 158 389 10.8 10.4 10.7 1.7 5.4 6.7 3.4 2.4 16.6 12.6 7.1 4.5 4.3 1.0 2.7 0.7 1.1 0.1 1.9 1.9 2.6 1.0
Industry and Commerce run the city Industrial growth drives economic development but also raises the demand for energy. Urban industry is usually fossil-fuel driven and directly contributes to increased air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions. The industrial sector in Shanghai uses 80 per cent of its total energy (Table 1.2). In urban industrial set up, vast amounts of energy are used in activities such as processing and assembly. In Thane city, near Mumbai, industry that forms only 2 per cent of energy users of this bustling city, consumes 44 per cent of all energy (ICLEI, 2009). Similarly, the commercial sector is the backbone of any city. Hotels, restaurants, shopping malls, entertainment places are what defines the new urban life. Table 1.2 shows that commercial sector in Tokyo 24

uses 30 per cent of the total energy while for Shanghai it is only 3 per cent. Energy use in the industrial or commercial sector in some cities is so huge that it can draught all energy that is supplied, impacting severely those living on the peripheries. Key message: The sectors that draw most energy Energy situation is very challenging in Asia, as the demand of energy emerges from various sectors. City planning, construction industry and transportation are seldom driven by a motive to conserve energy. Asian building industry, transportation and industrial sectors are responsible for the rapid growth in energy demand and emissions. Points to ponder: The developing world had only 18 per cent of the global vehicle ownership in 1980. This will change by 2020 to about 50 per cent of the worlds projected 1.3 billion cars, trucks and buses. More roads would need to be built. (CA, 2008) Over 50 per cent of the foreign exchange earnings go to importing fossil fuels in many countries to run the transport sector. Often only a minority can access these facilities. (UNH, 2008) Transportation takes up more than half the total energy consumption in cities like Mexico, Cape Town and Hong Kong. It takes roughly a quarter in cities such as London, Seoul and Bologna (UNH, 2008). This growth depends on fossil fuels for nearly 80 per cent. An 18-storey modern high-rise building in Singapore or Hong Kong is equivalent to 900 cars in energy consumption (ABC, 2008)
1.3
The Tipping Scale of Energy in Urban Metabolism
For 200 years weve been conquering Nature. Now were beating it to death Tom McMillan, The Greenhouse Trap, 1990 What are the constraints and impacts associated with energy use detailed so far? Imported fuels impact economy, increase vehicular traffic, cause congestion and impact road safety. Greenhouse gases emitted by energy production and consumption are a threat to the local as well as the global environment. Air pollution from indoor cooking, thermal power plants and transport sector, is detrimental to the health and well-being of people. Some of these impacts have an immediate effect but some others have profound regional and global impact on the environment as we shall see in the following pages. The air we breathe and its effect on the environment and health The way energy is produced and consumed, unfortunately, has many adverse impacts. Greenhouse gases from vehicular emissions, fly ash from thermal power plants, sulphur dioxide, nitrous oxide and suspended particles from various industries are some of the off shoots of energy consumption. In developing countries, apart from
Energy use in the industrial or commercial sector in some cities is so huge that it can draught all energy that is supplied, impacting severely those living on the peripheries.
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transportation and industrial pollution, household cooking also contributes considerably to air pollution as there is still a sizeable population that uses fuels such as wood and other forms of solid fuels inside homes for cooking. People in cold countries use fuel to keep the warmth, often in poorly designed and poorly ventilated small-sized homes. Fuels like wood and charcoal are ill-suited in an urban environment and eventually become one of the leading sources of air pollution. Even if there is an access to these resources, the technologies used are primitive and inefficient. There is ample evidence that exposure to indoor air pollution from badly designed stoves and use of kerosene as fuel leads to acute lower respiratory infections in children under five and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and lung cancer in adults (WHO, 2009). These lead to other problems like low birth weight, prenatal mortality, asthma, and middle ear infection in children (Bruce et al. 2000). Figure1.6 shows high level of pollutants in some of the Asian cities.
There is ample evidence that exposure to indoor air pollution from badly designed stoves and use of kerosene as fuel leads to acute lower respiratory infections in children under five and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and lung cancer in adults (WHO, 2009).
Figure 1.6 Air pollutants in Asian cities. These pollutants are a major cause of respiratory illnesses (Clean Air Asia, 2006)
Plate 3: Pollution in Linfen, one of the dirtiest cities in China. Result of being the worlds workshop for the past two decades. Photo credit: http://www.flickr.com/photos/96434059@N00/856693325/
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Global Impact of Imbalance The economic pall that global warming has laid over our planet is another disastrous upshot of unbridled urban energy use. It has resulted in climatic turbulence bringing natural disasters to coastal areas, spelling doom to many innocent lives and livelihoods. Seventeen per cent of urban population in Asia lives in coastal areas with low-elevation. South-East Asia alone has more than one-third of the urban population living in these coastal areas. (UN-HABITAT, 2008b). Many coastal populations are at risk from flooding particularly when high tides combine with storm surges and/or high river flows. Between 1994 and 2004, about one-third of the 1,562 flood disasters, half of the 120,000 people killed, and 98 per cent of the 2 million people affected by flood disasters were in Asia, where there are large population agglomerations in the flood plains of major rivers (e.g. Ganges- Brahmaputra, Mekong and Yangtze) and in cyclone-prone coastal regions (e.g. Bay of Bengal, South China Sea, Japan and the Philippines) (Roger and Matthies, 2006). Most of Asias big cities such as Mumbai, Tokyo, Kolkata, Shanghai, Beijing and Manila are in fact coastal towns. As can be seen in Figure 1.7, about 32 per cent of the urban population of large Asian cities that lives in Low Elevation Coastal Zones (LECZ) is potentially under direct threat from global warming (McGranahan et al, 2000). If the sea level rises about one metre, one of the poorest nations in the world, Bangladesh, is projected to lose 17.5 per cent of its land area. (ADB, 2008). There are many other regional and global impacts of energy use in Asian cities. To combat global climate change, bio fuels are being promoted in many Asian countries, without paying much heed to
Between 1994 and 2004, about one-third of the 1,562 flood disasters, half of the 120,000 people killed, and 98 per cent of the 2 million people affected by flood disasters were in Asia.
Figure 1.7: Share of Asian urban population by percentage in low elevation coastal zones of different sizes. (Source: McGranahan et al 2007)
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how it is impacting the forest cover. Singapore has strict laws for emissions yet suffers from trans-boundary haze from the neighbouring Indonesia. We live in a world today, to recall the butterfly effect of Edward Lorenz, that when a butterfly flaps its wings in Brazil it could start a tornado in Texas. The long hauleconomics of imported fuel. All major sources of worlds primary energy like coal, oil and natural gas (LNG), which are finite, are concentrated in specific parts of our globeoil in Middle East, coal in Asia-Pacific and the USA. The long haul to transport these to the different nations from its source as seen in Figure 1.8, makes many countries vulnerable to supply disruption because of political issues apart from the untold damages to the environment. Energy security is a significant issue for most countries, either developing or developed, and countries keep stocks of oil as a buffer to tide over the price or supply fluctuations. Moreover, import costs are significantly high, acting as a deterrent to other developmental investments. If the Philippines saved even half of its net oil imports, it could send 17 million children to elementary schools, build 250,000 classrooms, put up 135,000 health centres, feed 14 million families and build 38,000 km of farm-tomarket roads (REC, 2009). Figure 1.8 shows the long haul from site of extraction of oil to its final consumption, which is laden with high embodied energy. Linear is finite A typical city consumes resources, generates waste and makes demands on soil, water supplies and forests for timber. If this is
If the sea level rises about one metre, one of the poorest nations in the world, Bangladesh, is projected to lose 17.5 per cent of its land area. (ADB, 2008).
Figure 1.8: Flow of oil from extraction to consumption sites. High embodied energy of imported fuel. (Source: World Energy Assessment, 2000)
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calculated for all inhabitants of the planet, it would show that we exceeded our limit of living within one planet as early as 1985. In a world where all inhabitants share their resources equally, the per capita sustainable footprint would be 1.8 Hectares. The average footprint of the Asian giant China is 1.6, while that of Shanghai is already at 7.0 (ADB, 2008). A megacity consumes around 100 to 1000 peta joules (PJ) of energy a year to operate its transportation, electrical, and climate-controlled infrastructure. Figure 1.9 shows a picture of input and output flows in a city, with a limited environmental capacity. The challenge is to understand the flow and find solutions within this flow. The first point to consider is the fact that most of the energy that a city consumes is seldom produced in the city itself. Almost everything else that the city uses and disposes has a bearing on energy. Is there any possibility of retaining this material flow within the city while providing requisite energy services to urban dwellers? This is something that can be handled by city planners alone.
In a world where all inhabitants share their resources equally, the per capita sustainable footprint would be 1.8 Hectares. The average footprint of the Asian giant China is 1.6, while that of Shanghai is already at 7.0 (ADB, 2008).
Figure 1.9: Energy flow through the city Linear is finite (Ravetz, 2009)
Box 1: Journey of a toothpick

David Morris, an environmentalist tracks the journey of a toothpick, which he says, he picked up after finishing his lunch in a restaurant in Minnesota. He learnt from the plastic packing of the individual toothpick that the toothpick had landed at his table from Japan. Morris deduces that a country that probably thought that it was cheaper to ship toothpicks to Minnesota from Japan probably sent its wood and oil across to the island, thus a toothpick travel 50,000 embodied miles. He further reveals that Minnesota had set up a factory to make chopsticks for exporting to Japan. This is the import-export paradigm in which our global economy runs. It is also the way our waste economy runs. (Morris, 1988) 29

With the threat of energy security, global warming, air pollution looming large, ignoring energy planning would fail to solve the problem of access to clean energy. To live in a finite world with equitable access to resources implies taking stock of the resources, which requires policy-level efforts that can make energy-use efficient and address demand in a way such that system wastages are reduced, people are made aware and enabled to control demand themselves within the limits of sustainability. Those who are best placed to do that are the local leaders. The time for action is now. We need to know and we need to act. We have just one earth. Key message: Taking stock of the impacts of energy use Imbalance in energy production, distribution and consumption will get out of hand if not checked in time. Energy production and use have far reaching global impact. Plundering of resources, mindless use of energy and being unmindful of emissions, can no longer sustain us. The way material flow happens in the city is all interconnected with the health of the city and of the planet. Urban leaders and policy makers need to understand and face the fact that we just have one planet. To borrow from a French saying We probably need to change everything as everything is linked. Points to ponder: Climate refugees number 24 million today and the number is expected to rise to 50 million by 2010, most of them coming from Asia (ET, 2009). Factor-Four economy3 should become the looking glass for all processes (Wuppertal,2009) China has over 100 cities with 1 million or more residents in each cityfewer than half of these cities actually meet Chinas own minimum standards for air quality (SEPA, 2007). Energy policy is like the Victorian medicine at the mercy of quack remedies and snake oil salesman (Jenkins, 2009).
To live in a finite world with equitable access to resources implies taking stock of the resources, which requires policy-level efforts that can make energy-use efficient and address demand in a way such that system wastages are reduced, people are made aware and enabled to control demand themselves within the limits of sustainability.
Factor-Four is essentially an economic concept. Amory Lovins talks about achieving Factor Four by halving the use of resources while doubling the economic growth.
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Chapter 2
Sustainable Energy in an Urban Context

The previous chapter made a point that energy is a prerequisite for the urban way of life, the consumption of which however has tremendous impact on the local and global environment today, besides being economically unsustainable. To bring in a change, it is important to understand what is meant by sustainable energy in an urban context. Who needs it and how much and who decides that? What are the systems that deliver it and are those systems well-designed? Will there be room for change, if needed? This chapter addresses these questions by looking at the role of local leaders in addressing energy issues despite challenges, and the pitfalls in energy systems that they need to know, for bringing about required changes. The chapter also outlines the conceptual framework which forms the foundation of this book.
2.1
Conceptual Framework
The world will not evolve past its current state of crisis by using the same thinking that created the situation. Albert Einstein Asia is a diverse continent. What we mean by urban in an Asian context may be understood in different ways by different people. UNESCAP conducted a survey in 26 countries and territories, and out of these, 15 defined urban areas based on administrative criteria and four on population size and density (UNESCAP, 2008). The source book however draws on a broader definition of urban area which is an area with an increased density of human created structures in comparison to areas surrounding it. This excludes villages and hamlets (Wiki, 2009). What is sustainable energy is another pertinent question which requires a little bit of discussion at the outset. Sustainable energy in early days of industrialization may have meant sustenance of an energy source which can keep providing uninterrupted energy services. However in todays context, sustainable energy is more complex to define. Looking through the social, environmental and economic window, energy has to be socially acceptable, affordable, clean, safe, uninterrupted and without adverse impact on the environment. Often this term is used interchangeably with green or alternative energy, by some. However, many renewable forms of energy may not be presently affordable by some, in the ways these are popularly presented. Hence, which form of energy is sustainable, for whom and in what form is a matter of subjective debate. This sourcebook does not advocate any specific form of energy as sustainable energy. Rather it is a guide book or a
Energy has to be socially acceptable, affordable, clean, safe, uninterrupted and without adverse impact on the environment.
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tool to understand what form of energy can be sustainable for a specific location or context. It is for the leaders to decide for themselves what may be sustainable for their cities or towns. Key considerations in the creation of the sourcebook The sourcebook is targeted towards local leaders such as mayors, councillors and task managers. However, it can also serve as a guidebook for NGOs working in energy field or for creating awareness. The sourcebook focuses on energy issues in urban areas, but providing energy services to the urban population includes lot of non-energy sectors such as waste and water and also some delivery mechanisms that have a bearing on energy services such as governance, management and planning. Key considerations that have enabled the creation of this are as follows: 1) Holistic approach: Energy is closely linked with many basic and fundamental services that urban dwellers need. An integrated approach to urban planning, infrastructure and services is the key to energy management. The sourcebook recognizes the need for an integrated planning approach required to manage the energy demand in cities. 2) Focus on medium to large-sized cities: The pivots for the sourcebook are the medium to large-sized cities. For the purpose of the sourcebook, medium-sized cities are defined as those having population between 1 and 2 million and large-sized cities as those with population over 2 million. Small-sized cities would have population between 500,000 and 1 million. However, during the preparation of this document, it was realized that there is very little specific data for small, medium or large-sized cities. Sometimes data on cities are available but it is not easy to segregate such data at this stage. 3) Context and Heterogeneity of the continent: One-size-fits-all approach may not work for a continent as diverse as Asia. Geographically and politically, the situation of one Asian country differs from its neighbour. Solutions that will work in a particular type of geographic location and under relevant style of governance are very specific to each of these locations. While the examples are discussed from all over the world, mostly from developing Asia, the idea is to make it relevant to city leaders of Asian countries. 4) Focus on Immediate Action: The emphasis on time is very consciously done. The authors of the sourcebook believe that the time to act is now. If we miss the bus for global climate change and reach the point of no return, all progress in Asia will be futile. 5) Emphasis on local: Finding solutions at the local level in these medium and large-sized cities is the main focus of the book. Local leaders such as mayors, councillors, task managers are at the centre of the sourcebook. All energy-related sectors are discussed with local leaders in mind. All energy-saving measures are also discussed in relation to a local context. Although it is understandable that certain 32
The sourcebook focuses on energy issues in urban areas, but providing energy services to the urban population includes lot of non-energy sectors such as waste and water and also some delivery mechanisms that have a bearing on energy services such as governance, management and planning.

policies trickle down from central policies and very often local leadership follows national or regional action plans, the emphasis on proactive and independent decision-making by local leaders and its benefits helps readers understand the importance and power of such actions. Whether it is mobilizing communities (micro level) or making policies and regulations, local leadership plays a crucial role in bringing about this change. 6) Emphasis on need and strength: The emphasis is on understanding the demand for energy through needs analysis and not entirely about supply-side solutions. Needs analysis is one of the primary tools that can help policy-makers understand possible options and areas to focus on.
2.2
Who decides who needs energy?
One of the great challenges of leadership is to develop harmony between service and the power that is necessary for the exercise of leadership. Keshavan Nair Energy holds sway over different groups of people within cities. It determines the quality of life for energy consumers; productivity and profitability for industries, commercial houses, energy suppliers and intermediaries; and ease of governance for administrators (Figure 2.1). However, at the centre of it all are the local authorities. Local government is an interface for all these stakeholders and is the pivot of control, managing and delivering day to day needs of stakeholders. How do local authorities strike a balance between conflicting demands of stakeholders for a given availability of energy? Whose needs are most important? Are the needs of industries demanding uninterrupted supply the first to address as they provide the basis for any countrys GDP growth or should leaders pay heed to the needs of commercial enterprises or households, or should they enable access to those who have been denied energy up till now? Should solutions be in terms of subsidies or incentives? Local Governments often have these dilemmas to face while trying to improve the energy situation for their cities.
Local government is an interface for all these stakeholders and is the pivot of control, managing and delivering day to day needs of stakeholders.
Figure 2.1: Energy Stakeholders- Local governments at interface between all stakeholders. Here, Intermediaries are Federation of Industries, Chamber of Commerce, Industrial research organizations, Industrial Development organizations, etc.
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Princes and Paupers Situation analysis of Asian cities reveals that about 1.3 billion people in Asia live in slums, of which more than 300 million live in India alone (ADB, 2008) (Figure 2.2). Many of them still do not have access to basic energy services or other infrastructural necessities dependent on energy such as water and sanitation.
Figure 2.2: Urban Slum population in some Asian countries. (Source: ADB, 2008)
Having said that, other urban dwellers have all the basic amenities and hi-tech gadgets that they use to communicate, move around, work and entertain themselves with. Twenty per cent of the worlds people in the highest-income countries account for 86 per cent of total private consumption expenditures and the poorest 20 per cent a minuscule 1.3 per cent (WEC, 2009). Figure 2.3 shows the extent of consumptive styles of developed, developing and under-developed nations. There is a very high level of consumption in Asian cities, in spite of which, there is a lot of difference between the consumption index of developed and developing world. Using consumption indices as proxies for energy consumption, there are gross inequities that can be seen around the globe. However, looking at Asian countries more closely, there are inequities within a country, too. It has been often commented that rich people pay less for the same energy service than the poor because of many governance related issues. Between 2002-2005, because of the rise in oil price, cost of energy services in four developing Asian countries, 34
Twenty per cent of the worlds people in the highest-income countries account for 86 per cent of total private consumption expenditures and the poorest 20 per cent a minuscule 1.3 per cent
Figure 2.3: World energy consumption: Inequities due to use of energy is high. Source: (WEC, 2009)
China, India, Indonesia and Laos affected the poor in these countries tremendously. On an average they paid 74 per cent more for energy services: 171 per cent more for cooking fuels, 120 per cent more for transportation, 67 per cent more for electricity, and 55 per cent more for lighting fuels compared with rich households (UNDP, 2007). If energy related emissions are the indicators of consumption, then a report from India argues that Indias rich are hiding behind its poor for its average low per-capita emissions. As shown in Figure 2.4, the highest income group accounts for nearly five times energy-related (household and transport) emissions than the poorest income group (Greenpeace, 2007). While many governments of developing countries strive and work
If energy related emissions are the indicators of consumption, then a report from India argues that Indias rich are hiding behind its poor for its average low per-capita emissions.
Figure 2.4: Per Capita annual carbon dioxide emissions from Indian households for different income groups. Rich seem to be hiding behind the poor. (Greenpeace, 2007)
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towards making lives better for their poor, policies do fall short of considering what affects the common man on a daily basis. Slums like Dharavi in Mumbai, India, did not materialise overnight. They are so huge that they cannot even be classified as an oversight! Addressing issues for Dharavi, which has a population of a million, a city in itself, needs exceptional leadership and commitment by local leaders. What can improve the access to energy for the millions living in slums? Can improving supply alone assure access to energy?
In some cities industry sector claims over 40 per cent of energy generated. But industries are revenue earners and job providers in the cities. It would be difficult to ignore demands of industries.
Plate 4: Slums of Dharavi. Training a blind eye to such inequity has compounded the challenge. Photo credit: http://www.flickr.com/photos/graceandpoise/3722978833/ sizes/o/
While assuring access to poor is one of the main agenda of local leaders, it is also important for them to look after the aspirations of middle class in urban areas. Products and services that increase comfort levels of consumers flood the market today. These gadgets directly raise demand for electricity. Air-conditioning use is almost an essential component of multinationals, large companies and an increasing number of households in most urban areas in Asia. How do local governments cater to this demand? Many industries claim a disproportionate share of available energy, and these affect domestic users too, through the high occurrence of electricity outages. In some cities industry sector claims over 40 per cent of energy generated. But industries are revenue earners and job providers in the cities. It would be difficult to ignore demands of industries. Commercial enterprises which are generally over-illuminated and overconditioned also cannot do without energy during peak business hours. They cannot be ignored either as they too bring in revenues and benefits to any city. All these stakeholders keep their own backup systems to deal with interrupted energy supply which has become a part and parcel of any developing countrys urban energy scenario. Local leaders often get brickbats for occurrence of such interruptions and power outages. With growing demand, the infrastructure for 36

public transport usually improved, but seldom on time or in adequate quantities. Local leaders need to think innovatively to solve these issues, not only to address consumer frustrations but to do so in such a way that solutions are sustainable. Key message: Policy-makersthe change makers According to Jos Goldemberg, energy is a tool to attain a minimum quality of life. Great care needs to be taken to avoid backlash on any stakeholder or environment from mismanaged energy systems. Local governments have a central role to play in balancing energy needs and demand. Policy-makers are usually blamed for power outages and other energy problems. By addressing energy issues in a sustainable manner, they can overcome their challenges better. Points to ponder: Mayor Bill White of the City of Houston has signed a contract with Siemens committing 271 facilities to significantly improve the energy efficiency through a retrofit programme (C40, 2008) Mayor Villaraigosa of the City of Los Angeles has started an environment-friendly LED lights project, largest ever undertaken by a city, to reduce CO2 emissions by 40,500 tonnes and to save the City of Los Angeles $10 million annually. (C40, 2009) The plans of Londons Mayor to cut energy and tackle climate change could bring about 10,000 -15,000 jobs and contribute 600 million a year to the capitals economy by 2025 (C40a2009).
2.3
Loopholes in Energy Systems
Every gallon of oil each one of us saves is a new form of production. It gives us more freedom, more confidence, that much more control over our own lives. Jimmy Carter (1979) There is a story behind every product we acquire. Consumption patterns have evolved over time, based on the influence of those who can control it. Thirst for power and control has resulted in tremendous waste within this system. Added to this is the fact that energy systems are developed in a way that conversion of primary energy to usable energy, transmission and distribution of it, are all full of inefficient mechanisms, sometimes because of the ageing technologies and at other times, due to poor maintenance, operations, carelessness and human error. How losses Multiply Losses multiply all along the energy chain from primary energy sources to its end-use at different stages of production, conversion, transmission, distribution and usage. Although these losses happen in any energy conversion and transmission system, it is more so in the power sector as it is generally a centralized grid-based system with gigantic networks that become unwieldy to manage (Figure 2.5).
Local leaders need to think innovatively to solve these issues, not only to address consumer frustrations but to do so in such a way that solutions are sustainable.
37
Figure 2.5: Losses along the power highway
Transmission & distribution losses There are hidden losses in energy systems such as technical losses like energy dissipation in conductors and in high-induction equipment used for transmission, transformation, sub-transmission and distribution of power (Figures 2.5 and 2.6). In India, transmission and distribution losses are reported to be as high as 33 per cent, higher than that of any other country (BL, 2005). Losses at the end-use level: The Silent Killers After all the losses incurred due to transmission and distribution, the story of losses continues at the end-use level, too. Consumers mindlessly waste energy, mostly through ignorance, by opting for energy-inefficient appliances and by keeping appliances on standby or by their wrong patterns of usage. A laser-printer sitting idle consumes 17 Wthe same as the average consumption of a small refrigerator (Mackay, 2008). Switching off appliances alone is not enough to ensure stoppage of energy use. Some stereos and computer peripherals consume several watts even when switched off. Standby losses happen silently too and figures shown in Table 2.1 indicate by how much. To be sure 38
A laser-printer sitting idle consumes 17 W the same as the average consumption of a small refrigerator
Figure 2.6: Energy losses in a pumping system all along the conversion chain.
Table 2.1: Power consumption for different gadgets in Watts on various modes. The silent killers. (Mackay 2008). Gadget On and active Computer and peripherals: Computer box 80 Cathode Ray display 110 LCD display 34 Projector 150 Laser printer 500 Wireless & Cable Modem 9 Laptop 16 Portable CD player 2 Bedside Clock Radio 1.1 Bedside clock Radio 1.9 Digital Radio 9.1 Radio Cassette Player 3 Slow Amplifier 6 Stereo Amplifier 11 13 Home Cinema Sound 7 DVD Player 7 DVD Player ii 12 TV 100 Video Recorder 13 Digital TV Set Top box 6 Clock in Microwave Oven 2 Xbox 160 Sow Play Station 3 Nintendo Wii 18 On but inactive 55 3 2 5 17 9 1 1.4 3 1.2 7 6 10 4 5 10 1 5 2.4 2 2 39 1.2 6 0 0.5 Power Consumption (W) Standby Off 2 0 1
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that a gadget is truly off, consumers need to switch it off at the wall. Figure 2.7 shows the power rating and everyday usage of electrical appliances in an average upper-middle class household in Phnom Penh, Cambodia. In comparison, almost 80 per cent of the Cambodian population does not have access to grid-quality electricity. Local governments have a role to play in creating awareness among consumers so that these holes are plugged. Many times one unit of electricity saved at a home could correspond to 3 to 5 units of primary energy saved for the electricity-generating utility.
Figure 2.7: Average power rating of electrical appliances (left) and average hours of use of electric appliances (right) for an urban household in Phnom Penh, Cambodia.
Costly mistakes Cities also multiply their opportunity costs due to slips in systems like power outages. Power looms sit idle in Bhiwandi (a city near Indias Mumbai) for long periods each day because of frequent power outages. Storeowners frequently compensate with back-up generators that are far more expensive to operate and produce more pollution than a well-managed central power plant. Other hidden costs that escape attention while planning include loss in productivity due to overburdening of the poor. Basic needs like education for young girls, who attend to home chores such as fetching water, are lost sight of. This and more such occurrences add to higher cost of energy due to lost opportunity for livelihood and downgrading in the quality of life. Operation & Maintenance (O&M) and energy efficiency O & M activities relate to the performance of routine, preventive, predictive, scheduled, and unscheduled actions aimed at preventing equipment failure or decline, with the goal of increasing efficiency, reliability, and safety. Energy losses from steam, water and air leaks; dissipation through non-insulated lines; losses through maladjusted or inoperable controls, and other losses from poor maintenance are often considerable. Urbanites pay small fortunes to buy a flat but do not like to spend on 40
Many times one unit of electricity saved at a home could correspond to 3 to 5 units of primary energy saved for the electricity-generating utility.

maintenance. Predictive or preventive maintenance is relegated to the back-burner. Creating buildings takes half of all the energy generated, and about a sixth every year on just running it. A lifecycle analysis by Treloar et al (2004) estimates that building an Australian road costs 7,600 kWh per metre (a continuously reinforced concrete road), and that, including maintenance costs, the total cost over 40 years is 35,000 kWh per metre. Awareness creation of such issues while making it easy and attractive for end-users to follow more vigilant systems is in the hands of local governments. Key Message: Greening the transmission highway Policy-makers need to know that if the inefficiencies of existing energy systems are not taken care of, then leakages in transmission and distribution become so high that they can undermine any new supplyside solution. Greening the transmission highway is one of the most significant ways of improving energy-efficiency of any system. Inefficiencies in operation and maintenance routines are important loopholes which need to be plugged to optimize functioning of energy systems. Points to ponder: United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) estimates that transformer losses account for 60 to 80 billion kWh annually. These losses cost end-users $3 to $4 billion, and can tie up nine days of U.S. generating capacity annually (ECM, 2003). Anywhere in the world, older power plants consume more energy. Those in developing countries consume between 18 and 44 per cent more fuel than the ones in the developed countries for every kilowatt hour of electricity produced by them (ECM, 2003). A new study by the International Energy Agency (IEA) suggests that there is a technical efficiency improvement potential of 1826 per cent for manufacturing industries worldwide if the best available technologies were adopted. These savings would equal 57 per cent of the total worldwide energy use and reduce the CO2 emissions by 712 per cent worldwide (IEA, 2007).
Creating buildings takes half of all the energy generated, and about a sixth every year on just running it
2.4
Lack of systems-based approaches:
The cheapest energy is the energy you dont use in the first place. Sheryl Crow Lack of coherence grips policy-framing when economics, energy and decision making mingle. This is because global issues do not form a part of local planning. Further, in spite of the resources being limited, we end up overusing and wasting energy. We see the result of such planning all around us. Local governments are constantly fighting bad legaciesoversized transformers, cables in a tangle, poor carrying-capacity wires, and staggering numbers of flyovers. Consider the grand plan floated by the government of Shanghai to remove traffic congestion. Multi-layered flyovers were soon on the anvil and 41

halfway through constructing them, it dawned on the local population that their cityscape was taking on monstrous dimensions and consuming a lot of money, too. (ADB, 2006)
Plate 5: Shanghai Plan: Shanghai is reconsidering flyovers to avoid congestion Photo credit: Pushpa Prakash; http://picasaweb.google.com/lh/photo/ dggLiyS6QSYCHgQrCOvJbA
Impartial Policies Urban infrastructure planning today is partial to state actors and large businesses much more than concentrating on good governance. It does not succeed in serving the basic needs of the most vulnerable. Perverse incentives and subsidies only reward expenditure and do not encourage savings. Subsidies have helped people in urban areas adopt relatively cleaner forms of energy such as LPG, however, most of these subsidies are mis-targeted and do not reach those who deserve it. Even though there is a growing understanding amongst most stakeholders that subsidies are not economically viable, political will still favours them. Distorted energy prices are another cause of energy losses for governments in developing countries. Table 2.2 gives an insight into the range of price distortion that occurs in India.
Distorted energy prices are another cause of energy losses for governments in developing countries
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Table 2.2: Electricity tariffs in Indian States showing price distortions for the power sector. Source: ( Ministry of Power, Government of India, 2009)
State Electricity Boards

Haryana Himachal Pradesh Jammu Kashmir Kerala Madhya Pradesh West Bengal Average
Electricity Tariffs in Indian States,1998, US cents per kilowatt hour

Domestic 4.7 1.6 0.7 1.4 1.7 1.9 2.9 Commercial 7.5 4 1.2 4.6 7.3 4.7 4.7 Agriculture 1.2 1.4 0.2 0.5 0.1 0.0 0.5 Industry 7.5 3.5 0.9 7.4 7.4 5.9 6.9 Rail Transport 7.5 Na Na 11.8 11.8 0.7 8.5 Export to other states 3.2 3.5 na 2.1 2.1 na 2.9 Average 5.3 2.6 0.8 5.1 5.1 3.8 4.1
There are also tremendous wastages due to unaccountability in energy systems, particularly with electricity and household cooking fuel, if these are subsidised. Local governments can make a sea of change in the way these pilferages are handled by infusing more balanced policies for the management of energy systems. When governments struggle for directions China proclaimed to have 440 gigawatts (GW) of electricity power generation, while there were 110 GW more of undeclared, notsanctioned power generation units (Lester and Steinfield, 2007 ). China is not the only country to have such issues. This is typical of governments fighting fires as systems are not in place. Systemic planning and setting examples by leading could change things around. For example, street lighting happens to be the second major contributor to electricity cost for municipalities after water pumping. Excessive illumination during off-peak hours and unnecessary lighting during daylight are some of the wastages that can easily be avoided. Most of our planning is based on norms that do not meet parameters of efficiency or service. They are rarely questioned. Such norms become foundations on which policies are built. Can systems be created to question these? Supply side versus demand side The easiest way of managing the increasing demand for energy is by increasing the supply of energy in most parts of the world. If it was not for oil shocks and climate change, the world may have never learnt that there are other aspects to energy management than merely increasing supply. Supply-side solutions seem to be favoured by national, regional and local governments. On one hand these make a statement about how progressive the ruling government is, and on the other many corrupt decision-makers profit through such big supplyside infrastructure projects. What needs to be understood is that while any political decision taken today may help a narrower political
Street lighting happens to be the second major contributor to electricity cost for municipalities after water pumping.
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agenda, it would however impact future generations and the planet adversely. Mayors are often tested on their ability to increase capital investment in infrastructure during their term of office with no understanding of the hidden costs or their adverse impact on the environment. Mayors in China, for example, are assessed by the local GDP growth-rate rather than by their contribution to enhancing sustainability. While supply-side options are essential and efficiency on the supplyside can be productive, demand-side options can encourage further efficiency by promoting efficient appliances, value engineering demand itself, and managing peak load. Key message: Mastering losses Supplying more energy cannot solve the energy problem completely. An integrated approach to fix the loopholes within systems is more important. Policy-makers have to gain deeper understanding of the existence of these issuesof the hidden costs and lossesand how they occur. They will then be able to sensitize and mobilise action frameworks. There is apparently a higher demand for primary energy than what should be, because of inherent losses in systems and consumerist behaviour of public. Local governments are the key players who could plug these holes. Points to ponder: Indonesian government provided heavy subsidies in Jakarta for ordinary Indonesians and faced a subsidy bill of as much as 13.2 billion USD (Leong, 2005). From Mexico to India to China, governments fearful of inflation and street protests are heavily subsidizing energy prices, particularly for diesel fuel. But the subsidiesestimated at $40 billion in 2007 in China aloneare also removing much of the incentive to conserve fuel (Hall, 2008). According to the oil company BP, countries with oil subsidies accounted for 96 per cent of global increase in oil use in 2007 (Zwaniecki, 2008) Lighting and air-conditioning are generally the most wasteful components of commercial use. A number of case studies indicate that more-efficient lighting and elimination of overillumination can reduce lighting energy by approximately 50 per cent in many commercial buildings.
Mayors are often tested on their ability to increase capital investment in infrastructure during their term of office with no understanding of the hidden costs or their adverse impact on the environment.
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Chapter 3.
Metamorphosis into Sustainable Cities
We need alternatives that would conserve energy, make its use more efficient, enable its cleaner production and craft better policies to sustain it. The alternatives detailed in this chapter show the huge range of options that are available, and, in some cases, being put into practice in many cities across the globe. Many of the examples cited are decentralized, democratic and pro-poor. These carefully selected options and examples cater to a variety of cities, some specifically chosen for small island countries such as Fiji, Maldives and Papua New Guinea. What renewable and emerging technologies can they use? How can equity for all become a reality? How can city managers themselves set the trend? What can the cities do to march towards energy sustainability? These are the questions that policymakers are expected to address. The chosen examples talk about technology enabler and tools used, but details about these tools are discussed in the subsequent module. The focus of this chapter therefore is on delineating options for sustainable energy. This chapter also emphasizes the use of Renewable Energy technologies (RETs) which potentially have tremendous scope for the Asian situation.
3.1
Understanding the Urban Fabric the Bottom-Up Approach
You never change things by fighting the existing reality. To change something, build a new model that makes the existing model obsolete. Buckminster Fuller What is the new model that will make old models obsolete for cities in Asia? This change will require new ways of thinking, planning, innovatively using technologies and through new ways of governance. There is a need to take a holistic approach to address urban issues, cropping up due to the need for energy. Reforms in spatial planning, closing energy loops, changing the way mobility is handled in a city, all require a critical look into the energy systems in the urban context. Energy Systems A typical energy system is composed of interconnected components, such as natural energy sources (sun, wind) and transformer technologies that convert these natural sources into convenient forms of energy for easy transportation, distribution and storage. These convenient forms of energy or currencies (Gasoline, oil) are converted into useful forms of energy through service technologies which end users make use of for various energy services (Scott in Li, 1996). Scott explains that both natural energy sources and human needs typically do not change. What changes are the intermediate carriers of energy or service and transformer technologies. So, when
Reforms in spatial planning, closing the energy loops, changing the way mobility is handled in a city, all require a critical look into the energy systems in the urban context.
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we look for solutions, we need to focus on crafting efficient transformer and service technologies and choose currencies wisely and sustainably (see Figure. 3.1).
Figure 3.1: Energy service, the end objective. Human need drives energy that is harnessed from nature using technologies, which keep changing for the same needs and similar ultimate sources of energy. (Source: Scott 1995 in Li, 2005)
Demand for energy service begins at its very first level with an individual. This can be addressed at that level itself by promoting the option of closing the loop at the source. For example, for a city planning to be sustainable, wet waste need never leave homes; it could get decomposed within individual households. Demands that are not dealt with at an individual level spiral into a collective demand in a city, throwing several complicated long-winding conveyor belts into the urban landscape which become unwieldy and energyconsuming. Most municipalities transport wet waste across their cities to either segregate it or to dump it in landfills. If these long and linear belts could be shortened and looped as shown in Figure 3.2, management of various systems would get decentralised and a city could start its march towards energy sustainability. A system of mini-loops could function if activities are streamlined to begin and end within their limits. Reforms in Spatial Planning and activities within Money and materials flow through services and products into cities. Cities are therefore centres of global and local economic transactions. 46
A system of mini-loops could function if activities are streamlined to begin and end within their limits.
Figure 3.2: Closing the loop at appropriate levels. Closing it at minimum levels ensures saving of energy for any city
Box 2: Waste to Manure

Daily Dumps, an NGO in Bangalore, India, sells terracotta vessels designed to convert household waste into useful high-quality, nutrient-rich manure. The concept is based on the fact that an average urban citizen generates over half a kilogram of solid waste everyday, which is disposed off without being segregated. Replacing dustbins with these pots is an easy solution for citizens to do their share of environment-friendly work. Local governments can facilitate such initiatives of closing the loop. If every city-dweller in a city does this, it would save half a kilogram of solid waste for the landfill for every citizen. This would result in saving a lot of transportation and labour cost. The other bigger benefit is the local manure can help to lower the need for fossil fuels used to manufacture and transport chemical fertilizers. (DD, 2009) They enable social control, political discourse and cultural exchange. When energy challenges take on bigger dimensions that communities or groups of communities cannot manage at individual or federated levels, they need to be combated at the centralized city management sphere. How do we plan new cities such that daily trips to jobs, market and schools are reduced? Shops could be in the neighbourhood at walking distances. Schools and work-spaces could be within communities. This would result in urban compactness which has direct impact on energy used for transport, cooling, heating, water, energy and waste management. Consumption can greatly be modified without any change in lifestyles through careful planning and management. For example, small communities could be linked by a very good public 47

transport system at the city level instead of policies that encourage individual vehicle ownership. Here again, appropriate land-use legislation for residential and commercial sites and access to public transportation services can lessen demand for more energy-intensive transport. This is important as spatial structure and function of a city would greatly affect energy use as they influence mobility demand of citizens. Table 3.1 shows the differences between the urban sprawl and smart growth. The way sprawl is designed requires increased demand for transportation.
Table 3.1: Smart Growth and Urban Sprawl; makes a lots of difference for energy use Plate 6: High-rise residential buildings of Hong Kong: Higher density leading to
Spatial structure and function of a city would greatly affect energy use as they influence mobility demand of citizens.
Smart Growth and Sprawl

Smart Growth Emphasis Density Growth pattern Land Use Mix Public services Transport Accessibility to goods services, and activities particularly by car Higher Density, clustered activities Infill development development Mixed Local, distributed, smaller, walking access Multimodal transportation and land-use patterns that support walking, cycling, and public transportation walking, cycling and public Highly connected roads, pavements and paths allowing more direct travel by motorized and non motorized transport modes Sprawl Mobile-physical movement, Lower density, dispersed activities Urban Periphery (Greenfield) Single use, segregated Regional, consolidated, larger, requiring car access
Car oriented, poorly suited to transportation
Connectivity
Hierarchical road network with many unconnected roads and walk-away, and barriers to non motorized transport Designed to maximise vehicle
Street Design
To accommodate a range of activities with street calming throughout Planned and coordinated between jurisdictions and stakeholders coordination, or planned Emphasis on streetscape, pedestrian areas, public parks, and public facilities
Planning process
Either unplanned/little (eg.US) Emphasis on the private realm-of shopping malls, gated communities, private clubs
Public Space
48
better resource utilization. Photo credit: Japneet Chahal
Increased population densities enhance urban sustainability as the per capita demand for occupied land, use of building materials and use of individual modes of transport would all get lowered. Hong Kongs density, both commercial and residential, comes from the special Administrative Region having gone high-rise on its city development. Apartments have been built 50 to 60 stories or taller for both residential and commercial use. Hong Kongs density averages to around 70,000 people per square mile (Wills, 2009). The art of sustainable mobility Transportation options depend much on the way the city develops. Vertical cities may have easier transportation options; a horizontally sprawling or growing city may require different options to adopt. However, to enable energy savings in the transportation sector one needs to understand issues connected with it. While the number and length of person trips in a city determine the demand for mobility, per capita income is also a critical factor for choosing a particular transport mode. Now, to have an efficient transport system in place, everything from behaviour of drivers to traffic management, matters. This would include parking prices, congestion charges, transit fares, transportation infrastructure, vehicle fleet and fuel dependence, which are all critical to optimising energy use. As shown in Figure 3.3, understanding mobility issues, demand for access and derived demand for mobility, are the basis which would lead to the improvement of transport systems for a given type of demand. Down the ages transportation has shifted from non-motorised to railbased public transport onto personalized transport means. Reducing and discouraging privately owned vehicles through a better public transport system can bring down energy consumption drastically.
Increased population densities enhance urban sustainability as the per capita demand for occupied land, use of building materials and use of individual modes of transport would all get lowered.
49
Asian industry has been a considerable source of pollution and wastage.
Figure 3.3: Understanding mobility issues (Source: Torrie, 2002)
One way of deciding how the future of transport in a growing city needs to be, is offered in Annexe 1. Table 3.2 shows the efforts put in by Nepal. Local governments played a key role from bringing regulations to facilitating the change.
Table 3.2: Converting diesel powered vehicles to electric vehicles in Kathmandu, Nepal. Key dates when the hill capital made an effort, even though slowly.
Year 1991 1993
Activity Ban on new registrations of three-wheels Techno-economic feasibility demonstration of electric three-wheelers by Global Resource Institute Announcement of in-use vehicle emission standards Reduced import customs tariff and sales tax on electric vehicle parts Ban on in-use diesel three-wheelers
1994 1996 1999
Industrial Production: Norm rather than an exception 2001 Number of electric three-wheelers exceeded 600
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Urban Energy Sourcebook Box 3: City farming, every little helps

Transportation-planning in a city could be greatly helped by reducing food miles. Urban farms are a potential option to reduce transportation needs. The Cuban government has, in the past decade, transformed unused land into urban agricultural plots. In Havana, 90 per cent of the citys fresh produce came from local urban farms and gardens, making travel cost from food almost negligible. In contrast, food in the US travels at least 1500 km before it reaches plates (CDA, 2009). Apart from reducing food miles and cutting down transportation costs urban farms can also provide additional benefits of creating local livelihoods. Several European and some Japanese supermarket chains have introduced the concept of carbon labelling on food products, which will indicate the amount of carbon dioxide consumed for bringing them on the shelf. Industry creates employment and income. However, Asian industry has been a considerable source of pollution and wastage. Industries could transform sustainability of energy in cities. There can be action at the level of individual firms, where cleaner production replaces inefficient production through activities that reduce, recycle and reuse. Cleaner production of energy would minimize waste and emissions and maximize product output. Processes involved in getting clean production involve reduction at source, recycling and product/ process modification (Figure 3.4).
Figure 3.4: Techniques involved in cleaner production of energy should become the norm for every industry. (Source: NEA, 2009).
Cleaner Production in Industry (CPI) project in Vietnam, sponsored by the Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA), has carried out many activities for promoting CP application in industry, including capacity building, information dissemination on CP and 51

policy development on CP in the industry (NEA,2009). Combined savings from cleaner production of all industries that participated in this improvement project are shown in Table 3.3. If such norms are systematically adopted by industries, energy demand would get greatly reduced, and thereby reduce the pollution, too. Local governments can play a key role in incentivizing or regulating the industries, making them aware that cleaner production indeed results in annual savings. Examples from India have shown good effort at reducing emissions, too. Financing from banks like ICICI helped Noida Power Company Limited (NPCL) replace bare cables with insulated cables, replace old pumps with efficient ones and set up meters in all places which resulted in a quick climb of 55 per cent savings in energy (ADB, 2008). Clean production of energy by using exhaust gases from engines to produce steam (cogeneration) and by using steam in vapour absorption machines to produce cooling (tri-generation) cuts down emissions drastically.
Table 3.3: Annual savings due to cleaner production from all industries. Every little act counts. (NEA, 2009)
Industry could look at the life cycle analysis which includes life-cycle accounting for each product through its design, selection of materials, production, distribution, transportation and finally disposal.
Enterprise of Electricity Coal FO DO Gas Water Sector (Mwh) (ton) (ton) (ton) (ton) M3 Textile & Dying Paper Metal Finishing
Chemical Annual (ton) Saving USD 2011205 3297851 503414 1081404 797434 367642
Investment USD
6.991 44.338 911
17.47 6.510 0 24.541 1.901 0 490 111 21 285
0 0 41 208
1.014.223 496 2.906.570 1.228 150.203 77
506.149 766.246 307.481 593,669 173,840 372.892
Construction Material 6,746 Food Processing Others Total 727 1,690 61,403
5,330 0 383 163
2,064,314 2,677 80.143 60
30.2 0 0 0.2
4,732 29
1,115.477 22 7,330,930 4,560
37,223 8.714 336.2 249
8,058,950 2,720,277
Cogeneration or CHP, also known as combined heat and power, makes use of heat which is normally a by-product of electricity generation in a power plant. This heat could be used for industrial purposes. When compared with a separate generator, it has potential to save 40 per cent of energy (Figure 3.5). At another level, industry could look at the life-cycle analysis which includes life-cycle accounting for each product through its design, selection of materials, production, distribution, transportation and finally disposal. Efforts are made to reduce energy and resourcewaste throughout its life-cycle. As an example, the Japanese company Toshiba encourages consumers to recycle all electronic goods free 52
Figure 3.5: Cogeneration vs. separate generation Less loss with cleaner production
of cost as part of their social responsibility. Although, through lifecycle reduction of wastages, production can get economically efficient, much of the focus of industries has been on safe disposal of products. A significant change happening across the globe is the spurting of eco-industrial parks. Industrial clusters are developed for industrial symbiosis where waste of one industry becomes a resource of another (Figure 3.6). Eco-efficiency is about boosting productivity albeit by reducing the need for excess resources and by minimizing
A significant change happening across the globe is the spurting of eco industrial parks. Industrial clusters are developed for industrial symbiosis where waste of one industry becomes a resource of another.
Figure 3.6: Progressive steps to energy efficiency in Industry Cleaner production (micro), Life cycle management and Industrial ecology (Macro) Source: Chiu, 2008.
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Box 4: Map Tha Phut Eco Industrial Complex

Map Tha Phut industrial estate in Rayong, Thailand, has an example of a cogeneration company that supplies electricity, steam and demineralised water to industrial operators. Manufacturing process at Rayong plant occurs in a sequential manner. Heat is recovered from the flue gases of the power-generating plant. Similarly, sulphuric acid vaporizing during the pickling process is recovered. The by-product of this process is used as a soil-conditioner. The sulphuric acid is used in making fertilizers, which further has gypsum as a by-product, which can be recycled.
Box 5: Cool Airport

The district cooling system of Suvarnabhumi airport in Bangkok and its power plant gets operated by using natural gas. The exhaust heat from generation of electricity is tapped to produce steam. A small part of this steam is used to meet the hot water demand of the airport hotel and the airlines catering unit. The remaining steam is used in environmentally-benign vapour absorption chillers to produce chilled water for the air-conditioning system of the passenger terminal complex (EGAT, 2009). The city of Kuala Lumpur in Malaysia has been a leader in applying such principles into practice, as demonstrated by the Kuala Lumpur City Centre (KLCC), the recently created administrative zone of Putra Jaya and the Kuala Lumpur International Airport (KLIA). the environmental impact. Eco-Industrial Park is a concept that requires to be taken up in a big way. Kalundborg in Denmark was one of the pioneers in developing a prototype of such an industrial park. Similarly cluster management in ceramic industry are being developed in Lampang, Philippines, Viet Nam and in India. There are immense benefits to the industry such as reduced toxicity and health risks, minimizing costs and market opportunities. Energy savings within built environment Bringing efficiency within processes used in construction industries and facility management through building information modelling (BIM) and choosing local and eco-friendly materials can result in energy savings and lessening of GHGs. Buildings that are being constructed to meet specific certification criteria (e.g. Green Star rating in the USA, GRIHA in India, HQE in France and LEED in many parts of the world) are reported to have led to 30-50 per cent reduction in operating energy consumption. Solutions for issues due to climate pressures like green air-conditioning systems for heating and cooling offer a potential to bring in savings, too. Energy savings can also result from waste-reduction practices, such as recycling and reuse; and reduction in demand for raw material and energy inputs at the manufacturing stage of life-cycle. These can conserve energy and reduce GHG emissions. Table 3.4 lists some energyefficient technologies that could be adopted in the built environment. Energy efficiency Commercial and residential units consume massive energy, and much is wasted on lighting and space-heating or cooling. Chinas green light programme (WEA, 2000) which was initiated by the UNDP with the State Economic and Trade Commission of China is designed to 54
Bringing efficiency within processes used in construction industries and facility management through building information modelling (BIM) and choosing local and eco-friendly materials can result in energy savings and lessening of GHGs.

increase the use of efficient lighting systems. The programme aimed at replacing incandescent lamps with 300 million compact fluorescent lamps and other high illumination products, leading to huge energy savings; the sulphur dioxide emissions were targeted to be lower by 200,000 tonnes and carbon dioxide emissions by 7.4 million tonnes during the project implementation period (WEA, 2000).
Table 3.4: Energy efficient technologies and practices for buildings (WEA, 2004a)
SELECTED ENERGY-EFFICIENT TECHNOLOGIES AND PRACTICES FOR BUILDINGS

Building Envelope Energy-efficient windows, insulation (walls, roof, floor) reduced air infiltration Space conditioning Air conditioner efficiency measures (e.g. thermal insulation, improved heat exchangers, advanced refrigerants, more efficient motors), centrifugal compressors, efficient fans and pumps, and variable air volume systems for large commercial buildings Appliances Cooking Task Lighting Advanced compressors, evacuated panel, insulation (refrigerators), higher spin speeds in washing machines/dryers Improved efficiency biomass stoves, efficient gas stoves (ignition, burners) Compact fluorescent lamps, improved phosphors, solid-state electronic ballast technology, advanced lighting control systems (includingday-lighting and occupancy sensors), task lighting Variable speed drives size optimisation Improvement of power quality Passive solar use (building design), solar water heaters
Motors Building energy management
Box 6: Low-cost housing in Bangladesh

Habitat for humanity is an international organization that works in many countries including Bangladesh. Womens savings groups receive interest-free loans from the organization. The model is known as Save and Build model, and involves sweat equity; that is to say manual labour carried out by the future homeowner, with the help of volunteers, to reduce building costs and construction time. Financial management and practical training is provided to people through the six-month savings period. The houses that are built by the organization are permanent houses, built at minimum costs to local standards related to housing; appropriately serviced for water, electricity, sewer or septic tank and roads; appropriately mitigated for local hazard risks; on land with secure land titles and tenure; part of an appropriate settlement design with adequate human services such as schools, clinics, religious facilities; and, using designs and environment that are culturally appropriate. Habitat housing is sustainable and durable. These houses have positive effects on health, economic and socially well-being. Habitat has been able to build sustainable, durable, proven house for $1,500 USD, including the administrative and transport costs. Volunteer work by locals, people from Japan, India and United States has been the backbone of this programme. (Habitat Bangladesh, 2009). 55

A typical upper-middle class urban household in Phnom Penh, Cambodia, spends a major chunk of its electricity on refrigerator and electric fan, and under normal scenario the monthly electricity bill is around USD 21.50 (Figure 3.7). If the inefficient appliances were replaced by efficient ones (incandescent lamps by CFLs) and care was taken not to leave the appliances on standby, the electricity bill of the household would reduce to 14.87 USD per month (Figure 3.8).
Household Electricity Bill - USD 21.49/month (Normal Scenario)

Iron 10% Rice Cooker 10% Lamp 12% VCR 2%
Refrigerator 35%
business-as-usual scenario.
TV 8%
Electric Fan 23%
Figure 3.7: Monthly electricity bill for a household in Phnom Penh under the
Household Electricity Bill - USD 14.87 /Month (Efficiency Scenario)

Lamp 3% VCR 1%
Electric Fan 16%
Savings 32%
TV 6%
Rice Cooker 8%
Iron 8%
Refrigerator 26%
Figure 3.8: Monthly electricity bill for a household in Phnom Penh under the energy efficiency scenario.
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Box 7: Energy Savings during construction-thinking out of the box

Communities like T-Zed in Bangalore, India are shining examples of sustainable architecture that have used building materials and processes of lesser embodied energy. The multi-storied residential housing complex of T-Zed consumed 71,940 GJ lesser energy during its construction in comparison with a conventional building and designed the apartments such that it uses only 4,532 GJ in its operation per annum (Figure 3.9). This led to a saving of 20,000 T of carbon dioxide during its construction and 1,262 tonnes during annual operations. Some of the reduced embodied energy has been achieved by using local material, soil stabilized blocks, laterite block, reclaimed timber and natural stone flooring. Passive solar building, with adequate ventilation and lighting, low energy bulbs for lighting and energy-efficient appliances help in achieving a low-carbon status for the operational aspect of this building. Interestingly, one of the ways energy is saved in this complex is by not sourcing water from municipality. All required water is harvested and recycled to provide water from within the community itself. In comparison, Bangalore city transports millions of gallons per day from the river Cauvery that is 80 km away from Bangalore and 700 m below its altitude. The energy spent per day to bring water to Bangalore is mind boggling.
Figure 3.9: Energy efficient T ZED houses in Bangalore-showing emission reductions during construction.
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Box 8: What are the sustainable energy options for Maldives?

One of the small islands off Indian Ocean, Maldives is amongst the most vulnerable countries to the projected impact of climate change. Like other small island developing states, the Maldives depends overwhelmingly on petroleum imports for their electricity production, which creates serious economic and financial difficulties for the small nation. The island is characterized by insufficient supply of electricity, increasing use of imported fossil fuels as almost all of its electricity comes from diesel generators, insufficient fuel storage, high energy cost affecting quality of life for inhabitants and to top it all, lack of public transport facilities on land and sea. The Government of Maldives has been actively pursuing utilization of RETs. Solar and wind systems are being utilized but are not very dependable. Can Maldives find an interesting way to dispose its solid waste and go for cogeneration? To reduce the use of air-conditioner, Germans pioneered the idea of cool rooftops (rooftop gardens) in the 1960s. Ten per cent of all roofs in Germany grow vegetables, spices and herbs. These homes are 3-4 degrees cooler in summers and use 30 per cent less heat in winters. Key message: Promises to keep The urban fabric and movement of energy through cities is complex. Closed loop systems that promote stepped decentralisation where necessary with room for relevant city-centralised systems should be followed in every system. There is scope for improvement in every sector and in the way we design and plan our cities. It is also important to understand that while finding sectoral solutions to address a specific problem such as congestion is important, it may not be the only way to address the issue. It may make more sense to address congestion, pollution and commute-time issues holistically than in isolation. Points to ponder In Villa Clara Province innovative and environmentally sustainable building materials are being manufactured locally in small workshops, creating job opportunities and constructing an estimated 2,300 housing units. This has cut transport costs from centralised units, transport costs through import of goods and embodied energy of high energy resources. Eco-materials manufactured here use recycled waste products and include micro-concrete roofing tiles, limepozzolana cement, pre-cast hollow concrete blocks (WHA, 2009). Planting 50 million trees to shade east and west walls of residential buildings in California was projected to reduce cooling by 1.1 per cent and peak load demand by 4.5 per cent over a 15-year period (Gregory and Simpson, 2001). Cagayan de Oro, Philippines saved 14,925 kWh per year by retrofitting 4,604 street lamps with energy-efficient bulbs. Converting 40-Watt fluorescents with magnetic ballasts to 32-Watt units with electronic ballasts resulted in the removal 58

of 32 tonnes of CO2 per year from the atmosphere (IGESa, 2008). Cebu, Philippines had its 700 mercury vapour lamps converted to high-pressure sodium vapour (SV) lamps. This resulted in a CO2 reduction of 150 tonnes per year (IGESb, 2008). Puerto Princessa, Philippines floated a Green Homes Project. Thousand units planned to be built would save P1.9 million/ year and reduce CO 2 emissions by 167 tonnes a year. Interesting initiatives implemented include energy-efficiency projects in public buildings and police on bicycles apart from other things (IGESc, 2008). Bhopal, India replaced pump sets and installed capacitors at eight major pumping stations and at 400 mini pumping units, fixed leaks and reduced friction. Other measures included removal of redundant fittings in high-mast lighting at intersections, installation of daylight sensors and automation of streetlight operations, and switching 150 W SV in residential colonies to 75 W SV (IGESd,2008). The city of Ahmedabad in India upgraded its water pumping operations by replacing piping; reducing water loss and friction; and improving power quality of motors. This resulted in energy savings of Rs. 4.4 million a year, 3.7 million kWh a year, and decreased peak demand for energy by 11 per cent (IGESe, 2009). Thane in India spends Rs. 4,000 million [about USD 85 million] on waste management in a city of 100 sq km and a population of 1.4 million. Seventy per cent diesel cost will be saved if the garbage was managed locally (ICLEI , 2009) In 2005, 47 years after being covered with concrete, to form a highway, Cheonggye Stream, Seoul, Republic of Korea, was restored to its old state of water freely flowing through the highway. This has reduced the heat island effect of the stretch (LIK, 2009).
3.2
From Consumption to Prosumption 4 : Role of Technologies (RET) Renewable Energy Technologies (RET)
Use of solar energy has not been opened up because the oil industry does not own the sun. Ralph Nader Fossil fuels take millions of years to get produced. But we consume them at the rate of 88 million barrels a day to sustain consumptive lifestyles, and this is rising by the day (Simmons, 2008). The actual environmental and health-care costs of using fossil fuel show them to be costlier than what we perceive them to be. If this gets factored into the actual cost of energy, RET which otherwise appears expensive may look to be a good bet for investors. In fact it is important to look at the life-cycle cost of an energy system rather than only at the
4 Prosumption is the ability to produce a part of what one consumes as product or ervice in a sustainable manner that will not have any adverse social, environmental or economic impacts. Powering activities with sustainable energy from renewable energy systems relevant to local conditions is an example of prosumption.
Fossil fuels take millions of years to get produced. But we consume them at the rate of 88 million barrels a day to sustain consumptive lifestyles.
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Plate 7: solar panels atop roofs in southwest Turkey Photo credit: http://www.flickr.com/photos/uwebkk/3411169548/sizes/o/
upfront cost. As an example, wind power may not look as an economically attractive option as its upfront cost may represent 7080 per cent of its life time cost, while in the case of thermal power generation, the upfront cost may only represent 20-30 per cent of its life-cycle cost. When comparing renewable energy with nuclear energy, which also has low-carbon impact, we can see that the true life-cycle cost of nuclear power generation will be very high, if the cost of decommissioning the power plant is also included. It may not be the most attractive option. Many pioneers around the world have made their communities, (and, on a larger scale, cities) self-sufficient through renewable energy technologies. While RETs currently supply 13 per cent of the worlds primary energy supply, their share is as high as 32 per cent for Asia (IEA 2007b). Many forms of RETs Intermittence5 is one of the main deterrents apart from the high upfront cost in case of renewable energy technologies. Continuity of energy supply is what most urban areas need. However, one of the intrinsic strengths of RETs is the variety of sources that can be tapped to overcome intermittence. Solutions could come from many sources but not all solutions will fit every location. A careful analysis of the energy source available locally needs to be done. Solutions may even be hidden as in the case of energy from waste and heat recovery.
5 Intermittence is a source of energy (power) which can get interrupted; this term is mostly used for power supply that is erratic and not continuous.
Intermittence is one of the main deterrents apart from the high upfront cost in case of renewable energy technologies.
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The strongest growth in RET use has been in grid-connected power facilities such as small hydro, wind farms, solar PV and biomass cogeneration facilities. The distribution of RET in the world as provided in Figure.3.10, shows that wind and micro-hydro seem to take up the major share of RET use globally. A World Bank study concluded that for off-grid or mini-grid systems, most RETs could indeed work out cheaper than gasoline or diesel generators (WB, 2006). Succeeding with RETs Success of any RET depends on many parameters. RETs may not make much sense if the demand is not analysed carefully and controlled through other efficiency measures. As shown in Figure.3.11, an integrated energy strategy looks first at the demand which can be reduced substantially through sustainable design and the selection of efficient appliances. Translating the existing demand for energy into basis for RET designs can end up being costlier. The trick lies in first looking into reducing the demand through conservation and efficiency before looking for RET solutions. One needs to start with the appropriate design of urban infrastructure to suit the local conditions, followed by judicious choice of energyefficient appliances, chosen on the basis of value-engineered demand. Once the demand is well managed, one can then invest in RETs to meet the much reduced demand affordably. RET could be used in many ways as can be seen in Table 3.5 (WEA, 2004b).
A World Bank study concluded that for off-grid or mini-grid systems, most RETs could indeed work out cheaper than gasoline or diesel generators (WB, 2006).
Figure 3.10: Use of RETs around the world. Solar and wind take the major share. (Source: REN21, 2009)
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Amount of electricity from supply-side in business as usual scenario Amount after implementation of DSM practices
Amount supplied by RETs
Amount required of suppy-side after installation of RETs
Figure 3.11: Energy Management: starts with demand management and then looks for sustainable supply options
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Table 3.5: Categories of renewable energy conversion technologies
Source: (WEA, 2004b)
Technology
Biomass Energy Combustion(domestic scale)Combustion(industrial scale)Gasification/power productionGasification/Fuel ProductionHydrolysis & FermentationPyrolysis/ production of liquid fuelsPyrolysis/production of solid fuelsExtractionDigestion
Energy Product
Heat (cooking, space heating) Process heat, steam, electricity Electricity, heat (CHP) Hydrocarbons, methanol, H2Ethanol Bio-oils Charcoal Biodiesel Biogas
Application
Widely applied; improved technologies availableWidely applied; potential for improvementDemonstration phaseDevelopment phaseCommercially applied for sugar/ starch crops; production from wood under developmentPilot phase; some technical barriersWidely applied; wide range of efficienciesApplied; relatively expensive Commercially applied Small wind machines, widely appliedWidely applied commercially Development & Demonstration phase Widely applied; rather expensive; further development neededDemonstrated; further development neededSolar collectors commercially applied; Solar cookers widely applied in some regions; solar dying demonstrated & appliedDemonstration & applications; no active partsFundamental & applied research Commercially applied; small & large scale application Commercially appliedApplied; relatively expensiveResearch, development & demonstration phaseResearch & development phaseResearch, development & demonstration phaseTheoretical optionResearch & development phase 63
Wind EnergyWater pumping & battery chargingOnshore wind turbinesOffshore wind turbines
Movement, power Electricity Electricity
Solar EnergyPhotovoltaic solar energy conversionSolar thermal ElectricityLow temperature solar energy usePassive solar energy useArtificial photosynthesis
Electricity Heat, steam, electricity Heat (water & space heating, cooking, drying) & coldHeat, cold, light & ventilation H2 or hydrogen rich fuels
Hydropower
Power, electricity
Geothermal EnergyMarine energyTidal energyWave energyCurrent energyOcean thermal energy conversionSalinity gradient/ osmotic energyMarine Biomass production
Heat, steam, electricity Electricity Electricity Electricity Heat, electricity Electricity Fuels

RETsthe inevitable choice The development of alternative energy systems is crucial to many small islands which depend heavily on steady supplies of fossil fuel products. Some lead-user examples show intelligent solutions that have greatly addressed the unique problems of island countries.
Box 9: Lesson in self-helpNeed based solutions
Plate 8: Wind turbines powering Samsoe. A creation born out of the will of the local population. Photo credit: http://www.flickr.com/photos/mprinke/535180037/sizes/o/
In 1997, the energy supply in Samsoe was based almost entirely on fossil energy sources. They were heading for disaster as their dependence on imports was getting out of control. They took matter into their own hands, drafted and implemented a sustainable energy plan. Thanks to this, 11 onshore wind turbines were built that supply enough energy to meet the islands electricity needs. About 70 per cent of islands heating needs are met through RET based on straw, solar power and woodchips, and 100 per cent of the energy used for transportation is met by the islands 10 offshore wind turbines. (DENMARK, 2009) Say no to diesel Vaturu and Wainikasou Hydro projects of Fiji will produce about 38 GWh of electricity annually, displacing diesel power from the grid. (MNRE, 2009) Going YIMBY (Yes, In my back yard) The PRERURE (Local energy plan) and ARER ( Regional Energy Agency) have enabled 40 per cent of households of the Reunion island in the Indian Ocean get equipped with solar thermal water systems, wind farms and photovoltaic systems that benefit from the local tax and electricity purchase incentives. One-third of Reunion Islands energy is clean, mostly derived from the combustion of sugarcane bagasse in efficient power plants and huge hydroelectric facilities. This has made the French government to target Reunion Island as the French laboratory for innovative energy with the scope to reach 100 per cent of RETs in 2030, covering electric transport facilities too. (ARER, 2009) 64

While energy efficiency measures lessen load on energy consumption, RETs would offer alternate sources of energy that leave a much lower carbon footprint on the earth. Local governments would gain immensely by gradually making RETs mandatory. Israel has all buildings less than 27m high equipped with solar water heaters. This has resulted in over 80 per cent of domestic hot water being provided by solar energy, accounting for up to three per cent of the total primary energy (WEC, 2007). Winning strategies with RETs Urban dwellers who do not find it technically feasible or economically viable to install RET systems in their localities, could invest in the development of RET in far-flung areas through established organisations reaping good Return on Investment (ROI) while helping the people with no energy access become energy-positive (e.g. wind energy could be promoted through investments made by urbanites, benefitting rural population through distributed energy generation systems). This would also help spur economic development outside cities and improve quality of living for non-urbanites, acting as a strong incentive against migration to cities. The RET industry consists predominantly of small and medium-size enterprises (SMEs). Its use could also be combined with income generation strategies. Studies reveal that RETs provide several-fold higher employment opportunities in comparison with those for the development of fossil fuels (Kammen et al, 2004). Odanthurai, in Tamilnadu, India, has created waves recently in the renewable energy space. It has powered 650 streetlights through solar panels, has energy supplied through a gasifier and a 350 kW wind farm. The power crisis in the state of Tamil Nadu within which lies Odanthurai, forces a load shedding of 3 hours in this area but its residents are not worried as their basic needs for streetlighting and electricity for water pumps run on a 24x7 energy system. This makes Odanthurai depend only on 50 per cent of power from the State grid. The loan taken for setting up wind farm will be paid back in seven years time after which the residents electricity bills from renewable energy sources would become nil. When policies promote greater use of RETs, the cost of energy production tends to come down (Table 3.6).
When policies promote greater use of RETs, the cost of energy production tends to come down
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Table 3.6: Current status and potential costs for future RET Source: (WEA, 2004c)
Current Status &Potential future costs of renewable energy technology

Technology Increase in installed capacity in past five years(per cent a year) Biomass energy ~3 Electricity ~3 Heato ~3 Ethanol Operating Capacity Energy Turnkey Current Potential capacity,end factor Production Investment energy future 1998 (per cent) 1998 costs (U.S. cost energy dollars per costs kilowatt) 40 GWe>200 GWth18 billion litres
25-60 2560
160 TWh(e)>700 900-3000 TWh(th)420 250-750 PJ
5 -15/ KWh15/ KWh825$/GJ 5-13/ KWh
4-10/ KWh15/ KWh610$GJ 3-10/ KWh
Wind electricity
10 GWe ~30
20-30
18 TWh(e)
1100-1700
Solar photovoltaic ~30 electricity Solar thermal electricity ~5
500MWe
8-20
0.5TWh(e)
500010000 3000-4000 Close Flyout
400MWe
20-35
1TWh(e)
25125/ KWh 1218/ KWh 3-20/ KWh
5 or 625 / KWh 4-10/ KWh
~8 LowTemperature Solar Heat Hydro electricity Large Small
18 GWth (30 million m 2)
8-20
14TWh(th) 500-1700
2or 3-10 /KWh
~2~3
040GWe 23GWe
35-602070
2510TWh(e) 1000-3500 90TWh(e) 1200-3000
2-8/ KWh410/ KWh
2-8/ KWh310/ KWh
Geothermal ~4~6 energy Electricity Heat Marine energy Tidal Wave Current OTEC
8GWe11G Wth
45-902070
46TWh(e) 800-3000 40TWh(th) 200-2000
2-10/ KWh 0.5-5/ KWh
1or 28/KWh 0.5-5/ KWh
0 -
300 MWe Exp. Phase Exp. phase Exp. Phase
20-30 20-35 25-35 70-80
0.6TWh(e) Unclear Unclear Unclear
1700-2500 1500-3000 2000-3000 Unclear
8-15/ KWh 820KWh 8-15/ KWh Unclear
8-15/ KWh Unclear 5-7/ KWh Unclear
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Other forms of RETs Some advanced alternate energy technologies can bring relief to energy consumption, as in the case of co-generation, tri- or polygeneration. Other technologies like syn-gas and energy from hydrogen fuel cells are also making headway but have some distance to go before finding market acceptance. Nuclear power has to contend with managing its wastes better. It also is not cost-efficient when costs of opening new plants get mapped against costs that will be incurred in shutting down old plants and securing new ones against possible terrorist attacks, and hence has been left outside the scope of this document. Key message: Know your RETs RETs are here to relieve the pressure induced by drawing energy from non-renewable sources. But it has to be resorted to after conducting study of the suitability of relevant RET technologies and cost-benefit analysis. While promoting RETs, care should be taken to promote those options that are most suited to a given location instead of promoting any form of RET irrespective of its costs. Points to ponder: The amount of solar energy that hits the surface of the earth every minute is greater than the total amount of energy that the worlds human population consumes in one year. (SNL, 2009) Smart grid which uses information technology or digital technology for distribution of power helps in overcoming intermittence of solar and wind power. Smart grids save energy, reduce costs, increase transparency and reliability While the production of energy from fossil fuels would encourage wars between nations, use of RET would only foster cooperation and transfer of technologies. RETs main function should be to ensure energy security for a given location. Global power capacity from new renewable energy sources (excluding large hydro) reached 280,000 megawatts (MW) in 2008 a 16 per cent rise from the 240,000 MW in 2007 and nearly three times the capacity of the United States nuclear sector (REN21, 2009). Today, at least 73 countries have renewable energy policy targets, up from 66 at the end of 2007. In response to the financial crisis, several governments have directed economic stimulus funding towards new green jobs that the renewable energy sector can provide, including the U.S. package that will invest $150 billion over ten years in renewable energy (REN21, 2009).
Some advanced alternate energy technologies can bring relief to energy consumption, as in the case of co-generation, tri- or polygeneration.
3.3 The World of Emerging Technologies Technologies

The Asian region must be committed to the role innovation will play if we are to succeed in a truly sustainable economic model of development. President Gloria Arroyo, Philippines 67
Box 10: Pioneers in RET use around the world
Plate 9: Vxsj bike with factory in the background. Freedom through fossil-free energy systems. Photo credit: Flickr, Creative Commons (SC, 2009)
In 1996 Vxjo, a small town in Sweden decided to be fossil-fuel free. The municipality engineered a partnership with local firms, industries and transport companies to achieve this goal. They created a policy commitment Fossil-Fuel-Free Vxj to stop using fossil fuels and reduce CO2 emissions in heating, energy, transport, businesses and homes. Rigorous planning and close monitoring of all CO2 emissions is their recipe. They have been particularly successful in using biomass for district heating. The city is now ahead of its goals in majority of these commitments. More than half of its energy comes from sources such as biomass, hydro power, geothermal and solar energy. In little over a decade, emissions have been reduced by 24 per cent per person to 3.5 tonnes of CO2 annuallywell below the European average (8 CO2t/a) and worlds average (4 CO2t/a). With this track record, Vxj may well be the worlds first fossil-free city by 2015 (SC, 2009). Planners have used RET to reduce health risks by innovative cooking stoves in India and Africa to a great extent. The Kenya Ceramic Jiko (KCJ) project for promoting biomass technologies is one such example (SS, 2009). Kuzumaki, Japan hosts a population of 8.37 thousand at an altitude 400 meters. Farming and forestry are key industries. Its mayor started the use of RETs using livestock, woody waste, solar and wind. Since then, Be top of Japan in the use of renewable energy has become their policy slogan. At present, about 56 million kWh accounting for 185 per cent of total annual electricity supply is from RETs (Times, 2008).
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Another impressive example is Quezon City, the largest city of Metro Manila with a population of about 2.7 million people. The city captures methane from a waste dumpsite and converts it to electricity. This has reduced greenhouse gas emissions by 116,000 tonnes a year, generated 42 MW of clean energy, created local jobs for planned construction (Newsbreak, 2007). The use of solar water heaters can save up to 80 per cent of the energy used by conventional electric water heaters. Barcelona, the first European city to have a Solar Thermal Ordinance, made it compulsory to use solar energy to supply 60 per cent of running hot water in all buildings. Thanks to this, over 25,000 MWh/year are saved (UNEP, 2008). Indias private initiative, the Sulabh Sanitation Movement has been promoting the construction of public toilets connected to biogas plants to provide clean energy for households (SSM. 2009). Sludge treatment system of Antalya, Turkey, provides heat and electricity for the city from waste. Antalya, a tourism city on the Mediterranean coast of south-western Turkey, has a population of 1 million (which doubles in summer months) and a 16 per cent annual growth rate. Here the water and wastewater companies have responded to the energy and environmental challenges by upgrading the sludge treatment system, to generate electricity and heat from the anaerobic digester gas and reuse treated water, saving the companies almost US$1 million a year and reducing carbon emissions by some 2,400 tonnes annually (Kivanc, 2008)
Emerging policies and effective technologies In the previous section, it was seen how promising technologies have been used to manage energy demand and move towards carbon neutral cities. New technologies combined with effective policies can propel energy sustainability into new heights faster than what has been achieved by the existing technologies. People from individuals to big organisations who have shown resolve and deeper urge to solve energy problems have come up with innovations that bring hope for the planet. How can such technologies be mainstreamed and brought to other cities through innovative policies is the question. These innovations bring about changes for the better in certain ways: 1. Efficiency in existing systems as in buildings, electric appliances, vehicles, and production processes. 2. Alternative use of RET, though more expensive to begin with, will show marked reduction in cost over the operations period. 3. Emerging technologies offer technological alternatives to processes that consume fossil fuel. Growing cities can leapfrog6 beyond technological advances made by mega cities. Developing world need not go through the same steps
6
New technologies combined with effective policies can propel energy sustainability into new heights faster than what has been achieved by the existing technologies.
Leapfrogging is the notion that areas which have poorly-developed technology or economic bases can move themselves forward rapidly through the adoption of modern systems without going through intermediary steps
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that industrialized countries had to adopt owing to a gradual change in technological improvement. We can see a glimmer of hope, witnessing newer technologies that promote energy sustainability, which should be promoted as much as possible. Care should be taken however to balance labour and capital that would suit these cities better than what could have been used for mega-cities. This is especially true for the growing cities of the developing world. Bridging the gap between policy-making and technology High-tech is not about complexity or novelty of function of a product, but is the choice of a production function that makes the most intelligent use of materials, energy, and human resources. Any enterprise or government-driven activity can and should be high-tech. Governments in developing countries have traditionally been seen as bottlenecks to emerging technologies. If the gap between technology and effective policy-making could be bridged by mutual effort, cities would benefit by such synergies in exemplary ways. The gap could be bridged by more than one way. Rewarding and recognising innovators, encouraging experimenting at low-cost and enabling research and development are some of the more obvious ways. Policies that enhance skill-based experiential education, that propel education of the city to be recognised globally for its high quality, those that promote financial systems, others that offer capital over a wide range of options such that small and big enterprises benefit by them would go a long way in ensuring technologies help sustainability. Incubation of good ideas through research and development needs nurturing through qualified taskforces from the government. Governments should also motivate collaboration between local players and international partners, which will enable indigenous companies strengthen their knowledge, expertise and market reach. A window to technology A glimpse of what exist today as emerging technologies is shown here in the gallery. Emerging Technologies outlined by the Blue Map Scenario7 for a low carbon future (Figure 3.12) o Widespread conversion of buildings to very low energy consumption, and even zero energy buildings, is part of the scenario. o Improvements in the efficiency of conventional vehicles and use of low carbon to zero carbon emission fuels. o Tough efficiency regulations for buildings, appliances and vehicles will be essential.
7
High-tech is not about complexity or novelty of function of a product, but is the choice of a production function that makes the most intelligent use of materials, energy, and human resources.
Blue Map Scenario: The IPCC has concluded that emissions must be reduced by 50 per cent to 85 per cent by 2050 if global warming is to be confined to between 2C and 2.4C. BLUE scenarios demand deployment of technologies still under development, whose progress and ultimate success are hard to predict and require urgent implementation of unprecedented and far-reaching new policies in the energy sector.
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Plate 10:
Converting low temperature heat into energy
Concentrating solar panels
Tinted windows saving air conditioning cost
Solar thermal power stations
Roof-top wind turbines
Solar ventilator fan
Venetian Blinds with solar panels
Japan Airline using biofuel
Tidal power systems
Building covered with PV cells
Aeroponics for high IAQ
Solar thin film
Pots from e-waste
Speedbreakers generate electricity for street lights
Solar powered water purifier
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LED luminaires
More efficient fan systems
CHP home heating system
Biodiesel from waste oil
Train run on biogas from sewage
Biogas station in Sweden
Biogas for electricity
Tubular solar light
Power generated when fresh water from cities mingle with salt water
60 sailboat made from recycled plastic bottles
Inn made of 93 per cent recycled construction material
AC propulsion batteries using new Lithium ion technology, power electric vehicles
Electric bikes and scooters
Solar LED bricks
Agro housingurban farming
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Solar power to charge ac in cars
Solar and wind powered ferry
90,000 homes powered by biogas from chicken manure
Bio composite materials
Solar powered air conditioner
Ambiators
Figure 3.12: Possible reduction in carbon emission with emerging technologies. Comparison of World Energy Outlook 2007 450 ppm case and blue map scenario. What we need is the will to achieve it. (Source: IEA, Energy technology Perspectives, 2008)
o CO2 capture and storage for power generation in industry is the most important single new technology for CO2 savings o Considerable flexibility to choose which precise mix of CCS and RET to use by local regions to decarbonise the power sector. o Bigger improvements than what exists in energy efficiency trends. o A huge effort of research, development, and demonstration will be needed that enhances the science base and its links with technology. o Governments must enhance deployment programmes of new technologies as prices will come down only with better market response. o There is an urgent need to design and implement a range of policy measures that will create clear, predictable, long-term economic incentives for CO2 reduction in the market. However, 73

targeted schemes can be planned for the most expensive technologies. o International collaboration is essential to accelerate the development and global deployment of sustainable energy technologies. Key message: Staying ahead to stay in control Local governments are now in an era of using Information Technology (IT) strategies to function and enable innovation unlike the role of being the economic regulator of the bygone era. IT has helped in reducing time, enhancing quality and enabling better control over activities. If city leaders kept upgrading their knowledge and applied that to their planning and actions through IT and emerging technologies they would be more successful in implementing meaningful solutions. They should also be able to decentralise and let private sector and market forces take over instead of letting innovations be controlled through regulations. Points to ponder: Solar power panels that use nanotechnology, which can create circuits out of individual silicon molecules, may cost half as much as traditional photovoltaic cells, according to executives and investors involved in developing the products (WIKI, 2009) The City of Melbourne is generating 252,000 kWh of electricity each year from what is the largest urban solar installation of its kind in the Southern hemisphere (C40 cities, 2009) Wind power grew from 59 GW in 2005 to 121 GW (REN21, 2009) The concentrating solar power industry saw many new entrants and new manufacturing facilities in 2008 (REN21, 2009)
3.4
Know your city- An exercise for policy makers A set of Energy Sustainability Indicators for a carbonfrugal city is therefore one that helps show deviations from required possessions, good health, adequate consumption sans greed, good quality of life, with low coping stresses.
Sustainable Energy Indicators An indicator is something that helps you understand where you are, which way you are going and how far you are from where you want to be. Sustainable Measures Before policy-makers decide what tool can be used for their own cities, they may like to know where they stand in terms of energy sustainability. A set of Energy Sustainability Indicators for a carbonfrugal city is therefore one that helps show deviations from required possessions, good health, adequate consumption sans greed, good quality of life, with low coping stresses. It can be an important instrument to use for policy-making. These indicators per force encourage participation from citizensan integral need for any good form of governance. It will secure buy-in and avoid citizens protesting against ills of urbanisation and have them enrolled. 74

Indicators have an important role to play in energy sustainability of cities. Annexe 3 has some important urban sustainability indicator frameworks which could be used to understand the quintessence of such systems. But no single framework is appropriate for all analyses. Policy-makers must consider intended goals of indicator use and carefully choose metrics to maximize their relevance and effectiveness. A methodology to choose an appropriate indicator framework could be as follows: (Keirstead, 2006) 1. What are the goals? Defining goals for which indicators are required. 2. What is the Scope? How many indicators, their boundaries, constraints, time scale, unit and area of influence. 3. What are the criteria for selecting indicators? Policy relevance, measurability and other similar criteria.
Policy-makers must consider intended goals of indicator use and carefully choose metrics to maximize their relevance and effectiveness.
Box 11: Tianjin and Dongtan

Tianjin, which is a Sino Singaporean future city, is making use of indicators (KPI, 2009). Similarly, designers of Dongtan, Arup, the eco city in China made use of environmental, social, natural and economic indicators. (ASME, 2009) (ARUP, 2009)
Figure 3.13: Environmental, Societal, Economic and Natural Resource Indicators (Source : ARUP, 2009b)
Dongtan, the eco city, is coming up on a 8,600 hectare (86 sq km) site adjacent to a wetland of global importance. An integrated design approach is being adopted to enable the creation of the sustainable city. This will include a sustainability appraisal framework comprising a set of objectives, Key Process Indicators and targets for the management of social, economic, environmental and natural resources. The urban area will occupy only one-third of the site. The remaining land will be used for organic farming and wetlands to promote biodiversity. Dongtan will produce its own energy from wind, solar, bio-fuel and recycled city waste. Vehicles will either be of zero emission, like cycles, or use hydrogen fuel cells. 75

4. Identify direct and indirect indicators. Indirect indicators like number of accidents or amount of green spaces in a city, which can indicate the impact of energy on urban systems. 5. Evaluate and select final indicator list. 4. Collect data and analyse the result, prepare the report. 5. Assess indicator performance. Vested interests may resist changes in cities. Indicators would be a powerful rational tool which would diminish the strength of such negative interests. There are many types of indicators. The most relevant indicator would be specific to each city and the issues relevant to it. Indicators such as population growth and prosperity level can provide driving force indicators. Current air quality and noise level can be state indicators, while carbon dioxide emission could be a pressure indicator. Percentage of children suffering from air borne diseases would form an impact indicator, while decrease of air quality with time would be a good rate indicator. Standards for desired air quality could be a target or goal indicator and desired increase in public transport passengers could stand as a steering indicator. Key message: The guiding gauge City problems are challenging but not daunting. Simple indicators can offer a clear picture and indices for analysis to frame solutions for large and small issues that dog our cities (refer annexe 3). They act as a catalyst for providing collaborative learning and action. (Paterson 2003) Points to Ponder Quality of life and sustainability cannot be measured directly and need a systemic approach. They are very important and need to be transparent, measuring performance on health related issues due to pollution from energy use, damage to environment due to processes in production of energy, etc., to keep the public well informed on the pulse of energy in their cities. This heightens involvement of stakeholders and eases governance.
Vested interests may resist changes in cities. Indicators would be a powerful rational tool which would diminish the strength of such negative interests.
The level of GDP per capita or economic growth cannot show the status of social or political structures. To understand these problems, economic data needs to be supported with social indicators like acquisition of material possession such as telephones, televisions, radios and the use of banks, schools, cinemas and provision of housing, medical or educational services (Peter Droege 2008) Ecological Footprint Analysis approaches the issue of sustainability by using indices for the overall carrying capacity of the planet. This links individual behaviour to organisational, regional and global targets using concepts 76

such as the earthshare the average, sustainable, bioproductive capacity available per person. In a major study for the World Bank, having clean, ironed clothes to wear were cited by poor people as one of the indicators of not being poor (Deepa et al. 2002).
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Chapter 4.
Leading for Energy Sustainabilit y Implementing Successful Policies

Sustainability is the most overused yet underachieved term of our times. For a city to be energy sustainable, a city plan is required that takes a holistic approach for optimizing energy use. Local governments can make their cities attractive for investors and its citizens. This chapter looks at how in spite of the odds, some urban authorities and charismatic local leaders have taken the lead in their own cities to bring about urban energy sustainability. It also outlines the kind of planning leaders need to undertake, the type of instruments they can use to execute their ideas that could make urban areas carbon neutral and yet provide energy facilities to all stakeholders.
4.1
Urban Authorities Leading the Way
We know the problems.... and we know the solution; sustainable development. The issue is the political will. Tony Blair, ex-Prime Minister of Britain Although local leaders are not involved in framing all policies, they could certainly play a vital role in influencing them as they are the implementing authorities and could offer valuable feedback and analysis with recommendation for better policies at the state and national level. A participatory urban decision-making begins with the stakeholder analysis and profiling to prepare and mobilise stakeholders, prioritises the issues and ensures local leaders get commitment and support from stakeholders. If this is followed by strategy-formulation and implementation through transparent actionplanning and programme-formulation, it helps in the successful implementation and institutionalization of policies and programmes. It is equally important for the policy-makers to follow up and verify their achievements through evaluation and monitoring tools. Figure.4.1 describes the participatory process essential for successful urban planning. If there is one overriding theme that comes out of this book, it is the need for greater democracygenuine and greater stakeholder participation initiated by the local leaders. W ith governments 78
Although local leaders are not involved in framing all policies, they could certainly play a vital role in influencing them as they are the implementing authorities and could offer valuable feedback and analysis with recommendation for better policies at the state and national level.

engaging stakeholders more responsibly and resorting to better policies and emerging technologies that draw less on non-renewable natural resources, they can hope to become leaders of energysustainable urban centres. How can they do this intelligently? How can they map their responsibility against resources and infuse it with innovative processes that bring in dynamic change for greater sustainability in urban energy? Are there any leaders who have done that? What can others learn from them?
Figure 4.1: Participatory Process for urban planning. Involvement of stakeholders will spell more success (Source: UNCHS Habitat 2001)
Outstanding local leaders Charismatic mayors can be spotted around the globe. These are officials who went the extra mile to seek correct advice, get informed in energy-efficiency practices that hurt the planet less and improved the quality of life for their constituencies and implemented commendable projects in their cities. The Mayor of Rizhao (China) and the local government adopted several measures and policies aimed at popularizing clean energy technology. Fine examples of good leadership can be seen in cities like Curitiba that rose out of the ashes the day it had an army of workers shovelling 79

Box 12 : The City of Rizhao
The city of Rizhao received a World Clean Energy Award in the Policy and Law-making for its popularization of clean energy. It is a shining example of mainstreaming renewable energy in a nation known for its dependence on coal. Local administration in Rizhao dramatically reduced their energy costs per annum, provided health and environmental benefits to its 1.5 million residents by putting large scale solar power and marsh gas applications. The citys clean energy revolution happened because of the initiative of the Mayor and the local government involving many measures and policies, such as implementing solar energy and standardizing the construction practices that emphasize the use of solar energy such as solar water heaters in new buildings, laying down procedural guidelines for building examiners. Ninety nine per cent of buildings in Rizhao have solar water heaters, with around 6000 families using solar cookers. City has 560,000 sqm of solar PV, which have reduced electricity usage by 348 million kWh per year. Citys innovative usage of marsh gas from its agricultural waste replaced 36,000 tonnes of coal each year by producing 13,500 kWh of electricity. (Mukherjee, 2007) away road sides to create pedestrian pavements. Protests of hysterical shopkeepers soon died down when they realised that the pavement increased their sales without pulling them down as they assumed initially. Curitiba today is the worlds best example of integrated city planning that the visionary Mayor Jaime Lerner executed (ICLEI, 2009). Curitiba is best known for its impressive public transport system, the efficiency of which just encourages people to leave their cars at home despite being the city with highest car ownership in Brazil. With highest public ridership of any Brazilian city, it has the countrys lowest rate of ambient pollution (ICLEI, 2009). Builders get tax breaks if their projects include green space. People living in shanty towns can exchange their garbage for bus tickets and food. The city that recycles 70 per cent of its garbage is an exemplar in showcasing to the world the enormous possibilities open to the local leaders (ICLEI, 2009). Many dynamic mayors and governors who chose to strengthen public
The city of Curitiba that recycles 70 per cent of its garbage is an exemplar in showcasing to the world the enormous possibilities open to the local leaders (ICLEI, 2009).
Plate 11: Curitiba: An exemplary showcase of strong political will. Photo credit: http://www.flickr.com/photos/thomashobbs/98286047/sizes/o/
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transport facilities instead of building infrastructure for privately owned vehicles showed the way forward and showcased what individual leadership could achieve. The Mayor of Bogota cancelled a massive ring road and used the money to build 300 km of bike lanes, a state-of-the-art bus rapid transit system, more libraries, playgrounds, and schools (NYT, 2007). The Mayor of Seoul (Peoples Republic of Korea), Lee Myung Bak also known as Mr Bulldozer, built a bus rapid transit system, tore down an elevated highway in the city centre, restored waterways and pedestrian bridges, built more pedestrian zones and created extensive green spaces. As a part of traffic demand management policy, he introduced leave your car once a week campaign which encourages car owners to leave their cars at home and get tax breaks. His strategy called the push and pull strategy is based on the practical experience of having more and more congestion as you keep on building more and more roads. The bus rapid system along with the existing subway serves more than 4.5 million passengers everyday (ITDP, 2009). The Governor of Jakarta has already constructed three bus rapid transit lines (ITDP, 2009). Pedestrian zones are also springing up all over Chinese cities. What is their motivation? Are they better placed than the Mayors of other cities? Local leadership can certainly change the way the city runs or evolves.
Plate 12: Solar energy advertisement in Rizhao. The concept has penetrated well within the citizens circle. Photo credit: Auqapfel, Flickr, Creative Commons
Technologists and town planners If a town planner could be empowered to turn down sanction plans that are offered without solar collector hot water systems, localized wet waste management systems and other such systems that reduce the load on citys infrastructure, urban energy sustainability would be greatly enhanced right at the approval level. There are many tools that technologists and planners can use. Many of these tools are in the form of software which can be run on personal computers such as Long Range Energy Alternatives Planning (LEAP) 1990, Energy demand model for developing countries (MEDEES,1995) and BEEAM-TESSE (Brookhaven Energy Economy Assessment Model) -TERI Energy Economic Simulation and Evaluation (Pachauri and Srivastava, 1988). The Energy Technology Systems Analysis Programme (ETSAP) of the International Energy Agency which has
If a town planner could be empowered to turn down sanction plans that are offered without solar collector hot water systems, localized wet waste management systems and other such systems that reduce the load on citys infrastructure, urban energy sustainability would be greatly enhanced right at the approval level.
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developed MARKAL Model (run on the mainframes) that helps technocrats: - to identify least cost energy systems - to identify cost effective responses to restrictions on emissions - to perform long term energy balances under different scenarios - to evaluate new technologies and priorities for R & D - to evaluate the effects of regulation and taxes and subsidies and - to project inventories of greenhouse gas emissions (ETSAP, 2009). So far the model has been used by industrialized countries with the exception of Taiwan (WEC, 2009b). Technologists need to be trained in using certain models that help the communities or cities achieve the low-carbon status. Another model that evolved in developing the country context is DEFENDUS (Development Focused End Use Oriented Service (Reddy et al, 1995). It is important that there is local capacity building to use such models which help formulate scenarios and therefore options for a specific energy system. The areas where leaders can influence Local governments can influence better energy management through better planning and administration, how-to of which are discussed in the subsequent sections. Interestingly many things are possible and can be in the purview of local governments without having to depend on any other agencies. (Torrie, 2002) delineates some of the areas where local governments can influence directly such as: Management of energy utilities. Use of fuels and electricity by administration Planning, operation, and policy framing for urban planning Enterprise and economic development Investment management in the community Environmental and public health and safety Zoning and urban planning needs of individual projects Regulation for built environment, including residential and commercial buildings, site layout Water supply and sewage treatment management Storm sewers and drainage management Solid waste management, recycling and landfill facilities Local roads, traffic management and parking Transportation other than roads Recreational, green space and cultural facilities Policing, fire fighting and protection of people and property Social welfare services All these areas are sometimes looked after by different departments and all decision-making takes place within them. This gives huge scope for policies that address only one issue, say, solid waste 82
Technologists need to be trained in using certain models that help the communities or cities achieve the low-carbon status.

management to be counterproductive for other public infrastructure like local roads and traffic management. How can we think of a city as a unit and look at all the issues collectively? City Mayors and Councillors are in a position to play that central role which brings about integrated solutions and make sure none of these departments, while trying to address individual issues, is counter-productive to the efforts of others. Key message: Walking the talk The first step for city administrators is to think bottom-up and think of eventual benefit. Having the courage to say no to programmes that may be big but may not deliver in the end and to turn the focus on benefits that accrue at the homestead or the local community is a quality that should pervade all government offices. They should be trend-setters of sustainability. F inding innovative social, environmental, localised solutions to energy should be their mantra. Points to ponder: Through their daily purchases, governments exert substantial power over the market. Therefore, by instituting green purchasing requirements, governments can instantly create a stable market for energy-efficient products. Pensions and bonuses of public officers could become investments for local RET projects, multiplying the returns for the officers while enhancing energy sustainability for cities. The local government of Anhui province offered tax rebates for companies interested in investing in retrofitting of unsustainable buildings. In total 35.8 billion RMB were distributed to 475 energy-saving projects (Econet, China 2008).
4.2
Integrated Energy Planning
Holistic process to carry out planning by integrating all the sectors in an economy and all aspects are linked to the three pillars of sustainable development - social, economic and environmental. Matakiviti We see clearly now, the way local governments function has enormous bearing on the energy sustainability of a city, as they are responsible for providing various infrastructure services. Once the political will is there, and the local leadership wants to take issues head on, the next steps in panning out ideas they consider best for their cities and the way to successfully deliver those would be the points to consider. Taking decisions in silos do not help. Integrated energy planning is the first step towards energy sustainability. To ensure that cities become sustainable in energy, we need foolproof process plans that look at the problem on hand critically from all points of view, an eye trained on the future too. Integrated Energy Planning [IEP] is a powerful tool that can be defined 83
Taking decisions in silos do not help. Integrated energy planning is the first step towards energy sustainability.
Three key requirements for integrated energy planning are inclusion of all energy service needs and supply-side solutions, including energy savings and efficiency interventions.
Plate 13: Development using integrated planning. Always provides better quality of life for the people.
as an area based decentralized energy plan to meet energy needs for the development of alternate sources at the least cost to the economy and the environment (NRDMS, 2009). Alternatively, it is estimating how much energy all the different consumers (e.g. industry and households) will need in the future to deliver certain services; and then identify a mix of appropriate sources and forms of energy to meet these energy service needs in the most efficient and socially beneficial manner(EL,2009). Three key requirements for integrated energy planning are inclusion of all energy service needs and supply-side solutions, including energy savings and efficiency interventions. The inclusion of all costs and benefitslong term and short term; in describing possible future scenarios; in understanding impact on the three sustainability drivers; and in setting goals for the future lies at the core of this planning (EL, 2009). This also allows cities to compare effectiveness of all energy alternatives on both demand and supply sides, helping to account for their different financial, reliability, social acceptance and environmental characteristics. IEP process for the design of an ecocity is elaborated in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1: IEP processes for design of eco-city (Source: ARUP, 2009) Measurements made to keep target in view for Dongtan: Air emissions (NOx, SOx, Particulates) Water consumption Energy consumption Waste generation Import/export Land Use Job Creation Financial / economic viability Targets during Construction: Reduce predicted CO2emissions from freight andwaste vehicles by 60 per cent Reduce predicted freight and waste collection vehicle numbers in Dongtan by 50 per cent Move 20 per cent of construction material and waste using alternative means of transport Reduce construction waste by 40 per cent through control of material to, and on the site Targets during Operation: Reduce predicted CO2emissions from freight and waste vehicles by 60 per cent. Reduce predicted freight and waste collection vehicle numbers in Dongtan by 50 per cent Move 20 per cent of freight and waste using alternative means of transport Maximum of 10 per cent to landfill
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IEP is a new concept in most cities of developing countries. Often times, utilities project least-cost plans, but these have been leastcost supply schedules rather than integrated supply and efficiency plans (DSa, 2004). Through IEP, better performance based revenues can be generated (Figure 4.2).
Load forecast

Identity objectives supply
Need for new rexources
Existing resources
demand
T&D
Rates Uncertainly analysis
Public feedback and approvals
Monitor
Acquire resources
Figure 4.2: Flowchart of a typical IEP process. Planning in a holistic manner. Source: Urban Energy Management, India Infrastructure Report 2006
Integrated Energy Planning is finding acceptance in many developed and some developing countries, e.g. in South Africa (EL, 2009). While the way the entire exercise of IEP is carried out can be different, typically there are some commonalities. It can however be different for different cities/states or regions. Based on the best processes from the South African practices and a few others, an indicative framework for a possible IEP could be as follows: Reference Energy System (RES) Using standard energy units, data are collected on the primary energy supply (like oil and coal), its transformation, transportation and distribution and end-user consumption (in all sectors and subsectors). Data on useful energy are also collected, for example, data on conditions required to use a service. Data on trends and analysis which led to current situation are also collected which then help in the analysis of demand drivers, price mechanisms and correlation of price versus demand. Energy Forecasting and Scenarios Based on the reference scenario, choosing a time horizon, the future energy demand is forecasted and future energy supply to meet the demand is also visualised. Various scenarios can be created using many tools available, as mentioned in the previous section. These scenarios calculate cost, viability for various technological alternatives which can be readily compared on the grounds of costs, environmental impact, and social acceptability. Scenario planning is an integral part of IEP and can bring together, 85
Social and environmental factors
Define suitable resource mixes
Scenario planning is an integral part of IEP and can bring together, on neutral grounds and on equal terms, various traditionally opposed local groups in order to formulate consensus on a vision for making any city sustainable by opting for sustainable energy.

on neutral grounds and on equal terms, various traditionally opposed local groups in order to formulate consensus on a vision for making any city sustainable by opting for sustainable energy. The celebrated success in sustainability at Freiburg in Germany was not achieved overnight. The publicity campaign that outlined the scenario of what the city could turn into (Wohnfrhling in Freiburg) excited the response of 1,500 interested people (either families or single persons) and by July 1996 more than 350 questionnaires with individual proposals and requests were returned to Forum Vauban (that is equal to about 800 persons). (EAUE, 2009) Planning Based on the different possibilities and on various scenarios, policy makers can now look at the goals they like to have at the forefront and consider the best and most cost-effective ways to achieve those goals. What they choose as best options can be supported through various tools such as regulations and taxations. Drawing up the plan: The strategy for a low-carbon city begins with conceptualising an energy plan that has clearly spelt out energy goals, which could lead to writing of a local action plan and identifying tools and technologies to achieve those goals. Komor and Bazilian (2005) used these three steps for the renewable energy strategy for Ireland, which is modified for preparing a local action plan based on energy goals and then choosing relevant instruments for achieving the goals (Figure 4.3). Step 1: Setting the Energy Goals Securing the availability of energy and making it affordable, while producing it does not sizably increase carbon emissions, should be the goals for any energy planning. This can be achieved by marking goals under three focal areas of social, environmental and economic categories. These goals need to further be quantified through measures and targets for short term and long term. Step 2: Setting up Local Action Plan A strategy to achieve energy goals decided in Step 1 will then need to be crafted. This could be the Local Action Plan, which synthesizes goals, provides a schedule and outlines policies and measures, the local government will pursue to achieve the target. Ideally the Local Action Plan incorporates public awareness and education campaigns. To arrive at this plan, policy-makers would have to adopt a mix and match of instruments and tools. Step 3: Identifying instruments and technologies Once instruments and social goals get set, the implementation can be supported by various new emerging technologies that were discussed in the previous chapter (energy efficiency, RETs and other areas). Broadly these would include CO2 reduction through demandside management, CO2 reduction in energy production, and change of urban structure. The tools policy-makers use need a detailed discussion, many of 86
The strategy for a lowcarbon city begins with conceptualising an energy plan that has clearly spelt out energy goals, which could lead to writing of a local action plan and identifying tools and technologies to achieve those goals.

which can have a revenue bearing potential as well. These are discussed in the following section. Containing destructive impact on energy sustainability and economics by selective instruments, chosen to implement the energy plan is critical for achieving success. Annexe 5 lists the impact of some instruments against these two factors. In spite of the best efforts road blocks are bound to occur but many of them are predictable. To remove these barriers certain instruments prove effective and these can be found in Annexe 6. It is clear therefore that local governments have a lot of potential to address local level energy issues which can have enduring impacts on the society. They are not only better connected with people; they can also influence entrepreneurs of their cities to enable fostering of the most sustainable energy situation. They need not look up to central governments all the time for support. This kind of bottomsup approach would go a long way in proclaiming to the world their best intentions and could also serve as a window to attract more attention from the centre and international donors by setting good example of achievement through local efforts. STEP 1: Energy Goals: Energy price stability Security of energy supply Affordable and Accessible energy for all Overcoming intermittence Environmental Goals: Sustainability Greenhouse gas reduction Reduced NOx, SOx emissions Waste removal Reduced suspended particles
Local governments have a lot of potential to address local level energy issues which can have enduring impacts on the society. They are not only better connected with people; they can also influence entrepreneurs of their cities to enable fostering of the most sustainable energy situation. They need not look up to central governments all the time for support.
Economic and Industrial Goals: Local and regional economic development Domestic employment and livelihood providing Figure 4.3: Sustainable Urban Energy Goals plan and Instruments. Poverty reduction
(Source: After Komor and Bazilian, 2005)
STEP 2: Local Action Plan: Demand Pull Indirect Price Support Technical Standards/ Certifications Waste Management Information, Education, and Training Improved Planning Process Improved Urban Design through improved energy systems Research, Development, Demonstration Capital Support IT in Sustainable Urban Energy Planning
STEP 3: Identifying Instruments Green building code Labelling Knowledge Awareness Capacity Building Regulations
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Preference should be given to IEP over new proposals for power production and purely supply-side solutions. Risks should be identified and strategies evolved to counter them. Environmental, economical and social impact of strategies should be fully integrated into the decision making processes. Now with greater awareness, IEP is slowly being seen as essential for better results. Tianjin is one of the four municipalities that have provincial level status in China. It is experiencing tremendous growth and plans to develop an extension of the city as an eco city. The planning process would be based on 26 key performance indicators dealing with environmental, social, economic and regional coordination issues. The project will promote the use of clean and renewable energy with optimized energy structure to achieve a highly efficient energy supply. An integrated energy plan taking into account seasonal variation in resource availability and energy demand could help achieve a goal of 20 per cent waste heat recovery and renewable energy share in the whole energy consumption cycle (ES, 2009). Key message: The integral approach The solution lies only in holistic, futuristic planning with least ecofootprint. A portfolio of measures is required to deliver effective management of urban areas in the long term. Innovative approaches can be developed by evidence-based integrated assessment of urban systems (Dawson, 2009). To realize its full potential, it must be pursued on a continual basis by a dedicated team of trained experts. Enlightened consensus-building requires art and science from thinkers and doers. It needs decision-makers to think like change-makers. It also needs instruments to establish equitable communication. Points to ponder Stockholm, Swedens capital and its largest city has a population of 0.8 million. The city grew inward, through integrated urban planning and reuse of developed land. The Hammarby Model8 used here is a planning approach to integrate energy, waste, and water/sewage demands to provide full municipal services while protecting the environment (UDC,2009). A district heating system in Kryukovo, Russia, supplies almost 10 petajoules of heat and is controlled and monitored through automated control of substations, remote sensing, and control between substations and the operator working station resulting in 2025 per cent energy savings (WEA, 2000). The goals of Energy Integrated Urban Planning of Naga City, Philippines include enabling all municipal waste to be processed by recycling and by waste-to-energy conversion in case of non-recyclable waste in five years. They also include enabling of at least 5 per cent biofuels in the consumption of motor fuels by 2010. Other goals target
8
Hammarby model illustrates how sustainability initiatives have been integrated holistically.
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energy audit and conservation campaign expanded to all sectors in five years, to reduce system losses below 10 per cent and reach national standards in power supply quality and to have 100 per cent connections to households in 5 years (EIUP, 2009).
4.3
Choosing the Right Tools and Instruments
For every complex and difficult problem, there is an answer that is simple, easy, and wrong. - H.L. Mencken Choice of policy instruments to help frame effective policies is crucial and depends on several parameters such as economic and environmental efficiency, stakeholder support and ability to implement and enforce. It is very important that the chosen tool balances triple bottom line of balancing people, planet and profit. Policy Instruments can be economic, regulatory, educational, cooperation based and information based, as shown in Table 4.2 (GTZ, 2006).
Table 4.2 Various Instruments that policy makers can adopt for achieving their policy goals. (Source: GTZ, 2006)
Economic Environmental tax Fees and user charge such as congestion charge Subsidies
Regulatory Norms and Standards Environmental Liability
Educationand Research Education
Cooperation Voluntary agreements Campaigns
Information Eco labelling
Training
Sustainable reporting
Environmental Control and Enforcement
Consumer advice centre Information centre Environmental quality and monitoring
Environmental financing Green Public procurement
Economic Instruments Taxation is an instrument that works very well for certain remedies. These taxes work on the polluter-pays principle, which shifts the costs and responsibilities associated with pollution to the polluter. This has remedial and at times preventive effect on polluters. But the ignorant do not get any wiser. For example, local governments can collect revenue from environmental liability that can be associated with vehicular and industrial pollution. 89
Plate 14: Congestion Charging at London makes the polluter pay Photo credit: http:// www.eurotestmobility.com/ images/photolib/2059_me.jpg
While policies deter higher consumption, depletion and polluting acts, polluters could be made to pay to fuel better development.
There are some very interesting ways by which local governments can generate revenue for themselves while promoting social and environmental well-being. It only seems right to charge the polluter. While policies deter higher consumption, depletion and polluting acts, polluters could be made to pay to fuel better development. For example, London implemented the first congestion charging scheme; Singapore introduced theirs in the 1970s. Registration fees, taxes, and fiscal disincentives have increased the cost of owning a private car in Singapore to an all-time high with revenues collected being used to improve public transport. Eco taxes, fees and user charges have an effect both on the environment and revenue collection. Though these achieve long term resource efficiency they are open to being evaded. A proper reporting system and a rule that does not promote corruption would go hand in hand with eco-tax frameworks while stakeholder participation is vital for fees and user charges frameworks. There is need for city administrators to examine options for levying special taxes that deter resource waste. This could be done through intermediate organisations, too. For example, in France, for every ton of waste dumped, The French Environment and Energy Management Agency (ADEME) collected tax which was used to adopt measures to reduce waste reduction. The government was not allowed 90
13: Ann Arbor Municipal Energy Fund

The Ann Arbor Municipal Energy Fund has provided city facilities with a source of capital for energy efficiency retrofits. It provides initial capital for new projects and receives 80 per cent of the projected annual energy savings from each installed project for five years. The plan allows projects that have a shorter payback to help support projects with a longer payback. Source: A2G, 2009 access to such funds collection. ADEME engaged in conversations with the municipality on one side and waste generators on the other and used the money to raise awareness on waste reduction and related civic measures. Another example is the revolving fund concept used by the Building Management Resources Centre (BMRC), Hong Kong. Fees should also take into consideration of appropriate replenishment of resources that get consumed. Tariff can be based on cost. At present many cities in India offer tariff at almost one-third to half the cost of what utilities spend in bringing energy to homes. This makes RET solutions expensive to adopt with unattractively long pay-back periods. Distortion in tariff does not provide a level playing field for renewable energy. Reward the conscientious Financing green enterprises through financial organisations can propel a shift towards cleaner energy systems in any city. It can however be accessed only by those who can repay. It works well when environmental standards are also imposed. Monitoring to avoid misuse when grants are huge is a must. The International Resources Group of the Philippines has enabled innovative financing strategies through Land Bank, Equitable PCI Bank, and Metro bank to help promote many RE related projects. It discovered that while the Philippines was rich in local sources for RETs, it did not have encouraging environmental financing options. Incentives and revolving funds can be the norm instead of subsidies. Negawatt9 calculations for energy efficiency could lead to reward schemes. Charging at cost Raising energy prices to cost-covering levels can also produce miracles if leaders have an effective way of convincing citizens the rationale behind the price change. Hungary spent $510 million a year till 1997 on energy efficiency improvements. But in January 1997
Distortion in tariff does not provide a level playing field for renewable energy.
Box 14: Multiplying benefits

There are some very innovative and enterprising methods of making revenues. Both of Hong Kongs, Chinas rail systemsthe Mass Transit (MTR) and Kowloon Canton Railways (KCR)have used property to help finance capital investment costs. The Railway office buildings in Hong Kong and Kowloon houses major residential developments with 5,000 apartments, each built on podium structures over the rail depots, and other buildings along each line. The profits from the property portfolio have contributed about 15 per cent of the capital cost of their systems ($3.2 billion). (ADB, 2006)
9 Negawatt, a term coined by Amory Lovins is the idea of creating incentives to reduce demand for electricity to ease the load at peak times or alleviate the need to build more generation plants. In theory, these negawatts can be aggregated and an arbitrage market could be created to trade these.
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when energy prices were hiked to market-based levels, citizens started investing in energy efficiency up to $80 million a year in just 2 years time. The more successful programmes like BELP (BESCOM Efficient Lighting Programme), (TWAS, 2008) a lighting programme floated by Bangalore Electricity Supply Company (BESCOM) in India, give consumers an opportunity to replace energy intensive conventional lamps with energy efficient Compact Fluorescent Lamps (CFLs) in high usage areas such as corridors, kitchens and porticos. BESCOMs domestic consumers have two options for purchase: Direct sales at discounted prices; Under instalments (9 equal instalments recovered through BESCOM monthly bills). In both the cases, the consumers get a 12-month warranty backed up by BESCOM.
Raising energy prices to cost-covering levels can also produce miracles if leaders have an effective way of convincing citizens the rationale behind the price change.
Box 15: Creating jobs that clean up the cities

The City of Heidelberg created jobs through energy efficiency. These jobs were in the areas of retrofits. A local energy agency for Heidelberg (Kilmaschutz-und Energieberatungs Agnetur fur Heidelberg) works on supporting individual citizens and businesses involved in projects by disseminating information and offering consulting work. Regulatory Instruments The most common instrument is one of laying down regulations. Sometimes difficult to implement, regulations can yield desired result if non compliance is easily visible and there is enough deterrence to comply. In order to prevent huge traffic jams, the Singapore government implemented the Vehicle Quota System (VQS), a dynamic regulation system which allows the government to control the number of cars on the road. This is reviewed regularly and the quota gets changed every month, based on road conditions and the number of cars taken off the road in that month. Benchmarking Deciding on exact levels of excellence to achieve could be a potential grey area while chalking out the energy plan. Benchmarks solve this problem to a great extent. Benchmarking involves comparing specific factors to those found in peers or best practices elsewhere in comparable contexts. Benchmarking programs typically result in increased attention to energy efficiency. They can reveal why cities or organisations are performing differently. Data from benchmarking may improve performance. Figure 4.4 shows benchmarking standards for cement manufacturing in India.
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Figure 4.4: Specific thermal energy consumption comparisons for cement manufacturing. (Source: CSE, 2009)
A reputed hotel in Kolkata has reduced its energy consumption by 8 per cent over the previous year (in spite of 78 per cent growth in occupancy). Measures have been adopted to achieve benchmark levels in areas such as retrofitting of pumps, hot water generation using condensed steam, replacement of electric heater with solar water heaters and installation of variable frequency drives for fans. This has reduced CO2 emissions by 2,800 tonnes per annum. Education, Informative and Cooperative Tools: Education, training, capacity building, information centres, consumer advice services, accompanying social measures and research-based innovation, all go towards strengthening the collective awareness of consumers as well as the leaders of cities. The South Korean capital Seoul had a Weekly No Driving Day Program. Around 635,000 cars in Seoul joined the program, under which drivers were offered discounts in tax, parking fees and other incentives if they did not drive for a day in a week (ITDP, 2009). Local Governments have a strong role to play in facilitating local energy funds that can be utilized for energy systems management. Arranging private capital for smaller funds or funding shift from big projects to small projects will go a long way in creating awareness and bringing co operation for sound energy investment. Technology transfers bring in knowledge from other nations and cities which will enhance progress faster. It is generally difficult for a city
Education, training, capacity building, information centres, consumer advice services, accompanying social measures and research-based innovation, all go towards strengthening the collective awareness of consumers as well as the leaders of cities.
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to influence the issue of technology transfers. However through sister city partnerships, cities could learn from their counterparts e.g. Seoul and Beijing: district heating, Seoul: reduction in waste volume and utilisation of landfill gas, Tokyo: development of mass transportation and incentives to low-and ultra-low emission vehicles, Shanghai: control over the registration of new vehicles, Singapore: discouraging of private vehicle ownership While policies that require large upfront funds may not be very practical and feasible for many towns and cities in developing Asia, we have seen enough examples of small decentralised projects promoted by clever policies driven by a set of inspired group of citizens, industrialists and leaders. Enterprises have much to contribute to urban energy sustainability, if market mechanisms get aligned to the production and use of environmentally-sound goods and services. Green procurement is already being adopted in many cities. City of Schiedam near Rotterdam, the Netherlands implemented IEP with the help of local groups. The City has been continuously improving its urban planning in favour of energy conservation. Freiburg, too has brought up many of the RET strategies with the help of local participation, lessening the revenue expectations that need to come from the government. While all these strategies push the envelope of success higher, use of various types of computer software would further improve efficiency and accuracy. There are many types of computer models to evaluate energy use and needs within cities (details in annexe 4). Use of CORENET software has enabled the Singapore authority to sanction building plans in a day. Conceptualising the energy plan need not be a closed in-house activity. Ideas could come through collaboration of various kinds. Industrialists could be approached to advice smaller growing cities. Exchange programmes between mutually benefitting cities could be encouraged. Prestigious universities could be made to provide think tank task forces to ideate, solve and implement solutions in cities facing growing pains. There could be an exchange of ideas of emerging technologies between inventors. Or it could even be a simple exchange between citizen fora. Many are the possibilities and all are initiatives that could be kick-started by no less than city authorities of growing cities themselves. Shedding the lacunae Many developing countries do not have the means or awareness for predictive or preventive measures. It is not for the want of financial resources. Extended producer responsibility (EPR) transfers responsibility for a product to the producers till the postconsumer stage of its life-cycle. Waste from electrical and electronic equipment gets managed without harm to the environment and without cost to the government. 94
Enterprises have much to contribute to urban energy sustainability, if market mechanisms get aligned to the production and use of environmentally-sound goods and services.

Another essential step is towards removing malpractices within departments. A necessary framework that promotes lowering of corruption and illegal profiteering can be formed. Raising funds with the help of stakeholders Governments can aim to collect enough funds for advertisements and awareness building. Odessa, in southern Ukraine, has over 1 million people. Its attempt to maintain and upgrade their municipal infrastructure, prompted it to establish a Municipal Investment Fund, which can access funds from government budgets, international and local capital markets and other sources, and finance or guarantee public campaigns and private infrastructure projects. If properly linked to other social programs, energy can create micro and small business opportunities for the poor (Wasike & Kimenyi, 2001). It is not everywhere that renewable energy options are possible, but urban investors can invest in renewable energy even if it has to serve rural hinterland. This investment may ensure that rural folks are getting energy, and that may arrest their migration to cities. Taiwan had an interesting way of getting financed with 0.5 per cent from sales of petrol and electricity. The money collected was used for development, research and training for industry, e.g. cogeneration, heat recovery, and heating. Early Start with Energy Policies
Figure 4.5: Early Start with Energy Policies Impressive achievements in energy sustainability
Another example can be seen at Zurich with its Energy Saving Fund (Figure 4.5). In 1989, the population agreed to an energy saving policy. The policy promoted rational use of electricity and the use of RETs. The fund is financed by annual inserts of 10 per cent of the budgetprofit of the utility. Policy Instrument should aim to balance economic efficiency, environmental efficiency, budgetary impact, should be able to implement and enforce and should get wide stakeholder support (Figure. 4.6)
Another essential step is towards removing malpractices within departments. A necessary framework that promotes lowering of corruption and illegal profiteering can be formed.
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Environmental effectiveness
Economic efficiency
Stakeholder support
Figure 4.6 Policy instruments that have the potential to work are practical with stakeholder support and balance the triple bottom line
Box 16: A welfare association in the city

Every citizen here is proud of his city. A fine example is the case of Fazlika, a small Indian town, now known as the Energy hub of Punjab which will go down in history for many things. Chief among them tell the tale of entrepreneurs who promoted CFL by selling without profit or loss. There is then the concept of ECOCABS. Fazilka showcased to the world a unique public transport system through the erstwhile cycle rickshaw. This system was designed to promote the use of rickshaw as the mode of public transport system, where the average trip length in the city is less than 3 km. Call centres were installed across the city to make rickshaws a phone call away. The power of people and market mechanisms is clearly seen in such examples. (SouthAsia Post, 2008)
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Budgetary impact
Policy Instrument
Ability to implement & enforce

Key message: Closing in on solutions Framing policies starts with a detailed energy plan that would identify a mix and match of instruments and tools after thorough evaluation. Policy-makers have more responsibility in actualising an energy plan than in just being a mouth piece for a political agenda. They have to sharpen their skills to ask the right questions, put together the right sets of intelligence, collect the most relevant data, and analyse most accurately to come up with innovative solutions. They have to set the right framework conditions for continued market reforms, consistent regulations, and targeted policies. They should enable reduction of the cost of energy services to end users, and protect important public benefits and remove obstacles or provide incentives, as needed, to encourage greater energy efficiency and the development and diffusion of new sustainable energy technologies to wider markets. Selecting tools that can generate revenues can have better success rates. Points to ponder: Singapore was the first city in the world to implement an electronic road toll collection system for purposes of congestion pricing based on peak hour usage. What could cost just S$2 could cost about S$15 during peak hours (EDF, 2009). Milan has introduced a traffic charge scheme on a trial basis, called Ecopass, and exempts high emission standard vehicles and some alternate fuel vehicles (GCC, 2009). Often access to basic amenities is tied to land tenure, depriving the poor access to energy. Policies should de-link access to basic services with security of land tenure. A policy that has worked is the issuance of temporary I-cards like quasi ID in Thailand (GNESD, 2009). The New Seamless Mobility Services strategy, made the public bicycle very popular. Other such services include urban liftsharing vehicles called share-autos that are very popular amongst citizens of small towns like Coimbatore in India. For lesser cost they get to move around sharing the vehicle to full occupancy with others for a comfortable ride. Stockholm has a strategy to bring in clean vehicles (biogas, ethanol and electric/ electric hybrids) into the market to at least about 5 per cent of its share. Its another story that the level has crossed 10 per cent of all light vehicle sales in Stockholm. The city focused on private companies to garner support for building fuel stations and large procurements of clean vehicles at lower prices. Name and shame programmes are popular in the cities of Japan, enforcing penalty for vehicles that pollute. This could have adverse effect on marketing for manufacturers if they defaulted (BAQ, 2008). In Tangshan, the local government plans to pay a subsidy of 50 per cent for retrofitting of buildings (RCSD, 2008). 97
Policy-makers have more responsibility in actualising an energy plan than just being a mouth piece for a political agenda.

In Tianjin, energy-efficient building demonstration projects can receive a subsidy of 50,000 RMB as of July 2007. Twenty projects benefited from this policy in 2007 (RCSD, 2008). Draft Policy adopted by Vijayawada Municipal Corporation (VMC), India aims to reduce overall city conventional energy consumption by at least 3 per cent from 2008 level by 2014 through energy efficiency in all its present and future planning (to achieve overall 20 per cent reduction in conventional energy consumption in municipal services and facilities from 2008 level by 2014) through (ICLEI, 2009).
4.4
Implementing the Ideas for Sustainable Energy
In the long history of humankind those who learned to collaborate and improvise most effectively have prevailed. Charles Darwin Executing ideas Implementation follows planning and needs an equally rigorous foolproof methodology to be successful. Often times it is seen that while a lot of effort goes into meticulous planning of policies for cities, it becomes just an aspiration when it comes to implementing policies to meet the necessary energy goals. Strong local political will backed by good regulations mixed with other market and public instruments is the key for reaching the desired goals. The 3 Ps One of the successful models for implementation is one encompassing Path, Procedure and Partners or the 3Ps process (Figure 4.7). The path would first include a set of activities that lay a PATH Activities Sensitise Advice Stimulate Finance Regulate PROCEDURE Target Tools Resource Allocation PARTNERS Implementation and Outreach Monitoring and Evaluation
Figure 4.7: The 3 Ps (path, procedure and partners) Process. The basis for a drafting a sustainable urban energy plan.
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Global Objective Urban Energy Sustainability

platform for execution and implementation of policies. They would include covering market requirements through innovative financing tools, stimulating market conditions through accompanying measures like sensitising and advising, and creating regulations to maintain the health and relevancy of policies in question. The path Planners face the daunting task of getting the public to cooperate to bring about changes in the urban energy scene. Many innovative accompanying measures have been used globally to bring in greater impact and response for policies. Europe, Singapore, Thailand and some other countries have set up energy information centres (EICs). These centres showcase entertaining models that would encourage public to learn energy efficiency concepts in a fun way. The centres would also advocate better habits and DIY processes through brochures and kits available for the public. Some of them have energy advisors available on call to advice queries from citizens on how they can become more energy efficient and/or invest in clean energy alternatives. The functioning of Energy Service Companies (ESCOs), creation of a special fund or revolving fund, initiation of demo programmes, recognition and rewarding of exemplary practices, inviting of participation through voluntary programmes are other such accompanying measures.
Box 17: Auckland EcoWise

Auckland City Council supports the EcoWise energy efficiency advice programme to help residents save energy, reduce costs and create healthier homes. Energy advisers visit homes to conduct a free energy audit. The adviser also provides the resident with an energy efficiency plan. Source: ICLEI 2009 b
Plate 15: Ciclovia, Bogota When cycles rule the roads and cars get side-stepped Photo credit: http://www.flickr.com/photos/pattoncito/ 2249689660/sizes/o/
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In a weekly event known as Ciclovia, in Bogota, Columbia, over 150 kilometres of city streets turn car-free so that local residents can come out to use the public space; one and a half million people turn up each week (Ecoplan, 2009). Setting regulations is another activity in defining the path to follow. For example, policies for buildings through codes have been in practice for long. Energy efficiency requirements in building codes or energy standards for new buildings are among the most important measures for buildings fitness of purpose. By reducing buildings energy consumption, a city can reduce dependence on imported or grid- based energy and strengthen its strategic position. In the 2000 Green Paper setting forth a strategy to secure energy supply, the European Union named energy efficiency as the best way to establish energy security over the longer term. Energy efficiency requirements in building codes can ensure that it gets imbibed at the design phase and can help to realise great savings in new buildings. There are many such examples of a groundswell of city initiatives that gateway resource use, with regulation that is easy to implement. Many small towns in India across the sweep of the Indian subcontinent, like Rajkot, Thane, and Nagpur, have enabled quick and easy Town Plan Sanctions with the simple expedient of making solar collectors-based water heating a prerequisite for such sanctions. The Gujarat Urban Development Corporation, an autonomous government body in western India, has launched a concerted campaign in the entire state of Gujarat to manage wet waste with organised centres across 42 towns and cities that ensures organic waste is converted to organic fertilisers that are then used to nourish the citys green areas (GUDC, 2009). The procedure Once the platform has been set for the implementation of policies, procedures follow with definite targets to be reached through effective tools. Every City could have a Handbook and embed the following Five Principles. Laying down a sound working principle on Law and Policy, standard and criterion, promoting steps and scientific and technological breakthrough An inception-to-execution guide that covers the gamut from project setting, design and construction of infrastructure, to inspection and monitor The creation of diversified guides, regional and sub-regional plans, mapping of long-term phased plans for sustainable urban development Defining key zones of concern for the long term major and minor areas of challenge, with key result area outlines for all city stakeholders The pull and push factors of industry, tourism, commerce, residential and other sectors of a city. 100
By reducing buildings energy consumption, a city can reduce dependence on imported or grid- based energy and strengthen its strategic position.

Similar to this procedures and guidelines would need to be set for every sector in a city. Resources would need to be allocated next and the most crucial resource would be funding the implementation. Traditional funding or waiting for loans from the centre could be augmented by funds and intervention from international donors, too. This would mutually benefit the city as well as the donors whose main agenda is anyway to effectively play their part in bringing about sustainability in urban energy areas globally. The previous section has also outlined many different ways of bringing in revenues. The Partners Once procedures are set they would require highly qualified resultoriented partners. Mobilising partnership should be a participatory event to bring experts and implementers together to facilitate execution smoothly. Effective and influential champions who can mobilise effort and funds on one hand and well recognised experts with telling experience on the other would form this group. The phase involving partnership would require a lot of consensus garnering from all other stakeholders, capacity building of staff involved in the execution, awareness building of stakeholders whose lives will be touched by activities and good planning of resources and activities. Monitoring, evaluating and applying correction Often times this is a step that is most crucial and the most forgotten too. Monitoring and evaluation should feed into a feedback loop from the beginning of the cyclic process involving path and procedure to maintain quality and success of policy implementation. Holistic checklists, observation and analysis against metrics and indicators, ethnography studies and feedback from end users are some of the tools that would help this phase.
Mobilising partnership should be a participatory event to bring experts and implementers together to facilitate execution smoothly. Effective and influential champions who can mobilise effort and funds on one hand and well recognised experts with telling experience on the other would form this group.
Plate 16: Working in perfect partnership Photo credit: http://www.flickr.com/photos/17258892@N05/2588347668/sizes/o/
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Preventive processes like the following help to stem small problems to a large extent: 1. Setting up on-site program coaches: These coaches would be experts in the area handled by them on site and would provide ongoing mentoring and problem-solving assistance to program delivery staff. 2. Establishing a Help Desk, to provide quick-turnaround phone assistance and to create a log of problems that may have happened. 3. Providing booster training to teachers and coaches at periodic intervals. Key Message: Its all in the doing Implementing policies is a scientific, collective teamwork requiring highly skilled management resources. Success depends on tools used for implementation, mapping of resources and the kind of partners chosen. Annexe 7 lists out some of the successful programmes floated by local leaders. Monitoring and evaluation for feedback for further reforms is essential for continuous health of urban energy sustainability. Points to ponder: In The Hague, formerly long-term unemployed now advise low-income households in energy savings. The Gouda energy advice task force (E-Team) was set up in order to achieve two goals. First, it aimed to reduce energy consumption of low-income earners through information dissemination and the implementation of simple but effective energy saving measures (e.g. installation of draught excludes and piping insulation). Secondly, the programme helped to create new employment opportunities for a group of long-term unemployed. E-Team is now a permanent organisation working on a consultative role (UNESCO, 2009). The municipality of Viernheim stands as a very good example of a successful implementation of policies. It has committed itself to a target of reducing CO2 emissions by 30 per cent by 2010. The basis for the aims in CO2 reduction is an energy concept which states in detail the intended policy measures. Some of the measures worth mentioning are: (1) Construction of new municipal and private buildings with low energy construction; (2) Electricity and heating for the town hall is generated by a small-scale combined heat and power station; (3) The public utilities subsidise solar plants for the production of hot water and the conversion to natural gas burning equipment; (4) Environmental targets are considered in all municipal planning; The municipality participates in international information networks (ICLEI, 2009c).
Implementing policies is a scientific, collective teamwork requiring highly skilled management resources.
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Annexe 1: Designing the future of transportation in cities

Existing condition* Prospects and ambition Future resource needs Transport agenda Sustainability achievable
Non-motorized vehicular (bicycle) citylow income; modest resource base
Develop into a bus city
Modest
Development of a bus system high Traffic management Parking control, manly in the centre. Road maintenance, complete secondary road network and new development roads in fringe areas
Bus citymodest income; modest resource base
If good prospects into a transit city adopting the smart growth paradigm
Moderate, with private sector interest
Maintain non motorized vehicular high facilities. Bus priorities -> bus ways -> bus road transitParking policy -> road pricingTraffic management and control strengthenedStrategy circular and development roads, secondaryroads, and removal of bottlenecksProgressive private sector developmentSmart growth, transit-oriented developmentencouraged
Traffic saturated bus citythe Bangkok syndrome
Relatively Substantial, with affluent; significant private substantial sector investment resources; living with congestion
Grade-separated expresswaysMetro Moderateliving networksRoad investment to with congestion complete hierarchy(secondary mainly) and to guide future city growthTransit-oriented development (retro-fitted)Integration of transport systems
Transit city moderate/ Highincome
Very good prospects continuationof policies
* Barter typology of cities used
Preserve and enhance non motored Sustainable vehicularand pedestrian facilitiesSophisticated traffic restraint and road management,using technological developmentsInvestment in mass rapid transit (metro) and publictransport integrationNew road investment to ensure congestionremains controlledPrivate sector participation, including outsourcing
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Annexe 2: Impact of recycling aluminium

(Waste management and energy savings: Benefits by the numbers Anne Choate, Lauren Pederson, Jeremy Scharfenberg, ICF Consulting, Washington DC, Henry Ferland, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington DC)
Estimating the Energy-Related GHG Emission Impacts of Recycling Aluminum

Recycling: 1 ton of aluminum cans = -4.07 Metric Tons of Carbon Equivalent (MTCE)/ton Energy related emission impact = -3 18 MTCE/ton Non-energy related emission impact = -0.9 MTCE/ton Landfilling: 1 ton of aluminum cans = 0.01 MTCE/ton Energy related emission impact = 0.01 MTCE/ton Non-energy related emission impact = 0.0 MTCE/ton GHG Emission Benefits (Energy and Non-Energy): -4.07MTCE/ton=0 01 MTCE/ton= - 4.08 MTCE/ ton Energy-related GHG emission benefits: -3.18 MTCE/ton -001 MTCE/ton = -3 19 MTCE/ton Percent of GHG emission benefits related to energy consumption = (-3 I9/-4.08) = 78%
Annexe 3: Urban energy sustainability indicators

Type of Indicator Theme Energy Indicator Components
Social- Equity
Accessibility
Share of households (or population) without electricity or commercial energy or heavily dependent on non commercial energy, or heavily dependent on non commercial energy
- Households ( or population without electricity or commercial energy, or heavily dependent on non commercial energyTotal number of households or population -Household income spent on fuel and electricity- Household income (total and poorest 20% of the population) - Energy use per household for each income group ( quintiles) - Household income for each income group (quintiles) - Corresponding fuel mix for each income group - Energy use ( total primary energy supply, total final consumption and electricity) - Losses in transformation systems inclusing losses in electricity generation, transmission and distribution
Affordability
Share of household income spent on fuel and electricity
Disparity
Household energy use for each income group and corresponding fuel mix
Economic
Overall use
Energy use per capita
Supply efficiency
Efficiency of energy conversion and distribution
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- Energy use in commercial sectorCorresponding value added - Energy use in industrial sector and by manufacturing branchCorresponding value added - Energy use in households and by key end use - Number of households, floor area, persons per household, appliance ownership - No of four wheelers per 1000 populationNo of two wheelers per 1000 populationNumber of public transport (buses ) per 1000 population - GHG emissions from energy production and use - population - Concentration of pollutants in air
End use
Commercial energy intensity
Industrial energy intensity
Household energy intensity
Transport energy intensity
Environmental
Climate Change
GHG emissions from energy production ( for the city) and the per capita energy use Ambient concentration of air pollutants in city
Air Quality
Water
Waste Water
Solid Waste
Energy used for bringing water to the - Energy bills of Water city and pumping (including Utility for Water services pumping at end use level) End use energy for pumping water/ capita or population - Energy supplied to waste Energy used for taking out waste water utility water from the city and treating it - population Transport energy spent on taking out - Fuel spent on trucks/ lorries for populationwaste from the city to landfills/ Energy spent on creating incinerators/recycling and managing landfills and incinerators Installed capacityLighting intensityEnergy consumedTimings of automatic switch on and off Awareness of energy related problems - kW/km of roadLux/WattkW/km per month - Surveys to check on energy awareness levels of people of different age groups, sectors, incomelevels and class
Others
Street Lighting
Educational
Energy Awareness
Source: Modified for a city after IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency)(2005): Energy Indicators for sustainable development- guidelines and methodologies. Published in Vienna.
121
Annexe 4: Computer models that help with energy planning

Model Name BALANCE CO2DB DECPAC/ DECADES EFOM-ENV EM ENERPLAN IAEA, US-DOE1 IIASA2 IAEA3 EU4 World Bank, GTZ5 UNDTCD6 Energy Supply & Energy System Model Energy Information System Energy Information System Energy Supply & Energy System Model Model of Life Cycle Assessment of Power Systems Modular Planning Instrument A model for simulation of energy supply, belongs to ENPEP family CO2 database Database and Technology Chain Analysis Energy Flow Optimization Model Environmental model, a Simulation model It couples a macro economic model with a simulation model of energy sectors. Energy and Power Evaluation Programme Energy technology Assessment- A dynamic model which couples the macroeconomic MACRO with the aggregated energy system model ETA Computable General Equilibrium model for studying economic energy environment interactions. Dynamic model based on energy technology assessment with 5 world regions Origin Type of Model Other Information
ENPEP
IAEA, US- DOE
Modular Planning Instrument
ETA-MACRO EPRI7
Energy- Economic Model
GEM-E3ME
EU
GLOBAL 2100, GREEN. 12RT HOVA
OECD8
PROFU9 SEI- Boston10
Model for the Analysis of Energy Conservations Potential Modular Planning Instrument
An EXCEL based database model Long Range Energy Alternative Planning- a simulation model with environmental database Model for Analysis of energy demand, a module of the ENPEP planning tool Market Allocation model with a user support system Linked models for Energy Economy Analysis A Simulation model for District Heating System Model for evaluating the energy demand, a bottom up model Modular Energy System Analysis and Planning
LEAP
MADE
IKE11
Model for the Analysis of Energy Demand Energy Supply & Energy System Model Energy- Economic Model
MARKAL
ITSAP12, IEA
MARKALMACRO MARTES MEDEE
BNL13 PROFU IEJE14 IER15
District Heating Model Model for the Analysis of Energy Demand Modular Planning Instrument
MESAP
122

MESSAGE IIASA Energy Supply & Energy System Model Energy Supply & Energy System Model Energy System Optimization Model Energy- Economic Model Optimization model for Energy Supply System A Modular Simulation Model
MIDAS
EU
MODEST
IKP16
Minimization of Capital and Operation costs of energy supply and demand side management Quasi dynamic model with hybrid representation ( bottom up and top down) of the technologies of the industry sector Long term energy system simulation
NEWAGE
IER
PLANET
IER
Energy Supply & Energy System Model Energy Supply & Energy System Model Energy- Economic Model
POLES
EU
Prospective Outlook on Long term Energy Systems, a simulation model A Computable Price Driven Partial Equilibrium model of the energy system and markets for Europe Strategic Assessment Framework for the Implementation of Rational Energy, a simulation model for heat and power supply at the local and regional level for European countries The sustainable energy systems analysis model for energy systems planning at local and regional scale TERI Energy Economy Simulation and Evaluation Model The Integrated MARKAL EFOM system and optimization model that produces least cost solutions, it is intended to replace MARKAL which has its origin in the late 1970s and no longer meets modern requirements and possibilities of up to date software engineering. Wen Automatic System Planning, an optimization model
PRIME
EU
SAFIRE
EU
Technology Assessment Model
SEESAM
AaI-U17
TEESE
TERI18
TIMES
ETSAP19, IEA
Energy Supply & Energy System Model
WASP
IAEA, US- DOE
Electricity Supply Model
1. United States Department of Energy 2. International Institutes for Applied Systems Analysis, Laxenburg, Austria 3. International Atomic Energy Agency 4. European Union 5. Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit mbH, Germany 6. United Nations, Department of Technical Cooperation for Development 7. Electric Power research Institute, Palo Alto, California, USA 8. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, Paris, France. 123

9. Projektinniktad Dorskning och utveckling-PROFU, Goteborg, Swedem 10. Stockholm Environmental Institute, Boston 11. Institut fur Kernenergetik und Energiesysteme, University of Stuttgart, Germany 12. Energy Technology System Analysis Project 13. Brrokhaven national laborotary 14. Institute Economique et Juridique de l Energie, France 15. Institut fur Energiewirtschaft und rationelle Energianwendung, University of Stuttgart, Germany 16. IKP Energy System Institute of Technology, Linkoping, Sweden 17. Aaborg University, Denmark 18. The Energy and Resources Institute, India 19. Energy Technology Systems Analysis Programme, Italy
Annexe 5: Impact of policies on sustainability and cost

Policy Instrument Demand Pull Energy Sustainability High Cost Effectiveness Special conditions for success, major strengths and limitations, co-benefits Can be effectively used to demonstrate new technologies and practices. Mandatory programs have higher potential than voluntary ones. Factorsfor success: strong labelling backing and continuous improvements with new energy efficiency measures, short term incentives to transform markets Successful only when combined with other tools and when there is price elasticity. Rebates or tax reductions however have a higher rate of success than just tax. Mandatory programmes are better. Transaction costs can be high. Institutional structures needed. Expertise in the field will need to be established and well oiled with changing scenarios. Periodical monitoring and updating for relevance is essential. Should be combined with education, awareness building, capacity building etc. Should be combined with financial or other perceived incentives with a threat of regulation. More applicable amongst common public than business homes. Best applied in combination with other measures. Periodical update of situation, decentralised control, information, communication, education, monitoring, evaluation, feedback mechanism as stimulus for change for better planning, stakeholder participation.
High
Indirect Price Low to Medium Support
Low to Medium
Medium to High Technical Standards/ Certifications
High
Waste Management
Medium
Medium
Information, Education, and Training Improved Planning Process
Low-Medium
Medium to High
High
High
124

High
High Improved Urban Design through improved energy systems High Research, Development, Demonstration
Future visioning and planning, value engineering, use of bioclimatic design principles
High
Technological Innovation promoting health of planet, society and economic progress, strategy thinking and analysis for exponential progress, experimenting and failing at low cost, understanding of stakeholders hidden needs, Positive for low-incomehouseholds, risk of free-riders,may induce pioneering investments. But depends on effectiveness of software. Updating of software to match changing trends and requirements is a must.
Capital Support
High
High
IT in Sustainable Urban Energy Planning
High
Low
Annexe 6: Barriers to effectiveness of policies

Barrier category Instrument category recommended Regulatory- normative/ regulatoryinformative Economic instruments Fiscal instruments Recommended policy instruments as remedies Building codes, energy efficiency obligations, green procurement, DSM programs, ESCOs, cooperative procurement, energy efficiency certificates Taxation, public benefit charges, tax exemptions, incentives/rebates/grants Building codes, ESCOs Public leadership programs Building codes, energy efficiency obligations, green procurement, DSM programs, ESCOs, energy efficiency certificates, Taxation, public benefit charges, tax exemptions, incentives/ rebates/grants, voluntary agreement, public leadership programs, awareness raising, detailed billing Voluntary labelling, voluntary agreement, public leadership programs, awareness raising, detailed billing Voluntary agreement, public leadership programs, awareness raising, detailed billing Green procurement, DSM programs, mandatory audits Public leadership programs10
Economic barriers
Hidden costs/ benefits Market failures
Regulatory-normative Economic instruments Support action Regulatory-normative/ regulatory/ informative Economic instruments Fiscal instruments Support, information, voluntary action
Cultural/ behavioural barriers
Support, information, voluntary action
Information barriers
Support, information, voluntary action Regulatory/informative
Structural/ political
125
Annexe 7: Strategies to pick up from initiatives around the world:

1. Local Agenda 21:
Local Agenda 21 defines the role of local authorities in its charter and identifies local governments as one of the main partners in its implementation. Processes specified for implementation include planning, local capacity building, community and inter-sector involvement and information1.
2. The Aalborg Charter:

The charter helped prepare a local action plan. Over 200 local authorities signed it. They committed to create a sustainable local action plan. Many activities were initiated towards this, including publication of guidance manual for local planning, training courses, help with networking and creation of databases on good practices.
3. International Solar City Initiative:

The International Solar Cities Initiative was created for sustainable action in urban energy management worldwide. It does this through partnership between cities and researchers involved in climate research, RET and urban design.
4. International Council for Local Environmental Initiative:

ICLEIs mission is to build and serve a worldwide movement of local governments to achieve global sustainability through sustainable local actions.
5. Kitakyushu Initiative Network:

This was formed between members from 61 cities in 18 countries in the Asia-Pacific region. Plate 54 elaborates its core characteristics. It holds an important role in fostering the capacity building of local staff. Many pilot projects are conducted and there is a healthy interchange of experience and information amongst member cities. The Network outlines eight of its functions as follows: Enabling conceptualising and implementing of plans with indicators. Periodical monitoring against quantitative indicators. Dissemination of information among members. Offering a platform for the transfer of technology. Networking for financial support. Capacity-building of staff. Enabling environmental education program through student exchanges. Enabling private enterprises to participate in infrastructural development and environmental quality enhancement program. 126
The Kitakyushu Initiative Spreading the message to 61 cities from 18 countries in Asia Pacific Region
Annexe 8: the Urban Energy Sustainability Pledge

Personally, I hold that a man, who deliberately and intelligently takes a pledge and then breaks it, forfeits his manhood Mahatma Gandhi, Father of Nation, India
Plate 4: Sustainable World for Future Generations: Photo credit: http:// www.flickr.com/photos/ wwworks/440672445/ sizes/o/
127

That we need to pay the highest attention to energy-saving in our cities has no second argument. Going into the future, city managers have the challenge of having to realize energy saving while taking into stride the need to promote economic reform and land-economic construction that is inevitable in the urban Asia. Urban Asias working keystones have to be around the Four Saving Projects, central to all of which is Energy saving: Energy-saving, Landsaving, Water-saving and Material-saving. The last three keystones again mean cascading savings on energy for every city. How do we give each of our cities a readable, visual form? This means the ease with which a person can recognize its elements and organize them into a coherent plan. A readable city is one where the neighbourhoods, landmarks and roads are identifiable, and at once tying up with the big picture of the city. An orderly set of city plans can act as a reference grid that organizes a citizens beliefs and knowledge. In a way it serves as a basis for an individuals development as he grows up, or spends the evening of life, or works. A dynamic and integrated physical framework can play a significant social role, by offering sharp and distinctive images. It can offer pleasant memories, can make a person emotionally secure and create harmonious relations with the external world around. Many seamier districts of cities that witnessed sharp and unorganized growth can transform to centres of sustainable growth. Its clearly up to the policy-makers and technologists, like you, of cities to make the change happen. You hold the key. Take the first step now. Take it by taking the urban energy sustainability pledge. we shall work to make urban energy sustainable ...we shall work to ensure energy access to all human beings we shall not draw on earths capital resources in doing so we shall increase quality of life and opportunities for better livelihood through better energy systems we shall work in solidarity with each other and with city managers and leaders of other nations to make this a Pan-Asia and global movement we shall make urban energy a vital axis for ushering change on social, economic and environment fronts in all urban parts of the world we shall keep a vigil on all urban centres around the world to ensure we learn from mistakes of the past and dont repeat them ...we shall give our all to set right the wrong already wrought in many cities of Asia and the world ...we shall set exemplary directions in good governance for urban energy and remind ourselves of the pitfalls of short-term views we shall constantly strive to innovate through participation and further propel the movement into greater heights of achievement we shall pioneer effective, innovative and progressive policy and regulatory framework we shall stand as one world, with sustainability as our driving force bringing energy security to all, without hurting the planet So bless us Nature! Amen. 128
Annexe 9: Training Activities

Training activity for Chapter 1: Session 1: Introduction Ice breaker sessions and introduction to the course. Session 2: Cities Hold the Key to Energy Sustainability Objective: To make participants realise that cities hold the key to energy sustainability Medium: Videos and group discussions Activity: Video of impact of cities on environment, production of energy, linear living and the people/systems responsible for the acts would also be shown. Videos can be taken from the following links: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yNUZD3jgUO4 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HkHZ-arjsCE A group discussion could be started based on impressions gathered after watching the videos. The main topic to be discussed could be: What makes a city so unsustainable? A facilitated group discussion will help the participants to identify, Who is to blame? Or who could set it right? Would we be right in blaming people from the past? Can what cannot be planned be managed? Session 2: Urban Needs and Impact Objective: Policy makers play a key role in bringing about urban energy sustainability Medium: Role playing Activity: A role play scenario could be presented to the participants. The scenario could be on any topic like traffic congestion, building of a new energy utility, or building of affordable homes. The participants could be asked to participate in a role play activity to discover the root cause of problems and then propose a verdict on the proposed solution. A sample of an outline of such a role play is provided in annexe 9. Session 3: Tipping Scale 129

Objective: To make participants understand the imbalances in the present urban energy scene Medium: Puzzle, story-building, analysis and presentation Activity: A short presentation of imbalances due to energy production and consumption will be shown based on information from section 1.3. It will have interviews with experts to citizens centring on their frustration with such imbalances. Each will speak about imbalance felt in their lives. For example a slum dweller in any urban city may talk about the cost of food per plate per day while in the same city a well-to-do hotelier could talk about the amount of waste food they have to discard every day or a food processing industrialist could talk about the amount of food they discard as waste every month. After the presentation groups could be formed and each group could be given a set of images. A typical set could include images without captions telling the story of a toothpick used in USA which in reality got ferried all the way from South East Asian countries. The images will not be in sequence. Groups will be asked to build the story by solving the sequence and present the story to others along with their own rationale about why such things happen and the impact these have on the global energy scene. Facilitator should enable participants to feel good about perceptions of participants and to conclude that people with such perceptions should in reality be solving problems better. Training activity for Chapter 2: Session 1: Energy and Stakeholders Objective: To make participants understand the different stakeholders who look up to them to solve the energy puzzle. Medium: Audio files. Activity: Audio files circulated amongst groups of participants. These would be in the form of snippets of news being read out, letters from citizens, petitions from industries, complaints from communities all relating to urban energy crisis, problems and issues faced by stakeholders of energy. Each group would be given a specific set of audio files. One group could receive a set of files from related to energy issues with poor people, another could receive a set related to transport fuel issues due to bad urban planning, and a third could get a set related 130

to rising production costs in industries due to intermittent power supply and so on. Participants will after listening to the files, make a presentation to others as representatives for the particular set of stakeholders. After all presentations are made, the trainer would then facilitate participants to realise that the one set of people who can help all these stakeholders would be local government in the various locations. Session 2: Energy and Consumption Objective: To make participants understand hidden costs and costs due to overconsumption. Medium: Video Activity: This session would deal with consumption patterns, their impacts and hidden costs of energy associated with such consumption behaviour. Participants would be shown a video like the one present in this link: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gLBE5QAYXp8 This would enlighten participants on wasteful consumption patterns and their impact on environment. The trainer could also draw a few examples from the sourcebook and show them in a quick presentation. Facilitator will bring out that consumers are also culprits. It is going to be tough to change them. Policies need to encourage correct consumption, thinking and usage patterns. Session 3: Lack of Systemic Approach Objective: Damages due to lack of systemic approach. Medium: Imaginary visioning Activity: Lack of systemic approach would be handled in this session. In spite of efforts at planning, why do policy-makers often fail? What is the lack in their approach? The activity to be performed would be to choose the best Mohammad Bin Tughlaq? Each group would be given a card having issues in a particular city related to energy management like increasing private vehicle ownership, increasing 131

demand for electricity, increasing load shedding, increasing divide between the energy used between the rich and the poor and increase in domestic consumption of energy. Along with the case description a set of clue cards that have information of some ideas of solutions promoted by imaginary city leaders under relevant situation would also be given. The clues would contain both sensible and bizarre solutions. For example, increasing private ownership could have the clues that would as follows: Build multi-storeyed flyovers Lay regulations to cut down number of cars plying on the road at any given time Introduce heavy emission taxes and increase cost of private vehicles Build better public transport systems Remove parks and fill up lakes to build more roads Participants will have to zero down on the most bizarre non-systemic approach. They will then have to build a case on this approach and each group would present their cases with imaginary situations and stories with figures, numbers and characters to the others and to a panel of judges. The most non-systemic group will get the prestigious title of the ruler from the past. Session 4: Energy and Urban Governance Objective: To make participants aware of solutions they should not opt for to solve issues related to urban energy. Medium: Game of Chance Activity: The previous session involved the bloomers leaders could make. This session would involve intelligent governance. Each group would be given a sheet containing issues in urban energy. For each issue there would be multiple choices as answers below each issue. Each answer would carry some points. For example, one of the issues could be low supply of fuel for electricity in an island country. The choices as answers could be as follows: - Import fuel from neighbouring country rich in fuel mining (Marks: -100 points) - Resort to wind energy. (Marks: 100 points) - Introduce DSM programmes and recover energy through polygeneration in industries (Marks: 200 points) - Allow citizens to cope by themselves (Marks: -50 points) The participants would also be given a single dice with numbers from 1-6. Any participant can start the game and the rounds can go in a clockwise manner. Each participant would take up to get as a chance an answer for the issue on sheet. The participant will have to roll the dice to decide the fate of the answer luck would choose for him/her. The points collected corresponding to the answer would 132

be added to the groups collective points. Finally the group that gains the most points would be winners. Training activity for Chapter 3: Session 1: The Metamorphosis into Sustainable Cities Objective: To make participants understand closed loop systems and good practices within energy consuming sectors. Medium: Card activity Activity: The trainer could briefly explain about closed loop systems and good and bad practices in the various sectors using energy. The activity using cards could follow this. Each group will be given the same set of cards. The cards would form 2 categories. One set of heading cards with the following heading and one set of playing cards. The headings would include, 1. Closed loop within individual buildings 2. Closed loop within neighbourhood 3. Closed loop within locality 4. Closed loop within the city 5. Good practices in building sector 6. Bad practices in building sector 7. Good practices in transport sector 8. Bad practices in transport sector 9. Good practices in energy production 10. Bad practices in energy production 11. Good practices in appliance designing 12. Bad practices in appliance designing The other set of cards would include systems that could go under any of these categories, which can be picked up from chapter 3. For example one card could sport the phrase wet waste. This would fall under the category closed loop within individual buildings. Managing wet waste within buildings that produce them would remove the strain on local governments of picking up, segregating and transporting wet waste of the whole city which almost forms 60 per cent of all household waste. There could be at least 2-6 such cards under each category. Participants in each group will take turns to form clusters of these cards under various categories, one at a time, one by one. The chance passes on to the next participant and the rounds go on till all cards are used up. Sorting should happen without discussion. Then the participants can take around 3-4 rounds to rearrange the cards if 133

they see fit again silently again one by one changing what their predecessors had placed. After a couple of such rounds, the facilitator will now instruct the participants that they can discuss and again go through the rounds to sort cards. Once everyone is satisfied with the sorting, each team would present the sorting to others. The facilitator then performs the sorting on board for all to see, with consensus from groups to arrive at the correct sorting. Session 2: RET and Emerging Technologies Objective: To make participants understand how to use RETs. Medium: Analysis and activity Activity: Use of RETs and emerging technologies to solve energy problems will be the focus of this session. Participants will be given a case study with issues in a city. They will be given clues to find solutions to solve sustainability issues in the energy areas using RETs and some emerging technologies. Details of which RET would have what impact and where it can be used would be provided. Each group would prepare a one-page poster that summarizes key points from the reading material and also provide solutions. Half the number of groups should use pictures alone to represent their ideation while the other half should only use words. Later, each team makes a presentation using the poster from a different team. Session 3: Handling Poverty and Fragile Systems Objective: To give participants an insight into tackling poverty and issues related to island countries. Medium: Video and quiz Activity: The trainer could present salient features of the topic and also include a video like the one in the following link: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IuVTqlSelDI A case study could then be presented by the facilitator. A Quiz elimination rounds will be conducted in a rapid-fire manner. This would involve questions being fired to participants. They can choose to pick options from a multiple choice set up. Facilitator would filter right answers from wrong and eliminate players. This will continue till there is only one winner. If by chance players run out before the questions, the last round of players will be re-installed. 134

Session 4: Understanding Indicators Objective: To understand the connection between indicators and energy sustainability Medium: Hunt to complete activity Activity: Participants could be given a set of indicator cards and another set of implicator cards. For example population and transport indicators would indicate energy sustainability in fuel use. Population and transport could be indicator cards while sustainability in fuel use would be an implicator card. Each participant would have a set of indicator cards and a set of implicator cards that would not match his/her set of indicator cards. They will need to find who has what card and match their indicator card with the implicator card. The person to finish matching first will receive a good round of applause. Training activity for Chapter 4: Session 1: Where can you help? Objective: To make policy makers understand areas where they can help Medium: Analysis, assimilation and presentation Activity: Groups would be asked to discuss amongst their team members and come up with various areas they feel they can influence to bring about urban energy sustainability. They should also be able to state the kind of impact their influence could induce. Each team member should be able to help others come up with better ideas and once discussions are over, each group could present their analysis to the others in the workshop. The facilitator could fill in gaps and conclude that energy sustainability can be enhanced through better local governance. Session 2: Revenue Bearing Models for City Sustainability Objective: To make participants understand appropriate revenue models of energy sustainability. Medium: Auction activity 135

Activity: What would participants bet on as the most successful solutions to revenue-making? A team of auctioneers will be chosen and the rest of the participants would be bidders. For a problem read out by an auctioneer, a set of solutions would be read out. For each set of solutions there would be only one correct solution. Participants will make a choice and bid (in small money) for it. There can be other bids for other solutions if some other participant thinks that some other solution is right. The bidding can be encouraged by the auctioneer and the highest bidder will have to pay the money and if his bidding object coincides with the correct answer, he would be given twice his money back. Concepts of correct revenue models will be brought out in this manner. Session 3: Integrated Energy Planning Objective: This module will enable participants to see the value of integrated energy planning. Medium: Problem solving Activity: All groups would be given the same problem to solve. Then groups would be divided into technicians, social engineers, administrators and other experts. Each team will be given expert clues to the problem pertaining to their core area of competency which they will need to discuss and develop into better solutions. Then the second round begins. During the second round, participants are reorganized into mixed teams with each member representing a different group and asked to synthesize their earlier ideas together. Each new group will present their findings to the rest of the group and the facilitator could conclude with final touches and with closing statements on importance of integrated energy planning which would have anyway happened with integration of so many thoughts during this activity. Session 4: Closing De-briefing will be done by the facilitator with a presentation of key concepts that need filling in. The session will then end with a closing activity with the Sustainability Pledge, holding a human-powered LED lamp that gets manufactured by some deserving SHG.
Annexe 10: A sample script for role play

The City of Sarao, is home to seven million residents. Some twenty years ago it had around a million. It was a typical retirement town with a geographical spread that had increased by five times more 136

than what it used to be two decade back. People could travel then from one end to the other in less than forty minutes. A relaxed lifestyle and a comfortable climate prevailed making the city into a centre for administrative and education headquarters of the region. However, everything changed with the rapid globalization drive of subsequent local governments to promote more economic growth. The town changed into a fast-paced services headquarters for global fortune 1000 companies. People migrated from different parts of the country into the city rapidly. As residential and commercial buildinginfrastructure needs increased dramatically, over a million semiskilled and unskilled labourers moved in and set camp in various unauthorized places. Slums developed in unabated manner. Before the administrators realized, roads and transportation suffered, most sagging under relentless demand for better services. Some attempts were made to build flyovers and underpasses. The attempts always lacked vision and coordinated efforts from various departments. In order to permanently solve the traffic problem, the local administrators came up with a massive plan to create an underground subway system with multiple lane roads and mass rapid transit system in the form Metro railway lines. The citizens were furious. They organized themselves and brought the city to a stand still. Everyone blamed everyone else. The head of state wanted to nail the problem down. He needed to find the root cause of the problem. He constituted an inquiry commission headed by a former judge to talk to various warring parties and submit a report that would contain a) the root cause of the problem faced by the city, b) the possible solution for moving forward. The head of the inquiry commission selected three others to form a team. (At this juncture, the facilitator could invite eight volunteers from the participants.)
Players:
One could be the retired judge to head the commission. Three others could be commission members. Four others could be a representative of shopkeepers, the head of road department, a representative of services industry and the city commissioner. The four member commission to invite each of the four city representatives to come forward and present their case on two dimensions; a) the root cause of the citys problems, b) the possible solution for the same, whether the subway solution will work or not. Each representative will vent their feelings and also state the facts as they know them. 1) Representative of shopkeepers a. He could blame the road department for the chaos. i. He could say that the road department always created 137

chaos by planning badly and that all construction activity invariably disrupted their livelihood. ii. He could elaborate on how many shopkeepers have lost a great deal due to imbalances in compensation and other issues. b. He could, as a representative of others, oppose the idea of the subway i. Since that would disrupt their business during the construction phase of the subway. ii. He could also state that people would stop using main roads where most of their shops were located. iii. He could suggest that an alternative of mass rapid systems from /to their roads could prove more useful. 2) Road Department Head a. He could blame other department: i. Like the public works, electricity and telephone department and also the lack of funds from the government for the chaos. ii. He could argue that he could not implement his plans because other departments always disrupted road work. Drainage often got redone, alternative cabling get laid, roads got dug up for newer fibre optic communication cabling and roads could not be widened sometimes due to unauthorized and illegal occupancy by commercial vendors/shopkeepers and slum dwellers. b. Lack of funds from government meant that road work always got delayed beyond plans. It was up to the urban planning department and not his department to think of flyovers and underpasses. c. He could state the solution for the crisis was to widen the existing roads quickly, getting uninterrupted funds from the government to do so. 3) Services Industry representative. (This participant would be a representative of mostly car owners belonging to richer segment of citizens a pampered lot. They love uninterrupted access to roads. They are business leaders. Forty per cent of the city traffic is due to private cars. Due to global centric economic initiatives, every middle and senior level employee has started to own at least two cars in the city.) a. He could blame: i. The city commissioners for the crisis. ii. He could say that the association met him several times and gave a number of petitions repeatedly for keeping commercial vehicles, motor-cyclists, and cyclists out of roads during peak hours. iii. He could complain that city leaders never saw the rationale and never agreed to the proposals. iv. The car owners association was willing to restrict their movement and even was willing to be taxed higher if they used their cars during peak hours. 138

v. He argued that the city has enjoyed huge economic benefit due to the segment that he represented. They are the people, he could argue, who contributed significantly to the citys improvement. He could give statistics showing how people have become prosperous and happy. He could show how many families could get employment at various levels of the society due to the growth of services industry. He could advocate a parallel exercise of making four new roads, comprising of an inner ring road, an outer ring road, a North-South-Central link and an EastWest-Central link roads. The belief was that these four new roads which would cost only half that of the subway could equally ease traffic.
vi.
b.
4) City Commissioner a. He could refuse to take the blame on himself. i. He could argue that the industry representatives are greedy and selfish; that they always wanted to enjoy the roads for themselves; that they refused any proposal put up by him to restrict peak hour traffic. ii. He could show several proposals by him to ease traffic congestion; a massive plan to introduce mass bus transportation which was opposed by taxi and autorickshaw unions, an elevated mass rail system that met opposition from environmentalists to name a few. iii. He could say that his hands are tied. No matter which way he looked at things, he always met opposition. In spite of this he showed how the citys road traffic conditions are only seventh worst in the country. b. As all attempts have failed, he could say that the solution at the present moment, according to him, based on advice of experts from developed countries, is to go for the subway plan of his. He showed how the city traffic is going to grow with 300 private cars being added mostly being bought by the services industry every day going forward. He showed that the citys system will come to a grinding halt in five years time if the subway system is stalled now. The only way to go ahead is to accommodate any number of growing vehicular movement. 5) Citys Automobile Registration Authority: a. He could state: i. That there is an unrestricted introduction of vehicles into the city. ii. That he is unable to control anything as the policies are made by the city commissioner and the political powers. 139

iii. That politicians and commissioners are afraid of making any policy change as they fear loss of power and vote bank in the cities. That there was no corruption in his office, while he cannot say the same of other offices. That he was willing to share records of how many old and unfit vehicles have been forced to retire if his interests are taken care of.
iv. v.
b.
He could state i. Corruption is the root motivation for the new subway scheme. ii. Subway will never happen even if it is approved in principle because of corruption that is prevalent in the commissioners office. iii. Plenty of public money will be wasted. iv. Subway system must be stopped. v. Automobile Registration Authority must be given autonomous powers to control registration of new vehicles. vi. Introduce new vehicle registration license scheme. Allow only 5% increase in new vehicle registration in the city. His departments proposal pending with city commissioner for review/approval for five years. Nothing has been heard.
6) Minister of Road Transport and Urban Infrastructure a) He could state that: i. The government has introduced many new buses. ii. Bus fare has been kept under control to make it affordable for the masses. iii. Bus transport workers have been paid handsomely. iv. Car pooling lanes have been introduced in major roads like it has been spotted in a popular South-East Asian city. v. Road dividers, flyovers have been erected with the most modern technologies. vi. Traffic signal has been modernized with digital system and timers on par with a developed country. vii. Several thousand kms of road have been relaid and maintained using latest equipments imported from developed countries. viii. A pilot project to enable traffic police has been empowered with latest technology to catch offenders. ix. Citizen police movement has been inaugurated. Curriculum for school children includes importance of infrastructure and urban development. x. Private roads have been put under experimentation in the outer periphery of the city with stipulated toll. xi. Many roads have been made into one-ways to restrict traffic in one direction. 140

xii. xiii. xiv. Air-conditioned buses were introduced but no one is using the same. People still prefer their private cars. Parking has been restricted and regulated in many congested areas. Public grievance cell is functioning well. There is transparency in closing the complaints which can be tracked through a website. Government alone cannot achieve success. People must cooperate. They must come forward and participate. They must not violently respond to every change and restriction. Leaders work only for the welfare of the people. They need to be trusted.
xv.
b)
He could state: i. We have tried to emulate every policy from prosperous countries across the world that pertains to a citys infrastructure problems. Nothing seems to solve the citys problems. ii. The only way forward is the subway system. It can cover any amount of traffic growth. iii. The project report has been prepared by a high level committee headed by the city commissioner and urban planning advisors of the government. They have visited many countries and studied various solutions to arrive at this solution. There is no other solution possible. All details are in the study report. iv. The report has been extensively debated at the commissioners office, too.
7) Opposition leader in the City Commissioners office: c) i. He could state that: The government imported poor quality buses. About 60 per cent of the buses completely stopped plying after two years. It has cost the city a lot of money to maintain these buses. Spares are not easily available for these buses as the company in foreign lands has folded up its operations and wants huge amounts to supply the spares. The remaining buses are maintained in poor condition. People are not interested in using these junk buses. There is corruption amongst bus transport administrators. Our study reveals that over 50 per cent of passengers dont buy legal tickets to use buses. Buses do not ply on time. The government has tried to privatize the bus system but the transport unions have opposed it. Car pooling lanes will not work in our city. Most people do not care. Even non-car pooling vehicles use these lanes. Road dividers and flyovers cannot solve the problem. 141
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.

Flyovers have been badly constructed and with a poor traffic flow pattern. Every now and then the traffic direction gets changed in the flyovers because they are badly designed. Besides, they are an eye sore. Half of the traffic signals do not work properly. Traffic police is unable to control traffic. They switch off these signals and manually control the traffic. Reality is that no amount of manual system can control peak traffic conditions. Road contracts are given to people who are close to the people in power. Corruption is high. Roads are never laid in good condition. No one believes in citizen movement to control traffic. It is an eye wash. Toll in private roads are exorbitantly high. It is against the interests of common man. Even if air conditioning buses are introduced no one will use it if they dont ply on time. Over 50 per cent of the users are car owners in the city. They need good public parking lots. An average car travels over sixty km a day. Its a puzzle to wonder why industry partnership can not promote common parking lots and public-private partner buses to ply from these parking locations to offices and back. It is a nightmare to find a parking lot in the city at any time except at midnight. Fact remains that in spite of all the claims by the minister and the commissioner the infrastructure problems of the city has gotten from bad to worse over time. We are at least ten years behind in planning. For instance, when we need eight lane roads, we plan for four lane roads. Planning and implementation happens without any scientific basis. Years of misrule has reduced the city into a ghost town. There is no joy in living in the city. It has lost its charm and sheen. No one wants to live in this city anymore.
vi.
vii.
viii. ix. x.
xi. xii.
xiii.
d)
He could state: i. Subway system is another money-making ploy. It will not work. It is also not going to solve the problems of the city. ii. We must admit that we do not really know where the problem starts and where it ends and who is responsible for what. iii. City managers implementation must be effective. What can guide this?
How the role play should proceed: The commission will listen patiently. They could ask questions and clarify points. They should not make any representative feel bad at 142

any time. They should not find faults in their points. They should only merely seek clarification. They should take notes. They could ask for evidences and further elaboration of the points as necessary. Only one representative should be allowed to speak at a time. No other representative should interrupt the proceedings of the hearing at any point of time. After one round of hearing the commission will ask the representatives to perform another round of hearing. At this point each representative can further strengthen his or her points without disrupting proceedings. They must be told to conduct themselves professionally. The commission will also listen patiently without finger-pointing or blaming anyone. How the role play should end: The commission will ask for a break of five minutes from the participants other than the committee members. The four member team will now discuss aloud about the matter on hand. They will have to quickly come to a consensus on a) what is the root cause of the citys problems and b) their verdict on the subway system. Their verdict should be supported by what they have heard alone. No assumptions or bias should creep in. The head of the commission then shall announce their decision and also explain the logic and rationale behind their decision. Optional closure: The judges verdict can be put up for voting to the training audience. Each of them will be given a chit paper on whether they agree to the commissions report or not (only yes or no vote). The votes will be collected and counted. The results will be announced. Then a few yes voters and a few no voters can be asked to stand up and present the logic behind their vote with the training audience.
Annexe 11: Further Reading

1. Natural capitalism: The book provides concrete suggestions and examples that can bring the message home to leaders, in the areas of energy, transportation, house construction, materials development, design, and more. 2. Policy Instruments for Resource Efficiency: Towards sustainable consumption and production: German Technical Cooperation (GTZ), the UNEP/Wuppertal Institute Collaborating Centre on Sustainable Consumption and Production (CSCP) and the Wuppertal Institute, with support from the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ), aims to provide a quick, hands-on overview of selected SCP policy instruments for boosting resource efficiency. It builds on the recent discussions and practical experience with these instruments, both 143

from developed and developing countries. 3. Urban Energy Use and Greenhouse Gas Emissions In Asian Mega-Cities Policies For Sustainable Future: This report integrates all major outcomes and to provide a holistic overview of the energy analyses of four citiesTokyo, Shangai, Seoul and Beijing. It also provides policy trends, barriers and opportunities 4. Integrating carbon management into development strategies of citiesestablishing a network of case studies of urbanisation in the Asia-Pacific: Final report for APN project 2004-07-CMYLasco: The report concludes that the urbanization process should be central to efforts at integrating carbon management into regional development strategies. It also highlights the need for more experimental and radical interventions through fostering new urban forms and functions. 5. Trends in Sustainable Building: Arup Associates: A report on integrated resource management used in the design of ecocity, Dongtan 6. Liveable Cities: The Benefits of Urban Environmental Planning: A Cities Alliance Study on Good Practices and Useful Tools. The report further discusses how environmental management can boost the budgets of cities, prove a strong marketing tool for attracting investors and contribute to public health and poverty eradication. The report also underscores how any successful sustainable urban strategy must involve the participation and support of local groups, communities and individual citizens if it is to blossom and flourish. It is packed with many interesting examples of urban energy sustainability. 7. Energy Efficiency in Buildings in China: The German Development Institute (DIE): This report talks about policies, barriers and opportunities in the area of energy efficiency in buildings sector in China. 8. Diversification and localization of energy systems for sustainable development and energy security: Xianguo Li: The importance of diversification of energy systems to avoid pitfalls with single energy systems is brought out in this report. 9. Innovative Urban Transport Concepts: Innovative Experiences with NICHES draws on lessons for policy directions to take to bring about sustainable mobility within cities. 10. Assessment of policy instruments for reducing greenhouse gas emissions from buildings: Summary and Recommendations by UNEP and CEU: This provides an appraisal of the instruments available for improving energy efficiency in buildings in order to assist policy-makers in the decision process. 11. Energy Analysis for Sustainable Mega-Cities: Aumnad Phdungsilp: The study investigates and evaluates the energy models most commonly used for analyzing and simulating energy utilization. Its purpose is to provide a user-friendly tool suitable for decision-makers in developing an energy model for large cities. In addition, a Multi-Criteria Decision-Making (MCDM) process has been developed to assess whether or not the energy systems meet the sustainability criteria. 144

Integrating renewable energy into new developments: Toolkit for planners, developers and consultants: This Toolkit was meant to support planners, developers, consultants and other interested parties with planning policies in London which required renewable energy in new developments or major refurbishments. It is a good guide to see how renewable technologies are suitable. It gives an insight into how the cost-benefit analysis of installing renewables could be conducted apart from giving information on successful case studies and suggestions on how problems can be overcome. While the toolkit applies to projects in London, it can help policy makers form other cities also to understand how a similar one could be developed for their cities. 13. Which Energy? : ISIS: 2006 Institute of Science in Society Energy Report: Mae-Wan Ho, Peter Bunyard, Peter Saunders, Elizabeth Bravo, Rhea Gala: In asking Which Energy? the Institute of Science in Society is challenging us to think radically and holistically about which is the right energy system to use, where, how and how much. 14. Energy and the Challenge of Sustainability: World Energy Assessment: This assessment includes regional dialogues, exchanges among developing countries and between developing and industrialised countries, and consultations with a wide range of stakeholders, including the private sector. It discusses how we can most effectively use energy as a tool for sustainable development. Its analysis shows that we need to do more to promote energy efficiency and renewables, and to encourage advanced technologies that offer alternatives for clean and safe energy supply and use. 15. Energy as an Instrument for Socio-Economic Development: Jos Goldemberg and Thomas B. Johansson: This paper addresses energy conservation measures that result in the use of less energy to provide the same energy service, or to achieve more energy services for the same energy. 16. Consultative Guidelines for Sustainable Urban Development Co-Operation: Towards Sustainable Urban Development: A Strategic Approach: This presents guidelines for the European Unions Sustainable Urban development co-operation. They give emphasis to the need for responsive, participatory and transparent urban governance and effective and efficient urban management. The Guidelines also provide practical advice to practitioners involved in the process of urban development, within Third World countries. 17. Cities without Slums: Cities Alliance 2002 annual report: The experiences captured in this report demonstrate the value of cities taking the lead and forging partnerships with civil society, the private sector, and the poor urban residents themselves, in order to eliminate poverty. These partnerships work to challenge the systematic exclusion of the urban poor, develop new livelihood opportunities, improve services, and empower poor people to live as full citizens. 18. Energy and Material Flow through The Urban Ecosystem: 145 12.

Ethan H. Decker, Scott Elliott, Felisa A. Smith, Donald R. Blake, and F. Sherwood Rowland: This paper reviews the available data and models on energy and material flows through the worlds 25 largest cities. Throughput is categorized as stored, transformed, or passive for the major flow modes. Relevant models of urban energy and material flows, demography, and atmospheric chemistry are discussed. 19. Managing Asian Cities: Chapter 3: The Broad Environmental Footprint of Asian Cities: Discusses the environmental footprint of Asian cities, through a study of emissions from various sectors. A number of successful case studies give good insight into possible ways of reducing environmental footprint in Asia. 20. Ecological Footprints: A guide fro local authorities: WWF: This report indicates that human ecological pressure on the earth has increased by over 50%, exceeding the biospheres regeneration rate. It tries to educate local authorities to use ecological footprint as a tool to bring about unsustainable development 21. Urban Energy Transition: From fossil fuels to renewable power: edited by Peter Droege: This book discusses working concepts, technological directions and country-specific organizational perspectivesaspects that promise to yield a better systems-based understanding of policy frameworks and action agendas. The book features inputs on technology, carbon emissions methods, community engagement strategies and various urban renewable energy and efficiency implementation techniques. The book also focuses on urban aspects of efficiency gains in embodied, supplied and end-use energy.
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