Industrial and Urban Society Rural - Urban continuum

Some sociologists have used the concept of rural-urban continuum to stress the idea that there are no sharp breaking points to be found in the degree or quantity of rural urban differences. Robert Redfield has given the concept of rural urban continuum on the basis of his study of Mexican peasants of Tepoztlain.The rapid process of urbanization through the establishment of industries, urban traits and facilities have decreased the differences between villages and cities. There are some sociologists whose treat rural-urban as dichotomous categories have differentiated the two at various levels including occupational differences, environmental differences, differences in the sizes of communities, differences in the density of population, differences in social mobility and direction of migration, differences in social stratification and in the systems of social interaction. A third view regarding rural and urban communities has been given by Pocock who believe that both village and city are elements of the same civilization and hence neither rural urban dichotomy, nor continuum is meaningful. M.S.A. Rao points out in the Indian context that although both village and town formed part of the same civilization characterized by institution of kinship and caste system in pre-British India, there were certain specific institutional forms and organizational ways distinguishing social and cultural life in towns form that in village. Thus, according to Rao, Rural Urban continuum makes more sense Ghurye believes that urbanization is migration of people from village to city and the impact it has on the migrants and their families. Maclver remarks that though the communities are normally divided into rural and urban the line of demarcation is not always clear between these two types of communities. There is no sharp demarcation to tell where the city ends and country begins. Every village possesses some elements of the city and every city carries some features of the village. R.K Mukherjee prefers the continuum model by talking of the degree of urbanization as a useful conceptual tool for understanding rural-urban relations. P.A Sorokin and Zimmerman in 'Principles of Rural-Urban sociology have stated that the factors distinguishing rural from urban communities include occupation, size and density of population as well as mobility, differentiation and stratification.

Urban sociological theories

y

y y

The classical theories of urban sociology are divided from the works of European sociologists like KarlMarx, Tonnies, George Simmel, Max Weber and those of American namely Park Burgess, Lowis Wirth and Redfield. The reflections of the earlier sociologists throw light on the anti-urban feelings. The great city, metropolis a paradigm of an inhuman, debasing social environment for Tonnies.Simmel felt that the money economy of the cities destroyed the social life. Weber and Wirth explained how mass urbanization nullified opportunities or political participation. Charles Booth and Rowntree wrote the sociography of life in the cities. Marx and Engels condemned the consequences of urbanization under capitalism. They viewed the concentration and misery of the mass of workers in the new urban agglomerations as a necessary stage in the creation of a revolutionary force. For them pauperization and material degradation was one aspect of urbanization but equally important was the destruction of the social nexus of the traditional community and its

replacement by the utilitarian world of the city. Both for theory and practice communism depended on urbanism.
y Mumford in his book 'The city in history' sees cities as enlarging all dimensions of life as the scattered as the scattered activities of society are brought together so releasing the energies of mankind in a tremendous explosion of creativity. The city has augmented capabilities for participation and widened the basis of personal experience. y In the writings of Neo-Marxists like Mills, Marcuse, Fromm there is a consensus that conditions of capitalist urbanization are mutilative of the personality, inhibitive of community formation, destructive of social engagement or involvement and conducive to apathy, alienation and anomie. Class consciousness is inhibited and diverted in mass movements, unreason and not reason typifies social response. y Sociologists from Tonnies to Wirth developed counter-theory to Marxism for the explication of social change led to acceptance of a fundamental cleavage between rural and urban, tradition and modernism which was in sharp opposition to any variant on Marxist theories of developement.The urban is accepted as a frame of reference and the urban society as a specific mode of social organization becomes the object of scientific study. y Tonnies in his book Community and Society explained the impact of the market economy on traditional forms of social association; the implications of urbanization and the development of the state for the conduct of social life and the mechanisms of social solidarity in an individualized society. The distinction he draws between the two forms of human association, gemeniscaft and gesellschaft has become the basis for a succession of typologies of which the best known are the pattern variables formulated by Parsons and folk-urban typology drawn by Redfield and Wirth. y George Simmel presents social interaction in terms of abstract categories. The study of society could only proceed by means of logical analysis of the forms of association. The forms are cognitive categories.Simmel belonged to the neo-Kantian tradition which frankly denies the possibility of the study of the natural or the social world without selection and ordering by the observer.Simmel was trying to expound on three themes; first the consequences of a money economy for social relationships. Second the significance of numbers for social life and lastly the scope for the maintenance of independence and individuality against the sovereign powers of society. y Max Weber in his 'The City' has defined the city on the basis of political and administrative conception. To constitute a full urban community a settlement must display a relative predominance of trade- commercial relations with the settlement as a whole displaying the following features:

y y y y y

fortification market a court of its own and at least partially autonomous law a related form of association partial autonomy and voting rights.

Weber rejects cities governed by religious groups or where the authority is enforced on personal rather than universalistic basis. He recounts a process in which the development of the rational-legal institutions that characterize the modern city enabled the individual to be free from the traditional groups and therefore develop his individuality. He emphasizes the closure, autonomy and separateness of the urban community and stressed that the historical peculiarities of the medieval city were due to the location of the city with in the total medieval political and social organization.

Urban growth and urbanization

Urbanization is the movement of population from rural to urban areas and the resulting increasing proportion of a population that resides in urban rather than rural places. It is derived from the Latin 'Urbs' a term used by the Romans to a city. Urban sociology is the sociology of urban living; of people in groups and social relationship in urban social circumstances and situation. Thompson Warren has defined it as the movement of people from communities concerned chiefly or solely with agriculture to other communities generally larger whose activities are primarily centered in government, trade, manufacture or allied interests. Urbanization is a two-way process because it involves not only movement from village to cities and change from agricultural occupation to business, trade, service and profession but it also involves change in the migrants attitudes, beliefs, values and behavior patterns. The process of urbanization is rapid all over the world. The facilities like education, healthcare system, employment avenues, civic facilities and social welfare are reasons attracting people to urban areas. The census of India defines some criteria for urbanization. These are:

Population is more than 5000

y y y y

The density is over 400 persons per sq.km 75% of the male population engages in non-agricultural occupations. Cities are urban areas with population more than one lakh. Metropolises are cities with population of more than one million.

Urbanism
Urbanism is a way of life. It reflects an organization of society in terms of a complex division of labour, high levels of technology, high mobility, interdependence of its members in fulfilling economic functions and impersonality in social relations. Louis Wirth has given four characteristics of urbanism

y y

Transiency: An urban inhabitant's relation with others last only for a short time; he tends to forget his old acquaintances and develop relations with new people. Since he is not much attached to his neighbors members of the social groups, he does not mind leaving them. Superficiality: An urban person has the limited number of persons with whom he interacts and his relations with them are impersonal and formal. People meet each other in highly segmental roles. They are dependent on more people for the satisfaction of their life needs. Anonymity: Urbanities do not know each other intimately. Personal mutual acquaintance between the inhabitants which ordinarily is found in a neighborhood is lacking. Individualism: People give more importance to their own vested interests.

Town
The town is intermediate between rural and urban communities. It is too large for all inhabitants to be acquainted with one another, yet small enough for informal relationships to predominate. Social behavior more closely resembles the rural than the metropolitan city pattern. Towns are places with population of 5,000 and more. Three conditions of a place being classified as a town are:

y y y

The population is more than 5,000. The density is not less than 400 sq.km. Not less than 75% of the adult male population is engaged in non -agricultural activities.

City
Cities become possible when an agricultural surplus develops together with improved means of transportation and tend to be located at breaks in transportation. The most significant current developments in city structure are the metropolitan area including the suburb which accounts for current population growth. The city pulls people from various corners towards its nucleus. The rural people faced with various economic problems are attracted by the city and start moving towards the cities. The city provides ample opportunities for personal advancement. It is the centre of brisk economic, commercial, artistic, literary, political, educational, technological, scientific and other activities. Cities are not only the controlling centers of their societies but also the source of innovation and change. They act as the source of new ideas for production, the pace -setters for consumption, guardians of culture and conservers of order in society. Consensus and continuity in a society are maintained from the city centres.Urban culture has become the legitimation for control.

Walter Christaller explained the location of urban cities in terms of their functions as service centres.The basic assumption was that a given rural area supports an urban centre which in turn serves the surrounding countryside. There are smaller towns for smaller areas and bigger cities for larger regions. This concept permitted Christaller to build up an integrated system of cities according to their size. His views conceiving a city as a central place within a rural area was elaborated by Edward L.Ullman with considerable modifications. He admits the vulnerability of the scheme for larger places. In highly industrialized areas the central place schemes is generally distorted by industrial concentration in response to resources and transportation that it may be said to have little significance as an explanation for urban location and distribution. Hyot in his sector theory talked about the growth of cities taking place in sectors and these sectors extend from the centre to periphery. The concentric zone theory given by Park and Burgess suggested that modern cities consisted of a series of concentric zones. There are five such zones

y y y y y

Central business district Zone in transition Zone of working population Residential zone Commuter's zone

Gans and Lewis through compositional theory hold that the composition of a city's population differs from that of a small town in terms of factors such as class, education, ethnicity and marital status. Multiple Nuclie theory given by Harris and Ullman discuss that there is not one centre but several centers for the city. Each of the centers tend to specialize in a particular kind of activity-retailing, wholesaling, finance, recreation, education,government.Several centers may have existed from the beginning of the city or many have developed later in a division from one centre. According to Castells to understand cities and urbanism one has to understand the process by which spatial forms are created and transformed. The architecture of cities expresses the struggles and conflicts between different groups in society. City is not only a distinct location but also as an integral part of processes of collective consumption.

Features of urban society

i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix. The urban society is heterogeneous known for its diversity and complexity. It is dominated by secondary relations. Formal means of social control such as law, legislation, police, and court are needed in addition to the informal means for regulating the behavior of the people. The urban society is mobile and open. It provides more chances for social mobility. The status is achieved than ascribed. Occupations are more specialized. There is widespread division of labor and specialization opportunities for pursuing occupations are numerous. Family is said to be unstable. More than the family individual is given importance. Joint families are comparatively less in number. People are more class -conscious and progressive .They welcome changes. They are exposed to the modern developments in the fields of science and technology. Urban community is a complex multigroup society. The urban community replaced consensus by dissensus.The social organization is atomistic and illdefined.It is characterized by disorganization, mental illness and anomie.

x.

Mass education is widespread in the city increasing democratization of the organizations and institutions demand formal education.

Features of industrial city

y

y y y y

y y y y y

A large sprawling open city housing a large percent of the population of the society. Relatively low segregation; few outward symbols, segregation based on race. Good transportation and communication. A manufacturing, finance and coordinating centre of an industrial society. A fluid class structure with an elite of businessmen, professionals and scientists. A large middle class with technologically related jobs. Wealth by salaries, fees, investment.High status of business activity. Unionization at a national level. Specialization of production and marketing .Large service sector, fixed price. Time important and regular work schedule. Standardization of process and quality. Formal public opinion with a bureaucracy based on technical criteria. A weak religious institution separate from other institutions dominated by the middle class. Standardization of religious experience marked by the disappearance of magic. Technical and secular education for the masses.

Points to Remember
y y y y y y y y y y y y y y y y

Talcott Parsons universalistic -achievement pattern variable is central to the industrial society. Touraine described the Post Industrial Society as technocratic society. Maclver emphasized that urban life has fostered the individualization of women. Spengler has described cities as sinks of civilization. E.E Muntz has classified cities on the basis of their principal activities. Ullman has defined the city as a relatively large, dense and permanent settlement of socially heterogeneous individuals. Redfield has remarked that urban groups have a reputation for namelessness. Christaller is associated with the central place theory. Burgess put forward the concentric zone hypothesis on a diagrammatic study of Chicago. The town encourages associative individualism. Commuter's zone is also called bedroom community. Hyat has emphasized the importance of transportation routes in the expansion of a city. The compositional theory is based on rural-urban differences. The culture of poverty refers to slums. Migrants from rural to urban areas adjust more smoothly to city life it they maintain kinship ties. Oscar Lewis has given the concept of culture of poverty.

y y y y y y y

Wirth has remarked that urbanism is a way of life whereas urbanization is a process. Maclver says that cities grow wherever a society or a group within it gains control over resources greater than are necessary for the mere sustenance of life. Robert Redfield has given four characteristics of little community. These aredistinctiveness, smallness, homogeneity and self-sufficiency. Ravenstein has developed the theory of step-migration. Marx perceived the petty bourgeois to be a transitional class. Weber believed greater bureaucratization would lead to greater alienation. Singer and Marriot hold the social structure of civilization to operate at the levels of peasants and industrialists.

Important Terms
y y y y y y y

First urban revolution: The historical emergence of cities and urbanism. Urbanism: The pattern of behaviour, relationships and modes of thought characteristic of urban life. Sociological city: A relatively large dense permanent settlement of socially heterogeneous persons. Geographic city: The continuously built-up area in and around the legal city. Legal city: A municipal corporation occupying a defined geographical area subject to a legal control of the state. Second urban revolution: The historical transformation of a city accomplished by the industrial revolution which turned the city into an industrial centre. Metropolis: The legal city together with the built up area surrounding it.

y y y y y y y y y y

Third urban revolution: The urbanization of the entire world population but sometimes specifically used to include the special form of city emerging in the developing nations and the growth of megalopolitan forms of super cities. Suburbanization: The growth of a ring of relatively small communities around the central city and the movement of urban population to them. Contemporarily associated with urban sprawl and deterioration of the central city. Suburb: A community on the urban fringe. These are of two types- residential and satellite Ghetto: An urban ethnic or racial community often confused with slum. A ghetto may also be a slum. Slum: An urban residential area characterized by over crowding and sub-standard way of living. Urban concentration: It is the tendency of people and activities to cluster together. Urban decentralization: When people go away from the centre of the city. Metropolitan Fringe- It is on the outskirts of many industrial cities which are meant for commuter housing. Distinctive life-styles prevail between middle class commuters and old working class. Primate city: An urban form now emerging in developing nations where one city dominates the entire society. Gentrification: Renovation of decaying urban areas for occupancy by middle or upper class residents.

Urban Ecological Processes

It means whereby spatial distribution of people and activities change. They include:

y y y y y y

Centralization clustering of economic and service functions. Concentration tendency of people and activities to cluster together. Decentralization flight of people and activities from the centre of the city. Invasion entrance of new kind of people or activity into an area. Segregation concentration of a certain type of people or activities within a particular area. Succession completed replacement of one kind of people or activity by another.

Impact of Automation on Society

y y y y y y y y

It speeds up the developmental processes of the society. It increases production. Brings further technological changes like information technology. Extreme industrialization Replacement of human labor with machines. Increase in profit margins Distance reduction through technological advancements in the field of communication network. Makes life dependent on latest gizmos and equipments

Disadvantages
y y y y y y

Norms and values take backseat. Turns human beings into alienated beings. Social distance between the people within a society and diminishing impact on the primary relations. Increase in problem of unemployment. Increasing gap between rich and poor will lead to social inequalities. Will affect the relations of people within the society.

Environment
When physical, chemical and biological projects of the different components of environment: air, water, soil, noise change to the detriment of living of humans it may be said that environment has been affected. Many developing countries are placing more and more reliance on industrialization. It is not only a mechanical but also a social process. Therefore it affects the environment physically as well as socio-culturally. All aspects of pollution are directly or indirectly related to human health and well being. The excessive growth and rush of people from villages to urban areas resulting in over crowding of cities. Rapid urbanization and industrialization have led to an increase in environmental pollutant load that poses serious public health problem. It also affects the socio-cultural environment with the close ties of groups coming under pressure. Traditional ties are replaced with new work based ones. Religion becomes secular. Thus industrialization affects the social fabric making the society more materialistic.

Books and their Writers

y y y y y y y y y y y y y y y y

Principles of Rural and Urban sociology- Sorokin & Zimmerman The city in history- Lewis Mumford Community and Society- Tonnies Metropolis and Mental life- George Simmel The city- Max Weber The Folk culture of Yucatan- Robert Redfield Urbanism as a way of life- Louis Wirth The social life of modern community- Kingsley Davis Cities and civilization- G.S Ghurye Formal organization- A comparative approach-Peter Blau Cities in Evolution- Patric Geddes Towards rational society- Habermas Indian village- S.C Dube Village India - Mackim Marriot Urban sociology in India- M.S.A Rao The social life of a modern community - Kingsley Davis

Migration
The movement of people from one place to the other to stay on for a considerable period of time for various reasons is known as migration. It is one of the three components of the population change the other two being mortality and fertility. Migration is associated with the socio-economic development of the country. In India one of the side-effects of unprecedented population growth is industrialization and economic development which helped in a rapid increase in internal migratory movements.M.S.A Rao has written about different types of migration. Internal migration: The movement of people from one region to another within the country. In internal migration there are different forms of migration such as " Rural-to-rural " Urban-to-urban migration " Rural to urban migration " Urban to rural migration. International migration: Migration from one country to another country. Emigration: It refers to the movement out of the particular country. Immigration: It refers to the movement into a particular country. Out migration: It is the movement out of a particular territory within a country. In migration: It is the movement into a particular region within a country. Migration Stream: It refers to the total number of moves made during a given migration interval which have a common area of origin and common area of destination. Gross and Net migration: It is the total number of arrivals of migrants and departures of emigrants is known as gross migration.Net migration is the difference between the total number of persons who arrive and the total number of persons who leave.

Population Growth
y

According to 2001 final census India's total population has crossed 1,027,015,247 out of

which 531,277,078 are males and females are 495,738,169.

y

Of this number, 157,863,145 are children up to the age of six years out of which 81,911,041 are males and 75,952,104 are females. India's landscape is just 2.4% of the total world area whereas its population is nearly 16.7% of the world population. The population of India which at the turn of the 20th century was around 238.4 million increased to reach 1,027million at the dawn of the 21st century. As per census 2001 the sex-ratio has gone up from 927 in 1991 to 933 in 2001.

y The literacy rate increased from 52.21% to 65.38%.For males it has increased to 75.85% and for females 54.16%. The gap in male-female literacy rates has decreased from 24.84% points to 21.70% points in 2001. y The density of population has increased in all states and UTs between 1991 and 2001.Population density increased from 274 in 1991 to 324 persons per sq.km in 2001. West Bengal is the most densely populated state 904 followed by Bihar 880 and Kerala 819. y The percentage of urban population of total population has increased from 25.7% in 1991 to 27.8% in 2001. y The number of cities having a population of more than one million increased from 23 in 1991 to 35 in 2001.Population -wise UP is at the top followed by Maharashtra, Bihar and West-Bengal and so on. y The crude death rate in India has declined from 25.1 in 1951 to 9.8 in 1991 and to 8.7 in 1999 while the crude birth rate declined from 40.8 in 1951 to 29.5 in 1991 and to 26.1 in 1999.The child mortality rate stands at 23.9 (0-4 years per 1000 children). y The decadal growth rate in 1991-2001 was lowest in Kerala (9.42%) and highest in Nagaland (64.41%). The sexratio declined in the age-group 0-6 years from 945 to 927.Kerala has the highest (1058) sex-ratio while Haryana has the lowest (861). y The life expectancy for males is 62 years and for females it is 63 years.

Components of Population growth

The age and sex composition of a population affects its social life in many ways. Changes in age composition are due mainly to changes in birthrates and are presently increasing the proportion of aged and reducing the proportion of children in many countries. Migration is affected by the push given to people by unsatisfactory conditions at home by the pull of attractive opportunities elsewhere and by the channels or means through which they are able to migrate. Sex Composition: The small family norm together with a desire for a male child has further distorted a sex ratio against the girl-child. The sex ratio has steadily declined: From 972 (for every 1000 boys) in 1901 to 927 in 1991. The latest census shows a slight overall improvement in the sex ratio to 933. Unfortunately, this is offset by a worsening of the sex ratio of children up to the age of six. The sex ratio for children up to the age of six has gone down from 962 girls per 1000 boys in 1981, to 945 in 1991, to 927 in 2001. The sharpest declines in sex ratio for the child population are reported from Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat, Uttaranchal, Maharashtra and Chandigarh, where abortions of female fetuses are known to be widely practised. Population Density: Defined as the number of persons per sq km the population density of India in 2001 was 324

per sq km.West Bengal is still the most thickly populated state with a population density of 903 in 2001.Bihar (880) is now the second highest densely populated state pushing Kerala to the third place. Age Composition: The current age distribution of Indian population is little more than 31.7 per cent are under the age of 15 years (male 173,869,856; female 164,003,915); 63.5per cent are between 15 and 64(male 349,785,804; female 326,289,402), and 4.8 per cent are over the age of 60(male 25,885,725; female 25,235,905). The Indian Planning Commission's Technical Group on Population Projections predicted in the National Population Policy (2000) that India's population would be 1.012 billion in March 2001, going up to 1.179 billion and 1.264 billion in March 2011 and 2016 respectively. Morality: According to 2001 census Seventy-two out of every 1,000 babies born die before their first birthday. Seven per cent (72/1,000) of newborn infants perish within a year of birth, because of low birth weight, pre-maturity, malnutrition, diarrhea diseases, acute respiratory infections and malnutrition. Compare this to the IMRs in Sri Lanka (18/1,000) and China (41/1,000 Moreover, in India, there are more female deaths (rural or urban areas) in the age group of 0-14 than elsewhere. Although the IMR has decreased from 146 per 1000 births in 1951 to 72 per 1000 births (1997) and the sex differentials are narrowing, there are wide inter-state differences. Measurements of mortality " Crude Death Rate " Birth Rate " Infant Mortality Rate Factors for the low death rate " Healthcare services " Vaccinations and control of epidemics " Reduction in the occurrence of famines and droughts

Theories of Demography
Malthus The essay on the principle of population an important work of Malthus is a landmark in the history of population studies. The theme of the Essay was mainly to argue that the tendency of the population to grow faster in relation to its means of subsistence has led to human misery and placed several obstacles in the path of human progress. In 1803, Malthus published the second edition of his essay, a much expanded and changed edition which can't really be called a re print of the 1797 essay, for in the new edition the emphasis was more on arguments against the poor laws than on country arguments against the opinions of Condorcet and Godwin. Neo- Maltusian theory Neo-Malthusians maintain that although the gloomy predictions of Malthus may have been pre-mature they are basically correct. According to Anti Malthusians' world's resources are adequate for a much larger population. Exploitation not over population is the basic cause of world hunger. Demographic Transition theory Two different interpretations have been given for this theory.One by Frank Notestein says that every country passes through three stages of population growth; 1. High birth rate and high death rate ii.High birth rate and low death rate (population explosion) iii.Low birth rate and low death rate. In western nations the desire for high standard of living led to the reductions in the birthrate .These nations are approaching a new equilibrium with both birthrates and death rates quite low and little population growth. This is explained by the theory of demographic transition -the theory that industrial and commercial development first cuts the death rate but creates a desire for smaller families and eventually cuts the birthrate. The other theory is given by C.P Blacker .There are five phrases in this theory. i.High stationary phase marked by high fertility and mortality rate. ii.Early expanding phase marked by high fertility and high but declining mortality. iii.Late Expanding phase with declining fertility but mortality declining more rapidly. iv.Low stationary phase with low fertility and equally low mortality. v. Declining phase with low mortality, low fertility and an excess of deaths over births.

Optimum population theory According to Canan the propounder of this theory population must grow upto certain desired level after which further growth is harmful. The two important principles of this theory are: 1. When there is an increase in population than the ratio between the total population and the working population remains almost constant. 2. When at a point of time the population of a country increases the natural resources capital and technical know how do not change with the result that after sometime the law of diminishing returns begins to operate. This law provides that for maximum production all the sources of production should be combined in that proper ratio than it shall not be possible to have maximum production.

Population Policy
A policy is a plan of action ,statement of aims and ideals especially one made by a government ,a political party ,a business company etc.Population policy is an effort to affect the size, structure and distribution or characteristics of population. In its broader range it includes efforts to regulate economic and social conditions which are likely to have demographic consequences. National Population Policy: The immediate objective of this new policy is to address the unmet needs of contraception, health infrastructure, health personnel and to provide integrated service delivery for basic reproductive and child health care. The medium term objective is to bring the total fertility rated to replacement level by 2010.The long term objective is to achieve a stable population by 2045.In pursuance of these objectives 14 National Socio- Demogragraphic goals are formulated to be achieved by 2010.The important goals are: 1. Making school education compulsory and to reduce the drop-outs. 2. Reduce infant-mortality rate to 30 per 1000 live births. 3. Reduce maternal mortality rate to below 100 per 100000 live births. 4. Promote delayed marriage. 5. Achieve 80% institutional deliveries. 6. Prevent and control communicable diseases. 7. Promote vigorously the small family norm to achieve replacement levels of Total Fertility Rate. The policy speaks about the formation of National Commission of Population under the chairmanship of the Prime Minister to monitor and implement population policy and to guide planning implementations. The policy also suggests some promotional and motivational measures to promote adoption of the small family norm. The main features of the policy are 1. Reward panchayats and Zila Parishads for promoting small family norms. 2. Incentives to adopt two child norms. 3. Couples below poverty line, having sterilization with not more than two living children will be eligible for health insurance plan. 4. Strengthening abortion facility scheme.

points to remember
Crude Birth rate: births per 1000 people. Sex ratio: It is the number of males per 100 females. Demographic transition: Idea that industrialization brings birthrates and death rates into balance.

Fertility: Actual rate of reproduction. Life expectancy: Average years of life expected at any given age. Optimum population: The size of population which will permit the highest standard of living for an area at a given level of technology. Fecundity: It refers to biological capacity for reproduction as distinct from actual reproduction which is called fertility.Ferility is always less than fecundity in all societies and varies considerably among different societies. The difference between fecundity and fertility is more pronounced among industrial societies as compared to preindustrial societies.

Reform Movements
It is generally believed that Christian Missionaries were one of the first to have created conditions of self-awareness against exploitation. Many of them started working with the lower castes and tribes and succeeded in converting large groups. By 1903 more than 5000 toddy tappars were converted to Christianity in the Madras Presidency. With the active support of the British Raj the missionaries were not only able to expand their evangelical, medical and welfare measures but were also successful in securing for their converts basic civil rights and employments in public services. The reform movements among the upper-caste/classes also created conditions of self-awareness among the deprived sections. The Brahmo Samaj and the Arya Samaj that emerged in the 19th centuries were concerned with two major programmes -the emancipation of women and the amelioration of the depressed classes. While the former concerned itself mainly with the upper classes and castes the latter related itself mainly to the problem of the untouchables. Under the leadership of Keshab Chandra Sen,the Brahmo Samaj organized education and welfare programmes for the untouchables. The Arya Samaj took greater interest in the upliftment of the untouchables. It started the Shuddhi movement in 1891 to reconvert the low caste Christian and Muslim converts back to Hindusim.It gave the untouchables the right to wear the sacred thread, the symbol of twice born status and also established educational institutions for the benefit of the untouchables. The Servants of Indian Society founded by Gokhale in 1905 had the amelioration of the depressed classes as one of its objectives. In Bombay V R Shinde founded the Depressed Classes Mission in 1906 and established education institutions. These reform movements were led by western educated upper class intellectuals who hoped of a renaissance and formulated a liberal and egalitarian ideology.

Arya Samaj
The Arya Samaj is a reform movement and religious/social organization which was formally established in Bombay in 1875 by Swami Dayananda Saraswathi (1824-1883). He was an adamant follower, exponent, and practitioner of the Vedas--the unadulterated Truth as handed down from Guru to disciple since the beginning of time. Swami Dayananda had absolutely no craving for worldly applause and was completely unconcerned and unperturbed by the censure of the superstitious, the ignorant, and the selfish. Swami Dayanada spoke the Truth and practiced it too. In 1863 he emerged preaching against idolatry and started Sanskrit classes. In 1872 he came into cantact with Keshub Chandra Sen, a Brahmo reformer and other Brahmo leaders.It exerted a radical change in him which led him to turn from Sanskrit to the popular language Hindi for spreading his ideals. In 1875 he went to Bombay for preaching his ideals and there he enjoyed a warm support at the hands of great social reformer Mahadev Govind Ranah in the campaign against idolatry and other evil practices. In the same year he founded Arya Samaj in Bombay.

Two years later in 1877 he shifted the head quarters of the samaj to Lahore and carried on his activities. The word Arya means a noble human being--one who is thoughtful and charitable, who thinks good thoughts and does good actions--he or she is an Arya. The universal Arya Samaj (Vishwa Arya Samaj) is a gathering of such people. Swami Dayanada founded Arya Samaj on two basic tenets. They were

y y

Infallible authority of the Vedas Monotheism.

He has explained these two principles in his book Satyartha Prakash that he published in 1874 from Allahabad.He held the Vedas only as the infallible authority of Hinduism. He believed that four Vedas are words of God. They are absolutely free from error and or an authority into themselves. They do not stand in need of any other book to uphold their authority. They comprise what is known as the Samhita.However he cautioned that they might be held authoritative only in so far as they conform to the teachings of the Vedas. If there is any passage in these works opposed to Vedic injunctions it can entirely be rejected. He held Brahman as the most higher or paramatman the supreme spirit who permeates the whole universe; who is personification of sat-chit-ananda who is omniscient, formless, all pervading, unborn, infinite almighty who creates, sustains and dissolves the universe and who awards all souls the fruit of their deeds in accordance with the requirements of absolute justice. One can attain salvation through the worship of God. There are three elements -stuti,prarthna and upasana stuti or glorification consists in praising the attributes and powers of God with a view in fixing them in our minds and cultivating love towards God.Prarthana is praying to God for the gift of the highest knowledge and other blessings.Upasana or communion consists in conforming to the Divine spirit in purity and holiness and in feeling the presence of the Deity in our heart through the practice of Yoga which enables us to have direct cognition of God. He believed that revitalization of the Hindu religion and society could be achieved by purifying the religion and uniting Hindu society. He believed that the purification of religion could be achieved by purging the religion of its impurities like polytheism and idolatry. So he attacked these two things and advocated a monotheism worship of the formless Brahman. For uniting the Hindus and strengthening the society Swami Dayananda also started three movements -shuddi, sanghatan and education and geared the Arya Samaj to carry on these movements unceasingly. Shuddi is a ceremony by which the Non-Hindus the fallen, the outcastes, the converts and the externals were taken into the Hindu fold. By this ceremony the Arya Samaj not only invested the depressed classes and untouchables with the sacred thread and gave them equal status with other Hindus but also reclaimed many Hindus who were formerly converted to Islam and Christianity. The word sanghatan means union. Therefore it implies in the programme of the Arya Samaj the organization of Hindus for self-defence. The Arya Samaj declared that no Hindu should take lying down the insults hurled against his religion by the preachers of other religion. The Hindu should cultivate a militant spirit and should take up the challenge. The Arya samaj embarked upon the programme of national education for the Hindus. Swami Dayananda emphasized the need for a national education throughout his career. In every place he visited he pleaded for the establishment of Sanskrit schools and the teaching of Vedas. Swami Dayananda desired that Hindu society emerges as a moral society. So he preached that the Hindu should observe dharma in their life. Dharma is a practice of equitable justice together with that of truthfulness in word, deed and thought and like virtues as embodied in the Vedas. He believed in the doctrines of Karma and rebirth; stressed the old ideals of brahmacharya and sanyasa insisted on the efficacy of samskars and rite of upanayana and homa upheld the sanctity of the cow, condemned animal sacrifices, ancestor worship, pilgrimages, priest-craft, untouchability and child marriage as lacking Vedic sanction. After his death the leaders of the Arya Samaj accepted his sayings and teachings as the doctrines of Samaj and tried to spread the activities of the samaj all over the country.

Main principals of Arya Samaj

1. God is the original source of all true knowledge and all that is known by the physical sciences. 2. God is existen, intelligant and blissful. He is formless, almighty,just,merciful,unborn and endless,unchangeable,

incomparable, the support and master of all. He is ominpresent and and the maker of the universe. He alone is worthy of worship. 3. The Vedas are the scriptures of all true knowledge. It is the duty of all Aryas to read them, hear them being read and teach them to others. 4. One should always be ready to accept truth and give up untruth. 5. All acts should be performed in accordance with Dharma, after deliberating what is right and wrong. 6. The primary object of Arya Samaj is to do good to the world by promoting physical, spiritual and social good of everyone. 7. Our conduct towards all should be guided by love ,righteousness and justice. 8. We should dispel ignornace and promote knowledge. 9. One should see one's own greatest welfare as residing in the welfare of others. 10. One should regard oneself under restriction to follow the rules of society calculated to promote the well being of all, while one should be free in matters of individual welfare.

Satya Sodhak Samaj

In Poona, Jyotirao Phooley, though a Mali by caste and of comparatively little education started the association called the Satyashodhak Samaj in 1873 for asserting the worth of man irrespective of caste. He demanded representation of all classes of the Hindus in all the local bodies, in services and institutions and also established a primary school for the so-called untouchables in Poona. Tracing the evolution of the NonBrahmin movement in Western India from 1873 to 1930 the Satya Sodhak Samaj has been described by Gail Omvedt as a cultural revolt in a colonial society. But there is a clear distinction between Satyasodhak movement, which was essentially a socio-religious movement, and the non-Brahmin movement, which was predominantly a political movement.

Main principals of Satya Sodhak Samaj

Satya Sodhak Samaj put a ban on discussion of political questions. Any Sudra was free to join the Satya sodhak samaj as member but people belonging to the upper castes were either listed as friends of samaj or admitted as members after sometime only when other members of the Samaj were convinced about their outlook and actions. The sathya sodhak movement attacked the Brahmin priests who insisted on acting as intermediaries between God and devotees. They believed that there was no need for any intermediary in matters of religion and refused to recognize the traditional role of the Brahmins as custodians of Hindu religion or interpreters of scriptures. They also opposed the stranglehold of the bureaucracy dominated by the Brahmins in their times. Phule often complained that the Brahmin bureaucrats were responsible for misleading the white rulers and hence they should be replaced by non-Brahmins who would be better informed about and more sympathetic to the peasants in rural areas. They totally rejected the Vedic tradition and the Aryan heritage. He regarded the Aryans as conquerors and destroyers of the indigenous non-Aryan culture. He launched a vigorous attack on the Vedas. He made fun of the puranas and ridiculed those who believed in the absurd stories narrated by their Brahmin authors. The Satya Sodhak movement continued to emphasize the role of education in facilitating social change. Phule campaigned against the increasing habit of drinking liquor and urged the Poona Municipal Council not to permit the opening of liquor shops. He tried to persuade people to give up drinking and spend their money on buying books. The Satya Shodhak movement in 19th century was essentially a socio-religious reform movement that was transformed by Shahu Chhatrapati into a powerful Non-Brahmin movement, which sought to bring a change into a power structure.

Ram Krishna Mission

Shri Rama Krishna Paramahansa is a unique figure in the history of Hinduism. He advocated the entire orbit of Hinduism and not simply by a segment of it such as Theism or Vedism.He viewed God to be both personal and impersonal. He laid equal emphasis on both the householder's life of good works and the sanyasi's life of renunciation and yoga like a true Hindu, he gave free scope to the individual variations in the kingdom of spirit.

And again like a true Hindu he held that all religions were branches of the same tree. He demonstrated this truth in his own life by going through the sadhanas of Islam and Christianity as well as Hinduism. Without much education and scholarship, he understood and exposed the truths of Hindu scriptures. He traveled the entire region experience by his own tapas and confirmed by his own personal testimony the truths of Hindu scriptures. His practice of spiritual realizations of different creeds led him to discover certain basic truths

Principals of Rama Krishna Paramahansa

1. Realization of God is the essence of religion and the end and aim of human existence. All religious works, discussion discourse and sermons will automatically stop when realizations end. 2. To a man who has realized God all religions are paths that lead to the same goal. The substance is one only the names are different. He who is called Krishna in Vaishnavisms is called Shiva in Saivism, Adyashadti in Shakta, Jesus in Christianity and Allah in Islam. 3. The realization of God can be attained through gnana and bhakti. The latter is to be preferred. The former namely the path of knowledge is difficult because one has to acquire a high degree of purity and self-control before one can tread that path whereas the latter namely the path of devotion is easy because purity and self-control come of their own accord when once a man begins to love God. 4. Love of God should take precedence not only to knowledge but also of good works. Social service is no-doubt necessary and good but it should be a part of divine service. 5. Shri Ramakrishna Paramahansas religion is a practical one. It is not concerned with the metaphysical subtitles philosophical discussions and interpretations of spiritual messages. It is concerned only with the realization of God through spiritual experience. That is why he did not condemn idol-worship. He regarded it as a mean to an end in itself.

Sri Narayanguru Dharma Paripalana Sabha

From 1812 until almost the close of the century, though political life was characterized by inactivity and society presented an outward calmness, subversive forces were forming and developing. This current of social transformation gradually led Kerala into the mainstream of political struggle for freedom and responsible government in the 20th century. The important outcome of this ferment was the awakening of the masses especially the lower orders in the Hindu society, against social injustice and evils. This awakening found articulation in Kerala towards the last quarter of the 19th century. In the princely states of Kochi and Travancore, the hold of the caste system was even more suffocating. Until the 20th century, governmental positions were denied to lower castes and non-Hindus. It was a protest movement that originated among the scheduled castes. The SNDP movement originated among the Izhavas (todday-tappers) of Kerala in the late nineteenth century. Izhavas were regarded as unapproachable in the traditional caste hierarchy. For instance, they had to stay way thirty-four feet from the Nambudiri Brahmins. They suffered from many disabilities, both civic and ritual: they were not allowed to worship in the temples of caste Hindus or to bathe in the tanks of caste Hindus. Toddy-tapping was considered to be a defiling occupation, their women were to required to cover their breasts and they could neither wear any footwear not build pukka houses. Shri Narayana Guru, the great Hindu saint and social reformer spearheaded one of the most important social reform movements. The Guru was born in 1856 in the Ezhava community, which had a status far below that of the Nambudiris. He fearlessly criticized and campaigned against the rigors of the caste system, the Brahmin hegemony and the numerous social disabilities of the Ezhavas and other lower castes. Soon Shri Narayana Guru became the rallying point for the Ezhavas and Thiyyas to unite and organize. The Shri Narayana Dharma Paripalana Yogam (SNDP), literally the society for the propagation of moral teaching of Shri Narayana came into being 15th May 1903. Within a short period, the Guru and Yogam drew towards them a brilliant band of dedicated workers, including the poet Kumaran Asan, whose efforts constitute an eloquent testimony to what a community, submitted to centuries of tyranny, can do and achieve through unity, realism and organism.Shri Narayana was, however, no sectarian philosopher and leader. A programme of action founded upon such sublime

humanism and social purpose was not destined to remain confined to one caste only; it soon became the philosophy of Hindu reformation, encompassing all castes, including the Brahmin. The Shri Narayana Movement had developed as a reformative and reaffirmative movement within the Hindu religion. The temple that Sree Narayana Gure consecrated to Lord Siva, the Mirror consecration at Kalavancode and the like were against the Hindu upper class domination. Yet this move did not spread among the Dalits. In effect, it was an attempt to reform the caste and the religion. He was responsible for a thorough transformation on the style of life involving new religious beliefs, ritual and outlook. He provided and ideology or withdrawal and self-organization that raised the self-respect, honor and worth of individuals. It was an ideology of protest against the Brahmincal value system of hierarchy and pollution. Swamy established a parallel source of legitimacy with his institutions of temples, priests, monks and monasteries.

Peasant Movements
Colonial economic policies, the new land revenue system, the colonial administrative and judicial system and the ruin of handicrafts leading to the overcrowding of land ,transformed the agrarian structure and impoverished the peasantary.In the vast zamindari areas the peasants were left to the mercies of the zamindar who rack-rented them and compelled them to pay illegal dues and perform beggar. In the ryotwari areas, the government itself levied heavy land revenue. This forced the peasants to borrow money from the moneylenders. Gradually over large areas the actual cultivators were reduced to the status of tenants at will, share croppers and landless labourers while their lands, crops and cattle passed into the hands to landlords, trader moneylenders and such peasants. When the peasants could take it no longer they resisted against the oppression and exploitation and they found whether their target was the indigenous exploiter or the colonial administration that their real enemies after the barriers were down was the colonial state.

In 1930s nation wide awakening of peasants was largely the result of the combination of particular economic and political developments.
y y

The great depression that began to hit India from 1920-30 and The new phase of mass struggle launched by the Indian National Congress in 1930.

The depression brought agricultural prices crashing down to half of less of their normal levels dealt a severe blow to the already impoverished peasants burdened with high taxes and rents. Therefore the peasants were placed in a situation where they had to continue to pay taxes, rents and debts at pre-depression rates while their incomes continued to spiral steadily downward. The civil disobedience movement was launched in this atmosphere of discontent in 1930s and in many parts of the country it soon took on the form of no-tax and no-rent campaign. Peasants emboldened by the recent success of the Bardoli Satyagraha (1928) joined the protest in large numbers. In Bihar and Bengal powerful movements were launched against the hated chowkidar tax by which villages were made to pay for the upkeep of their own oppressors. In Punjab a no-revenue campaign was accompanied by the emergence of Kisan Sabhas that demanded a reduction in land revenue and water rates and the scaling down of debts. The consolidation of left after the formation of the Congress Socialist Party in 1934 acted as a spur to the formation of an all India body to coordinate the Kisan Movement a process that was already underway through the efforts of N.G Ranga and other Kisan leaders. The culmination was the establishment of the all India Kisan Congress in the Lucknow in April 1936 which later changed its name to All India Kisan Sabha.Swami Sahajanand was elected secretary. The first session was greeted in person by Jawaharlal Nehru. A Kisan Manifesto was finalized at the All India Kisan Committee session in Bombay and formally presented to the Congress Working Committee to be incorporated into its forthcoming manifesto for the 1937 elections. The Kisan Manifesto considerably influenced the agrarian programme adopted by the congress at its Faizpur session. The formation of Congress ministries in a majority of the provinces in early 1937 marked the beginning of a new phase in the growth of the peasant movement.

The political atmosphere in the country underwent a marked change: increased civil liberties, a new sense of freedom born of the feeling that our own people are in power a heightened sense of expectation that the ministries would bring a pro-people measures- all combine to make the years 1937-39 the high water mar k of the peasant movement. The chief form of mobilization was through the holding of Kisan Conferences or meetings at the Thana, taluqa, district and provincials levels at which peasant demands would be aired and resolutions passed. These conferences would be addressed by local, provincial and All India leaders. During Second World War years the Kisan Sabha continued to play an important role in arranging relief works during Bengal famine of 1943.It also continued its organizational work despite being severally handicapped by its taking the unpopular pro-war stance which alienated it from various sections of the peasantry. Parth Nath Mukherji has made a study of Naxalbari movement and the peasant revolt in North Bengal in Darjeeling district and the regions are Phansidewa, Naxalbari and Khoribari.There are both tea plantations and paddy cultivation. He analyses the peasant uprising against the background of the communist movement in India. The Communist party of India developed two strands; one which argued that the situation in India was not yet ripe for revolution and the other led by the most articulate group of Siliguri sub division of Darjeeling district under the leadership of Charu Majumdar.Ideological pressures for radicalization of CPI (M) politics were exerted by the Darjeeling District Committee. Even among the radicals there were those who favored participation in the elections while the others proposed to shun the elections and socialize the masses against it. The former held to the primacy of the land problem and recommended mass struggles to solve it. The Naxalbari peasant movement is related to the Tebhanga Movement of Bengal where the Bengali weavers were exploited. Over a period of time, numerous struggles against such exploitation led to the emergence of Krishak Sabha.But such movements also suffered from various weaknesses. The weakness of the movement was there were two kinds of leadership. On the one hand there was the urban-based leadership, which claimed superior knowledge and status with regard to the manner in which the movement should be conducted. Among the rural leaders there were the indigenous rural leaders like Kanu Sanyal, Panchang Sarker and urban leaders like Charu Majumdar.When most of the rural leaders were in prison the leadership passed into the hands of the urban leaders who were interested in systemic changes rather than a mere just redistribution of the produce. Charu Majumdar shifted the focus from the narrow economic demands to capture of power. He wanted the annihilation of class enemies, which in effect was indistinguishable from secret assassinations. As a result he drove the movement underground. Ranga Rao made a study of the Peasant Movement in Telengana based on both secondary sources and fieldwork. He places the communist led peasant movement in the wider context of other social movements, which sprang up in Telengana in the beginning of 20th century. The Telugu Literary Movement introduced ideas of renaissance and was against the Nizam's establishment. Under the influence of Indian National Congress and the Arya Samaj the Telengana elite gave a new direction to the activities of the Andhra Mahasabha in the 1930.They mobilized the public for the abolition of forced labour, untouchability and other social evils, They also demanded equal educational and economic opportunities and equal political representation for the Hindus. According to Narayana Reddy it is not enough if economic conditions are ripe foe such a movement. While similar conditions prevailed in Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan it was the added presence of Nizam as a ruler from minority religious group, lack of civil and religious liberties and lack of correct understanding of the socio-economic situation prevailing in Hyderabad state by communists that helped a movement to develop. Ranga Rao adds that it was other structural factors like improvement in the economic and social conditions of the people followed by a period of reversal and oppression that made the peasants, rich and poor take part in the campaign of non cooperation against the Nizam's government under the collective leadership of the Congress, the Communist Parties and the Andhra Mahasabha.Many of these movements have also been changed over time and exist today in some form or the other in some places of India. These movements did not have a solid and unified aim all over India and hence its nature and struggle was also different from region to region. BACK WARD CASTE MOVEMENTS

Self-respect Movement
The self-respect movement sowed its seed during the Indian freedom struggle. At the earlier stage Backward Class movement meant the non-Brahmin movement. The non -Brahmin movement had two aims

y y

Demanding the sanction of more concessions and privileges (which would cause discrimination against the Brahmins) to surpass Brahmins in education and social status. Achieving "Swayam Maryada or self-respect.

This movement formed a part of the many social reforms occurred during that period. Periyar E.V Ramaswami was the leader of this movement. It was a popular movement, which occurred in Tamil Nadu in 1925.Its main aim was to improve upon the socio-economic conditions of the low castes Tamils. Later it had profound implications. The main objectives of this movement were inculcation and dissemination of knowledge of political education. Right to lead life with dignity and self-respect and do away with the exploitative system based on superstitions and beliefs. Abolition of the evil social practices and protection of women rights. Establishment and maintenance of homes for orphans and widow and opening of educational institutions for them. This movement gained popularity in no time and became a political platform. Ramaswami Naicker founded the Dravida Kazhagam in 1945.In 1949 C.Annadurai founded the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam-DMK which completely wiped out the domination of the Brahmins in TamilNadu.The D.K under the leadership of Naicker continue to pursue anti-Brahmanism in social and cultural fields. Thus the aim of the Backward Class Movement at this stage was to limit the Brahmin monopoly in the two fields of education and appointment to government posts. This movement was by no means a mass movement. The opposition to Brahmin dominance did not come from the low and the oppressed castes but from the leaders of the powerful rural dominant castes such as Reddy and Kammas in Andhra,Vokkaligas and Lingayats in Karnataka etc.These were high caste groups with a social position next to the Brahmins. They included not only the Hindus but also the Muslims, Christians and other communities who also suffered from the same social disabilities.

Backward caste mobilization in North India

The backward classes have been deprived of many social, economic, political and religious privileges. These were treated as untouchables and subjected to extreme forms of exploitation. While the presence of structural conditions of relative deprivation provided only the necessary context for the genesis of protest movements, certain external influences provided the sufficient conditions to create an awakening among them. The Christian missionaries were the first group to organize a programme for them. The missionaries not only converted them to different denominations but initiated a broad based programme involving English education and setting up of orphanages and other special welfare programmes. Those of the depressed classes who were converted to Christianity soon developed a different life style from their contemporaries. They received English education and were recruited to various government jobs. A further impetus was provided by the national movement, which provided an ideology of egalitarianism and supported social movements, which revolted against discrimination of any kind. Then there were the reform movements, which initiated programmes of education and welfare for the backward classes. These movements were against many orthodox brahmanical practices including their attitudes towards the untouchables. Finally British abolished slavery and introduced an egalitarian system of law, liberal education and notions of representative government. All these developments provided a favorable climate for the genesis of social movements with distinct ideologies and leadership among the backward classes. They began to organize themselves in different parts of India establishing new identities based on diverse ideologies. These include claims of higher Varna status through a reinterpretation and recasting of appropriate mythologies of origin. For example several castes like Ahirs in North India,Gopas in Bengal ,Gollas in A.P and Karnataka and Konars in Tamil Nadu claimed descent from Yadav dynasty to which Lord Krishna belonged. The rejection of Brahmanical ideology and culture was another protest movement. The Dravida Kazhagam movement in TamilNadu idealized the Dravidian culture and religion and attacked the Aryan culture and religion.

Mahar Movement
The Mahar movement under the leadership of Ambedkar abandons Hinduism altogether and embraced Buddhism. The Mahars formed an important section of the scheduled castes of Maharashtra (10%) of the population. They served as village watchmen, messengers and removers of cattle carcasses. These services were hereditary and were paid for in kind. They occupied a low position in the caste and occupational hierarchy and as such suffered from

many religious, economic, educational and political disabilities. Thus the ideology of the Mahar movement reflects a total rejection of the religion of the caste Hindus, which was identified with hierarchy and inequality. Mahars now belong to a religion that stands for egalitarian values and hence they are superior to the caste Hindus. This is another strategy to gain self-respect and esteem on the one hand and to protest against the religion of the upper castes on the other. The civil rights ideology based on democracy, motivated the Backward Classes to evolve campaigns to fight for equality in educational, economic and political opportunities. Thus the leaders of the SNDP and the Mahar movement agitated for their basic civil rights. They also incorporated the religious-cultural ideology in this approach in seeking to gain self-respect and honor. The Dalit Panther movement emerged among the Mahars of Bombay and Pune in 1972.Its spokesmen were Namdeo Dhasal, Raja Dhale and J.V Pawar all eminent literary men. It cashed in on the frustration that the urban youth were experiencing when faced with diverse forms of discrimination against the untouchables and the oppressed. In its ideology class struggle cannot be separated from an anticaste Hindu attitude. Thus the protest ideologies of the Backward Classes movements reveal four organizing principals:

y y y y

Reinterpretation of myths of origin or of one's own religion. Rejection of Hinduism and Aryan religion and culture Civil rights Class conflict

The SNDP movement exemplifies the principle of reinterpretation as a theme of the protest ideology. Sri Narayana Guru Swamy established a set of beliefs, rituals, temples and priests that was parallel to that of the upper castes. The world-view of his reinterpreted Hinduism was both enlightened and simple on the basis of which Izhavas were able to claim a new identity with honour, esteem and self-respect. Similarly the Ahirs systematically reinterpreted the Yadava myth of origin of their castes in legitimizing their superior status. This was backed by protest against the status that was accorded to them by the dominant groups backed by religion. They not only achieved self-respect and honor but also gained access to the religious goods and services of the twice-born castes that they had long been denied. The new ideology provided the language of protest and aggression against the opposition groups. New identities are established not only on the basis of a religious-cultural ideology but also on the basis of a secular one with civil rights and class conflict themes. The former when viewed as an attempt to claim equality of status through democratic means is exemplified by many backward classes movements fighting for basic secular rights such as right of admission to schools, right of recruitment to government jobs and right of adult suffrage. These progammes were part of the SNDP and Mahar movements. The leaders of these movements adopted both religiouscultural and civil rights ideology simultaneously in their efforts to attain equality of status with the dominant groups on the ritual and the secular planes. Among the Backward classes the Dalit panthers adopted the ideology of class conflict and anti caste Hindu feeling. The new identity that emerged based on these two principles enabled the young urban Mahars to attack the upper caste Hindu capitalists. Thus both secular class conflict and religious-cultural principles can be seen as transformations. All these movements arose due to the extreme exploitation of the lower castes by the upper castes and the lower castes were subjected to frequent oppression and exploitation over a period of time.

Social Control Meaning of Social Control

Social control has been defined by Maclver as the way in which entire social order coheres and maintains itself how it operates itself as a whole as a changing equilibrium. Mannheim defines social control as the sum of those methods by which a society tries to influence human behavior to maintain a given order. To Ogbuand an established rule is social control.

Ogburn and Nimkoff the patterns of pressure which a society exerts to maintain order E Ross defines it the system of devices whereby society brings its members into conformity with the accepted standards of behavior. According to Lapiere social control is a corrective for inadequate socialization. G.A Lundberg has defined social control as designating those social behaviors which influ-ence individuals or groups towards conformity to established or desired norms. Kimball Young defines social control as the use of coercion, force, restraint, suggestion or persuasion of one group over another or of a group over its members or of persons over others to enforce the prescribed rules of the game. These rules may be set down by the members themselves as in a professional code of ethics or they may be those laid down by a larger, more inclusive group for the regulation of other smaller groups. Social control may thus be defined as: Social control is an influence where influence may be exerted through public opinion, coer-cion, social suggestion, religion or any other method. The influence is exerted by the society which means that group is better able to exercise in-fluence over the individual than a single individual. This group may be the family, the church, the state or the trade union etc.The effectiveness of the influence however depends on variable factors. Sometimes family may exercise more effective influence than the state or vice-versa. The influence is exercised for promoting the welfare of the group as a whole. The person is influenced to act in the interest of others rather than in accordance with his own individual interests. Social control is exercised for some specific end in view. The aim is always the wel-fare of the whole. The individual is made conscious of others existence; their interests. He is made to adhere to the appropriate social ways.

Social Control and Socialization

Social control and socialization are closely related to each other. Social control is a part of socialization. During the process of socialization the process of social control also is in op-eration. Through socialization social control becomes effective. In order to maintain the so-cial order there are definite procedures in society. These customs and procedures become a part of mans life and man gets adjusted to the society. As a matter of fact, societies depend heavily upon effective socialization to internalize social norms and values as the individuals guides and motives to action. Through socialization societies aim to control the behavior of its members subconsciously. The various agencies of socialization like family, state, school, club etc are also the agencies of social control. They exercise regulatory influence over the behavior of the individual.

Need for Social Control

Social solidarity is essential for the existence of society.No two persons is alike in their na-ture, ideas, attitudes and interests. Every individual is a separate personality. There are cul-tural differences among the individuals. As a matter of fact society is a heterogeneous or-ganization. If every individual is allowed unrestricted freedom to act and behave, it may cre-ate social disorder. For an orderly social life social control is necessary. The aims of social control are to bring out conformity, solidarity and continuity of a particular group or society. Social control is necessary for maintaining order in the society. It is necessary for every soci-ety or group to maintain its social order and this is possible only when its members behave in accordance with that social order. An important objective of social control is to maintain the old order. Although enforcement of the old order in a changing society may hinder so-cial progress, yet it is necessary to maintain continuity and uniformity in society. Without social control social unity would be a mere dream. Social control regulates behavior in accordance with established norms which brings uniformity of behavior and leads to unity among the individuals. The family maintains its unity because its members behave in a simi-lar manner in accordance with family norms. No two men are alike in their attitudes, ideas, interests and habits. Even the children of same parents do not have the same attitudes, habits or interests. Men believe in different religions, dress, eat differently and have different ideologies. There are so many differences in the ways of living of the people that at every moment there is the

possibility of clash be-tween them. In modern times this possibility has all the more increased because man has become too self-centred.Social control is necessary to protect social interests and satisfy common needs. If social control is removed and every individual is left to behave freely so-ciety would be reduced to a state of lawlessness.

The Purposes of Social Control

The study of social control is an important aspect of sociology. It is a significant field of study. It is a unifying factor in the study of human behavior. According to Kimball Young the aims of social control are to bring about conformity, solidarity and continuity of particular group or society. These aims are good but most individuals who endeavor to control their fellow men show little perspective in their efforts. They want that others should accept the modes of conduct which they themselves prefer. This preference may be based on any fac-tor-experience derived in life, desire to exploit others for ones own gain, political, personal or economic. Some reformers and leaders try to conceal their motives by good reasons in the form of al-truistic rationalization. A newspaper advertisement that offer discount to those who make purchases by a particular date is an example of such rationalizations. It is difficult to know and classify the motives of the agents of social control.

The classification of the motives or purposes of the agents of social control 1. 2. 3. Exploitative, motivated by self interest. Regulative based upon habit and the desire for behavior of the customary types Creative or constructive based on social benefit

The results of social control are not always beneficial to society or to the individual. Even social control for constructive purposes may confuse the public and end in inactivity. Efforts to regulate behavior in accordance to custom may cause cultural lag, mental conflict and emotional instability.

Means of social control

The means by which individuals are induced or compelled to conform to the usages and life values of the group are so numerous and varied that a classification is not possible.E.A Ross has described a number of means that have been used by social groups throughout the hu-man history to keep individuals under control. The important among them are public opin-ion, law, custom, religion, morality, personality, folkways and mores. E.C Hayes distinguished between control by sanctions and control by suggestion and imita-tion. According to him, education is the most effective means of control and the family is the most significant agency. Karl Mannheim distinguished between direct means of social control and indirect means of social control. Luther L Bernard distinguished between unconscious and conscious means of control.The most important among the unconscious means of control are custom, tradition and conven-tion. The conscious means of control are those which have been consciously developed and employed by leaders of all types. According to him conscious means of control are more ef-fective than unconscious ones though the influence of the latter also is quite marked. He also talked about exploitative and constructive methods of social control. Exploitative means are such as punishment, reprisals, intimidation, censorship and repression. Among the constructive means are included revolution, custom, law, education and social reform, on-violent coercion and belief in supernatural forces. Some sociologists have classified the social control into informal and formal means.Sympathy, sociability, resentment, the sense of justice, public opinion, folkways and mores are some of the informal means of social control. They are very powerful in primary social groups where interaction is on a personal basis. The effectiveness of the informal means of control though somewhat lessened in modern large communities wherein con-tacts tend to be impersonal may still be observed in small villages. In modern times the in-formal methods have given place to formal ones such as laws, education, coercion and codes.

Law

Law is the most important formal means of social control. Early societies depended upon informal means of social control but when societies grew in size and complexity they were compelled to formulate rules and regulations which define the required types of behavior and specify the penalties to be imposed upon those who violate them. Law is a body of rules enacted by legally authorized bodies and enforced by authorized agencies. It defines clearly rights, duties as well as the punishments for their violation. The modern societies are large in size. Their structure is complex consisting of a number of groups, organizations, institu-tions and vested interests. Informal means of social control are no longer sufficient to main-tain social order and harmony. In modern society relationships are of secondary nature. Security of life and property as well as the systematic ordering of relationships make formalization of rules necessary. Law pre-scribes uniform norms and penalties throughout a social system.What were in mores and customs earlier has now been formalized into a body of law. Law prohibits certain actions for example anti-touchability act prohibits untouchability in any form and a person practis-ing untouchability is liable to punishment. Prohibition act forbids drinking at public places. In this way law exercises a powerful influence upon the behavior of people in modern socie-ties.

Education
The importance of education as a means of social control is being increasingly realized. Edu-cation is a process of socialization. It prepares the child for social living. It reforms the atti-tudes wrongly formed by the children. Thus a family may make the child superstitious; edu-cation will correct his beliefs and remove his prejudices. It teaches him value of discipline, social cooperation, tolerance and sacrifice. It instills in him the qualities of honesty, air play and a sense of right and wrong. The importance of education for creating right social atti-tudes among youth cannot be overlooked.

Coercion
Coercion is the use of force to achieve a desired end. It may be physical or non-violent. It is the ultimate means of social control when all other means fail. Physical coercion may take the form of bodily injury, imprisonment and death penalty. Physical coercion is without doubt the lowest form of social control. Societies would least desire to use it. If a society has to depend on external force it shows its weakness rather than strength in social control. Nonviolent coercion consists of strike; boycott and non-cooperation.the students may go on strike to ensure better hostel facilities. Boycott is the withholding of social or economic in-teraction with others to express disapproval and to force acceptance of demands.Non co-operation is refusal to cooperate. The teachers may refuse to cooperate with the manage-ment over the payment of salaries.Non-violent coercion can be a successful way of effecting social control.

Personality The Meaning of Personality

The term personality is derived from the Latin word persona meaning a mask. Personality is a patterned body of habits, traits, attitudes and ideas of an individual as these are organized externally into roles and statuses and as they relate internally to motivation, goals and various aspects of selfhood. According to Robert Park and Earnest Burgess Personality is the sum and organization of those traits which determine the role of the individual in the group. According to Linton, personality embraces the total organized aggregate of psychological processes and status pertaining to the individual.Parsonality says Maclver is all that an individual is and has experienced so far as this all can be comprehended as unity. According to Lundberg the term personality refers to the habits, attitudes and other social traits that are characteristic of a given individuals behavior.

By personality Ogburn means the integration of the socio-psychological behavior of the human being, represented by habits of action and feeling, attitudes and opinions. Davis regards personality a psychic phenomenon which is neither organic nor social but an emergent from a combination of the two. According to Young personality is the totality of behavior of an individual with a given tendency system interacting with a sequence of situations. On the basis of these definitions it may be said there are two main approaches to the study of personality: 1. 2. The psychological The sociological

The psychological approach considers personality as a certain style peculiar to the individual. This style is determined by the characteristic organization of mental trends, complexes, emotions and sentiments. The psychological approach enables us to understand the phenomena of personality disorganization and the role of wishes, of mental conflict and of repression and sublimation in the growth of personality. The sociological approach considers personality in terms of the status of the individual in the group, in terms of his conception of his role in the group of which he is a member. What others think of us plays a large part in the formation of our personality. Thus personality is a sum of the ideas, attitudes and values of a person which determine his role in society and form an integral part of his character. Personality is acquired by the individual as a result of his participation in group life. As a member of the group he learns certain behavior systems and symbolic skills which determine his ideas, attitudes and social values. These ideas, attitudes and values which an individual holds comprise his personality. In brief it can be said: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Personality is not related to bodily structure alone. It includes both structure and dynamics. Personality is an indivisible unit. Personality is neither good nor bad. Every personality is unique Personality refers to persistent qualities of the individual. It expresses consistency and regularity. Personality is acquired. Personality is influenced by social interaction. It is defined in terms of behavior.

Determinants of Personality
Personality is a result of the combination of four factors- physical environment, heredity, culture and particular experiences. Geographical environment sometimes determines cultural variability. Man comes to form ideas and attitudes according to the physical environment he lives in. To the extent that the environment determines cultural development and to the extent that culture in turn determines personality a relationship between personality and environment becomes clear.Montesque in 18th century claimed that the bravery of those blessed by a cold climate enables them to maintain their liberties. Great heat enervates courage while cold causes certain vigor of body and mind. The people of mountain as well as deserts are usually bold, hard and powerful. However physical conditions are more permissive and limiting factors than causative factors. They set the limits within which personality can develop. Hereditary is another factor determining human personality. Some of the similarities in mans personality are said to be due to his common heredity. Every human group inherits the same general set of biological needs and capacities. These common needs and capacities explain some of our similarities in personality. Man tends to resemble his parents in physical appearance and intelligence. However heredity does not mould human personality alone and unaided. We can assume that there are genes for normal personality traits just as there are genes for other aspects of human life and functioning. Heredity only furnishes the materials out of which experience will mould the personality. Experience determines the way these materials will be used. An individual may be energetic because of his heredity but whether he is active on his own belief or on behalf of others is a matter of his training.

There can be little doubt that culture largely determines the types of personality that will predominate in the particular group. According to some sociologists personality is the subjective aspect of culture. They regard personality and culture as two sides of same coin. Spiro had observed the development of personality and the acquisition of culture are not different processes but one and the same learning process. Personality is an individual aspect of culture while culture is a collective aspect of personality. Each culture produces its special type or types of personality. A given cultural environment sets its participant members off from other human beings operating under different cultural environments. According to Frank culture is a coercive influence dominating the individual and molding his personality by virtue of the ideas, conceptions and beliefs which had brought to bear on him through communal life. The culture provides the raw material of which the individual makes his life. The traditions, customs, mores, religion, institutions, moral and social standards of a group affect the personality of the group members. From the moment of birth the child is treated in ways which shape his personality. Every culture exerts a series of general influences upon the individuals who grow up under it. It can be summed up that culture greatly moulds personality. The individual ideas and behavior are largely the results of cultural conditioning. However it should not be concluded that culture is a massive die that shapes all that come under it with an identical pattern. All the people of a given culture are not of same cast. Personality traits differ within any culture. Personality is not totally determined by culture even though no personality escapes its influence. It is only one determinant among others. Personality is also determined by another factor the particular and unique experiences. There are two types of experiences one those that stem from continuous association with ones group, second those that arise suddenly and are not likely to recur. The type of people who meet the child daily has a major influence on his personality. The personality of parents does more to affect a childs personality. The social rituals ranging from table manners to getting along with others are consciously inculcated in the child by his parents. The child picks up the language of his parents. Group influences are relatively greater in early childhood. This is the period when the relationships of the child with the mother, father and siblings affect profoundly the organization of his drives and emotions, the deeper and subconscious aspects of his personality. Group interaction moulds the childs personality. It may also be inferred that personality is a matter of social situations. It has been shown by social researchers that a person may show honesty in one situation and not in another. The same is true for other personality traits also. Personality traits tend to be specific responses to particular situations rather than general behavior patterns. It is a dynamic unity with a creative potential. Heredity, physical environment, culture and particular experiences are thus the four factors that explain personality its formation, development and maintenance. Beyond the joint influence of these factors however the relative contribution of each factor to personality varies with the characteristic or personality process involved and perhaps with the individual concerned.

Personality Disorganization
Society everywhere demands from its members conformity to its folkways and mores, to its values and standards. But often the individual fails to meet the requirements of the society in which he lives. As a result he develops personality problems and becomes disorganized. Such a person is considered mentally unfit incase of mental derangement or abnormality. He remains socially isolated because in his case there is breakdown of communicative understanding. Personality disorganization therefore means that the individual is out of adjustment with society who has failed to organize the chief goals of his life into an integrated whole so as to achieve unity of the self. Personality disorganization may take the milder or serious forms of mental disorder. In addition to mentally disorganized persons there are other examples of personality disorganization in the alcoholics, criminals, gamblers and drug addicts who are mentally normal but socially abnormal.

Personality Disorganization Causes

The failure of an individual to adjust himself to society may be due to the factors inherent in the individual or in the society in which he lives. He may have been born with a mental disability which prevents his integration into society. Human society is very complex, competitive and contradictory. It makes excessive demands upon the individual. Different groups with different moral standards and different cultural backgrounds create different notions of what is

right and what is wrong. In the midst of these varying notions the individual gets confused. He fails to find out the right way of social behavior and relapses into abnormal behavior. In the modern society mans desires have increased manifold. The advertising has stimulated his desires which often cannot be satisfied. It gives rise to frustration. Repeated frustration tends to produce a generalized lack of confidence in ones ability to achieve any end and generalized conception of oneself as less efficient and less worthy than others. The rapid changes in society create new ideas set up new standards while the old ones still persist. All this leaves the individual bewildered and helpless in coping with the new situation in which he finds himself. Under the circumstances the individual may become a victim of mental disorder or become criminal or in extreme cases commit suicide.

Culture and Personality Disorganization

There is close relation between culture and personality disorganization. Every human being in modern culture suffers from inner conflicts. Davis writes so far as mental disorder is concerned the significant question is whether the social system is unified by a nucleus of common values. When the structure embraces conflicting principles of social organization based on the incompatible values, psychic conflicts inevitably result. The stresses and strains imposed by culture sometimes seem to be too heavy to bear and lead to mental disorders. According to Ogburn and Nimkoff cultures have their own characteristic mental disorders reflecting distinctive cultural influences. Every culture embodies cultural categories and values. If the individual fails to make good within the framework of cultural categories and values the result is personal disorganization. Moreover there are conflicts and contradictions in every culture. Not only different persons hold different attitudes but the same individual holds contradictory and conflicting attitudes. Even within the family there may be incompatible values and loyalties. It may be said that every culture is heterogeneous presenting incompatible values. It is a house divided against itself. We swear by rights yet practice untouchability.These inner contradictions arise from the myriads of possible wishes of individuals and scores of alternative ways of satisfying some of these wishes. Hence personality disorganization is bound to occur in every culture.

Personality Reorganization
The cases of personality disorganization have increased in modern society. The social scientists are busy in analyzing the causes and finding out the remedies. There is however still a difference of opinion as to the best way to proceed. Those who regard organic factors as the main determinants of social behavior seek to improve it through eugenic means of one kind or another. The psychologists, psychiatrists and psychoanalysts try to find the cause and remedy in the individual alone as if he were living in a vacuum. Then there are environmentalists who regard social environment as the main factor of personality disorganization and consequently regard change in the environment as all important. The problem of personality disorganization are many sided and any effective treatment will need a consideration of heredity,biological,psychological and environmental factors and a unification of culture bound together by mutually compatible and common values.

Political Processes Power

Power implies the ability of an individual or a group to influence or change the behavior of other individuals or groups. Weber defines power as the chance of a man or a number of men to realize their own will in a communal action even against the resistance of others who are participating in the action. Power is an aspect of social relationships. An individual or a group does not hold power in isolation. They hold it in relation to others. To say that power is relational

is also to imply it is behavioral. For if power consists in an inter-relationship between two actors. Then that inter relationship can only be understood in terms of one actor's manifest behavior as affecting the manifest behavior of others. Further power is also situational. To know power one has necessarily to relate it to a specific situation or a specific role and an actor's power in one particular situation or role may vary from that in another. Weber's concept of power implies that those who hold power do so at the expense of others. It suggests that there is a fixed amount of power and therefore if some hold power others do not. This view is sometimes known as constantsum concept of power.Talcott Parsons rejects this view and sees power as something possessed by society as a whole. According to him power is a generalized facility or resource in the society. In particular it is a capacity to mobilize the resources of the society for the attainment of goals for which a general public commitment has been made. In this sense the amount of power in society is measured by the degree to which collective goals are realized. Thus greater the efficiency of a social system for achieving the goals defined by its members more the power that exists in society. This view is sometimes known as variable -sum concept of power, since power in society is not seen as fixed or constant. Instead it is variable in the sense that it can increase or decrease. Alvin Gouldner has defined Power as among other things the ability to enforce one's moral claims. The powerful can thus conventionalize their moral defaults. According to David Lockwood power must not only refer to the capacity to realize one's ends in a conflict situation against the will of others, it must also include the capacity to prevent opposition arising in the first place

Authority and Legitimacy

The concept of authority in general terms implies the right to command. It is not to be identified with persuasion or influence. The expressions like the parental authority, authority of tradition, authoritative opinion, political authority, legal authority or the constitutional authority are familiar expressions and they clearly convey that authority is exercised more characteristically within a net work of clearly defined roles. It is exercised according to the established and well recognized pattern. Political authority specifies the governing authority and defines the manner the power is to be exercised. It determines the nature of relations between the government and the governed. The doctrine of legitimacy implies that the authority should be used according to well recognized and accepted pattern. The natural sequence of happenings following the usage or custom or the established procedure invests the authority with legitimacy. Command and obedience relationship is based on the assumed legitimacy in the exercise of authority. Force and coercion are not legitimate but these are used either to establish legitimacy or by the legitimate authority for legitimate purpose. The legitimate authority if it fails in its objective may be challenged and a revolutionary authority may come into being. In case the newly established authority may fail there may be the counter-revolution. The authority that may come into existence finally has to establish its legitimacy. It is therefore the foundation of all governmental power. The government can itself function only with the understanding that it has the power to function. At a given time the authority that has come into existence may not have the legitimacy but it shall have to secure such legitimacy as the society would recognize and as could secure to it the international recognition.

Pressure Groups
Groups play a direct role in political life. People organize social movements, interest groups and pressure groups in order to influence the government. Ethnic and racial groups, religious and linguistic minority groups have also acted collectively to influence governmental decisions. Thus a pressure group refers to an interest group which tries to safeguard and promotes the interests of its members. It is not a political group seeking to capture political power though it may have a political character of its own. A pressure group can be understood as an association of persons with a common economic interest who try to influence governmental decisions. These pressure groups also known as interest groups pursue their political goals through lobbying- the process by which individuals and groups communicate with public officials in order to influence decisions of government. They also distribute persuasive literature and launch public campaigns to build grass -root support for their political objectives. According to Functionalists such groups play a constructive role in decisionmaking. They prepare the ground for the orderly political participation. Conflict theorists on the other hand argue that although a few organizations work on behalf of the poor and disadvantaged most of the pressure groups represent the vested interests of the business leaders, the lobbies of multinational companies, rich professionals and political leaders. They further assert that these powerful lobbies discourage political participation by the individual citizens. The pressure groups have greater say in democracy than in the totalitarian setup.Inspite of their limitations and defects they have become an essential part of the modern democratic process.

Political Socialization
Political socialization can be defined as a process of socializing in a political system through information on political symbols, institutions and procedures and internalizing the value system and ideology supporting the system. It is also a process of acquisition of political culture. This process works at individual as well as at community level through cultural transmission. It is one of the most important functions of the political system. It is also part of the general socialization which starts at the later life. The two important components are 1.Inculcation of general values and norms regarding political behavior and political matters and 2. The induction of an individual or some people into a particular party and learning its ideology and action programmes.The role played by mass-media is equally important in educating the masses and clearing their views for making informed decisions regarding political affairs. It plays a very crucial role during elections.

Political Modernization
It is the transformation of political culture in response to changes in social and physical environment. According to Huntington political modernization is a multifaceted process involving change in all areas of human thought and activity. Benjamin Schwartz views political modernization as the systematic, sustained and powerful application of human energies to control man's social and physical environment. Claude Welch describes political modernization as the process based on the rational utilization of resources and aimed at the establishment of modern society. The process of modernization of the polity leads to the emergence of some crucial problems and challenges faced by the political system. It is rooted in the changing sources of legitimation of authority.

Caste and Politics

The relationship between caste and politics in Indian society has been subject of intensive study for many years. Many sociologists including Andre Beteille, Rajni Kothari, and Anil Bhatt have highlighted various aspects. According to M.N Srinivas the role played by caste in politics is in close approximation to that of the pressure group. The modernizing forces will however reduce the influence of caste over the politics. However Andre Beteille holds that while westernization is taking individual away from caste identity the role of caste in politics is taking the people towards the caste identity and thereby strengthening it.Rajni Kothari studied the nature of relationship between caste and politics. He has also examined the type of changes that have taken place in the political system as a result of the involvement of caste organization. Caste has three important indigenous elements -secular which refers to relevance of caste in politics in terms of the relations within and between castes. Integrative which refers to castes being relevant to politics through differentiation and integration and ideological which is heightened by its value structure. The analysis of Dominant Caste and political process by Anil Bhatt reveals the crucial role played by castes in politics and awareness of the lower castes of their political gains. He found that the higher caste groups had lower political interest and low castes higher political interests. Political awareness was high among the higher castes and was low among the lower castes. Lower castes by organizing themselves in pursuit of collective interest were able to emerge successfully. The involvement of these castes organization in politics has changed their position in hierarchical pattern of Hindu society. Caste solidarity and political power helped them to achieve higher social, economic and political success. This was highlighted by the studies conducted by Rudolf and Rudolf. The same was highlighted by Andre Beteille's study of Tanjore district in Tamil Nadu.Caste has become one of the most formidable element of group formation within political parties in India. The patronage and pecuniary resources available to the political leaders enable them to create a coalition of factions on caste basis, whose leaders are bound to political elites in power in a complex network of personal obligational ties. Each of these leaders had a group of followers tied to him in accordance with the same set of caste principles. The personnel of these castes factions may vary but whatever may be their social composition they demand and to a higher degree receive from their members full support. Political parties mobilize caste support in various ways. According to Andre Beteille two kinds of changes seem to be taking place in relation between caste and politics - power shifts from one dominant caste to another and the focus of power shifts from one caste itself to another on caste basis. He maintains that loyalties of castes are exploited in voting. New alliances cutting across castes are also formed. Rudolph is of the opinion that caste association has given caste a new vitality and democracy has enabled caste to play an important political role in India. Caste federations are formed not of one caste but many.

His further observation pointed out that caste enters the political process by making appeals to caste loyalties in a general way. Also by activating networks of inter-personal relation both during elections and at other times for mobilizing support along caste lines and by articulating caste interests in an organized manner.Beteille has also pointed that the political process has a dual effect on the caste system. To the extent that caste and sub-caste loyalties are consistently exploited, the traditional structure is strengthened and to the extent that it leads to new alliance cutting across caste, it loosens the traditional structure. Political parties utilize the support of caste for their functioning and seek their support in winning elections. Grass-root political arenas as well as political parties have always remained and continue to remain dominated by elites of castes which compete with each other to form caste coalitions of supporters strong enough to maximize control over local resources and enhance opportunities to become players in political system.

Points to Remember
y y y y y y y y

Mills explains the elite rule in institutional terms. According to Levi Strauss consent is the basis of leadership. Mosca believed that the members of the elite should have superior qualities than the masses. The Marxian view regards the subject class regarding the ruling class to be legitimate as an indication of false class consciousness. Weber gave the constant sum concept of power. Pareto believed the European democracies to exemplify the rule of the fox. Developing nations are commonly governed by tutelany democracies. Societies without head are termed as acephalous.

Books and Authors

y y y y y y y

Politics and social change - F.G Bailey Democratic polity and social change in India - Rajni Kothari State and society in India - A R Desai State and society in India : Studies in Nation building - T.K Oomen The ruling class - Mosca The new man of power - C.W Mills Civil government and toleration - John Locke