CHAPTER 1:

1.1 1.2 1.2.1 1.2.2 1.2.3 1.2.4 1.2.5 1.2.6 1.2.7 1.2.8

ELEMENTS OF

WAVE MECHANICS

Introduction. Black body radiation. Experimental observation of black body radiation. Laws of black body radiation. Stefan Boltzmann radiation law. Wiens law. Rayleigh Jeans law. Plancks radiation law. Derivation of Wiens law from Plancks law. Derivation of Rayleigh Jeans law from Plancks law. Photoelectric effect. Compton effect. Matter waves and de Broglie hypothesis Davisson and Germer experiment. G.P.Thomson experiment Wave packet and de Broglie wave Phase and group velocities Relation between phase velocity and group velocity

1.3 1.4 1.5 1.5.1 1.5.2 1.5.3 1.6 1.6.1

1.6.2

Relationbetween group velocity and particle velocity (Velocity of de Broglie waves)

1.6.3 1.7 1.7.1 1.7.2 1.7.3 1.8 1.8.1 1.8.2 1.8.3 1.8.4 1.9 1.9.1 1.9.2 1.9.3 1.9.4 1.9.5 1.9.6 1.9.7 1.9.8

Derivation of de Broglie relation Uncertainty principle. Origin and nature of the principle. An illustration of uncertainty principle. Physical significance of uncertainty principle. Wave mechanics. Characteristics of wave function. Physical significance of wave function. Schrodingers wave equation. Eigen values and Eigen functions. Applications of Schrodingers equation. Case of a free particle. Particle in a box. Finite potential well Tunnel effect Examples of tunneling across a finite barrier. Theoretical interpretation of tunneling Harmonic oscillator. Practical applications of Schrodingers wave equation. Numerical examples

Exercise

1.1

INTRODUCTION: The nineteenth century was a very eventful period as

far as Physics is concerned. The pioneering work on dynamics by Newton, on electromagnetic theory by

Maxwell, laws of thermodynamics and kinetic theory were successful in explaining a wide variety of phenomena. Even though a majority of experimental evidence agreed with the classical could physics, not be a few experiments gave

results

that

explained

satisfactorily.

These few experiments led to the development of modern physics. Modern physics refers to the development of the theory of relativity and the quantum theory.

Inability of the classical concepts to explain certain experimental observations, especially those involving subatomic particles, led to the formulation and

development of modern physics. Early twentieth century saw the development of modern physics. The pioneering work of Einstein, Planck, Compton, Roentgen, Born and others formed the basis of modern physics. The dual nature of matter proposed by de Broglie was confirmed by experiments. The wave mechanics and quantum

mechanics were later shown to be identical in their mathematical formulation. concepts was explained of In the The validity of classical to be the result to of an

extrapolation situations.

modern

theories chapter,

classical experimental

present

observations of three important phenomena black body radiation, photoelectric effect and Compton effect considered as the beginning of modern physics, are

briefly described.

1.2

BLACK BODY RADIATION:

When radiation is incident on material objects, it is either absorbed, reflected or transmitted. These

processes are dependent on the radiation and the object involved. An object that is capable of absorbing all radiation incident on it is called a black body.

Practically, we cannot have a perfect black body but can have objects that are only close to a black body. For example, a black body can be approximated by a hollow object with a very small hole leading to the inside of the object. Any radiation that enters the object through the hole gets trapped inside and will be reflected by the walls of the cavity till it is

absorbed. Objects that absorb a particular wavelength of radiation are also found to be a good emitter of radiation of that particular wavelength. Hence, a

black body is also a good emitter of all radiations it has absorbed. Emissions from objects depend on the temperature of the object. It has been observed that the energy

emitted from objects increases as the temperature of the object is increased. Laws of radiation have been

formulated to explain the emission of energy by objects maintained at specific temperatures.

1.2.1 Experimental observation of black body radiation: Experiments have been carried out to study the

distribution of energy emitted by a practical blackbody as a function of wavelength and temperature. Figure 1.1 .

1.1 Distribution of emitted energy as a function of wavelength and temperature for a black body. shows the distribution curves in which the energy

density E is plotted as a function of wavelength at different temperatures of the black body. Energy

density is defined as the energy emitted by the black body per unit area of the surface. The important

features of these distribution curves may be summarized as follows: (i) The energy vs wavelength curve at a given

temperature shows a peak indicating that the emitted intensity is maximum at a particular wavelength and decreases as (ii) we move away from the peak.

An increase in temperature results in an increase

in the total energy emitted and also the energy emitted at all wavelengths. (iii) As the temperature increases, the peak shifts to lower wavelengths. maximum In other is words, emitted at at higher lower

temperatures, wavelengths.

energy

1.2.2 Laws of black body radiation: The initial attempts to explain black body

radiation were based on classical theories and were found to be limited in application. explain the entire spectrum of They could not the radiation

satisfactorily. 1.2.3 Stefan Boltzmann radiation law: It states that the from total a energy density is its Eo of

radiation

emitted to

black power

body of

directly absolute

proportional

the

fourth

temperature T.

Energy density E0 is defined as the

total of all the energy emitted at all wavelengths per unit area of the emitter surface. Eo T4 or Eo = T4 (1.1)

where

is a constant called Stefans constant.

It

has a numerical value equal to 5.67 x 10-8 watt m-2 K-4 . This law was suggested empirically by Stefan and later derived by Boltzmann on thermodynamic considerations. The law agrees well with the experimental results.

1.2.4 Wiens Laws:

Wiens displacement law states that the wavelength m corresponding to the maximum emissive energy

decreases with increasing temperature. m or m T = b

i.e.

1/T

(1.2)

where b is called the Wiens constant and is equal to 2.9 x 10-3 mK. The energy density emitted by a black body in the wavelength range and + d is given by E d = c1 -5 exp(-c2/T) d

(1.3)

where c1 and c2 are constants. This is known as Wiens distribution law. This law holds good for smaller values of but does not fit the experimental curves for higher values of (fig 1.2).

1.2

Comparison of experimental distribution curve with Wiens law.

1.2.5 Rayleigh Jeans law: According to this law, the energy density emitted by a black body in the wavelength range And + d is given by E d = 8kT d (1.4) 4 This equation does not show any peak in the energy value but the energy goes on increasing with decrease in wavelength. The total energy emitted is infinite

for all temperatures above 0 K.

1.3

Comparison of experimental distribution curve with Rayleigh-Jeans law.

This is not at all in agreement with the experimental observation. of wavelength The law holds good only for large values (fig 1.3). At lower wavelengths, the

energy density increases and becomes very large for wavelengths in the ultra violet region. Such a large increase in the energy emitted at low wavelength does not occur experimentally. This discrepancy is known as Ultraviolet catastrophe of classical physics. All the above laws are based on classical

thermodynamics and statistics.

They are insufficient

to explain the black body radiation satisfactorily.

1.2.6 Plancks radiation law:

This law is based on quantum theory. Max Planck proposed radiation photons. that in atoms quanta or or molecules small energy absorb or emit called

packets

Energy of each photon E = h

can be expressed as

where is the frequency of the radiation corresponding to the energy E, h is a constant called Plancks constant and is equal to 6.63 x 10-34 Js.

Light quanta

are indistinguishable from each other and there is no restriction on the number of quanta having the same energy. In other words, Paulis exclusion principle is not applicable to to them. is The quantum statistics statistics.

applicable

photons

Bose-Einstein

Considering all the energy emitted by the black body in the form of photons of different energy, Planck applied Bose Einstein of statistics photons. to obtain the the energy energy

distribution

Accordingly,

density emitted in the wavelength range is given by E d = 8hc 5 _____1 ___ (ehc/kT 1) d

and( + d)

(1.5)

This

distribution

agrees

well

with

the

experimental observation of black body radiation and is valid for all wavelengths. Further, it reduces to

Wiens law for lower wavelength region and to Rayleigh Jeans law for higher wavelength region.

1.2.7 Derivation of Wiens law from Plancks law: When is small, we can consider

ehc/kT [ehc/kT

> 1 - 1 ] ehc/kT

Substituting in equation (1.5), we get E d = 8hc . 1__ . d 5 hc/kT (e ) i.e. E d = c1 -5 . exp(-c2/T) d and c2 = hc/k (1.6)

where c1

= 8hc

Equation (1.6) is the Wiens law. 1.2.8 Derivation of Rayleigh Jeans law from Plancks law. When is large, hc kT < 1.

[ehc/kT

- 1 ]

hc / kT

Substituting in equation (1.5),

we get

E d

8hc 5

. kT . d hc

i.e.

E d

8kT 4

(1.7)

Equation (1.7) is the Rayleigh Jeans law.

1.3

PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT: Emission of electrons from a metal on surface it is when

light

of

suitable

energy The

falls

called for

Photoelectric

effect.

experimental

setup

observing photoelectric effect consists of a pair of metal plate electrodes in an evacuated tube connected to a source of variable voltage as shown in fig.1.4.

1.4

Experimental set up to study photoelectric effect.

When light of suitable energy is incident on the cathode, electrons are emitted and a current flows across the tube.

The characteristic curves for the photoelectric emission as shown in fig. 1.5.

1.5 Current voltage characteristics of photocell. The Intensity of illumination increases from L1 to L3. The important properties of the emission are as

follows: (i) There is no time interval between the incidence of

light and the emission of photoelectrons. (ii) There light This below minimum is a minimum no frequency for the incident occurs.

which

photoelectron called

emission

frequency,

threshold

frequency,

depends on the material of the emitter surface. The energy corresponding to this threshold frequency is the minimum energy required to release an electron from the emitter surface. This energy is characteristic of the material of the emitter and is called the work function of the material of the emitter.

(iii) light,

For a given constant frequency of incident the number of photoelectrons emitted or the

photo current is directly proportional to the intensity of incident light. (iv) The photoelectron emission can be stopped by

applying a reverse voltage to the phototube, i.e. by making the emitter electrode positive and the collector negative. intensity increase This reverse voltage is independent of the of in incident the radiation of but increases light. with The

frequency

incident

negative collector potential required to stop the photo electron emission is called the stopping potential.

These characteristics of photoelectron emission

can

not be explained on the basis of classical theory of light but can be explained using the quantum theory of light. According to this theory, emission of electrons

from the metal surface occurs when the energy of the incident photon is used to liberate the electrons from The threshold frequency corresponds This the

their bound state.

to the minimum energy required for the emission. minimum metal. energy is called the work function of

When the incident photon carries an energy in

excess of the work function, the extra energy appears as the kinetic energy of the emitted electron. When the intensity of light increases, the number of

photoelectrons emitted also increases but their kinetic energy remains unaltered. The reverse potential

required to stop the photoelectron emission, i.e. the stopping potential, depends on the energy of the

incident photon and is numerically equivalent to the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons. When a photon of frequency is incident on a metal surface of work function , then, h = + ( mv2)max (1.8)

where ( mv2)max is the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectrons. This is known as Einsteins photoelectric equation. Since = ho, it can also be written as ( mv2)max = h

= h(-o )

(1.9)

If Vo is the stopping potential corresponding to the incident photon frequency , then, ( mv2)max = h = eVo (1.10)

Then,

by

experimental

determination

of

Vo ,

it

is

possible to find out the work function of the metal. The experimental observation of photoelectric effect leads to the conclusion that the energy in light is not spread out over wavefronts but is concentrated in small packets called photons. All photons of a

particular frequency have the same energy. A change in

the intensity of the incident light will change the number of photoelectrons emitted but not their

energies. Higher the frequency of the incident light, higher will be the kinetic energy of the

photoelectrons. These observations confirm the particle properties of light waves.

1.4

COMPTON EFFECT:

When x-rays are scattered by a solid medium, the scattered x-rays will normally have the same frequency or energy. This is a case of elastic scattering or However, Compton observed that in

coherent scattering.

addition to the scattered x-rays of same frequency, there higher energy). rays show existed some scattered (i.e., x-rays of a slightly or lower

wavelength

lower

frequency

This phenomenon in which the wavelength of xan increase after scattering is called

Compton effect. Compton explained the effect on the basis of the

quantum theory of radiation. be made up of photons, he

Considering radiation to applied the laws of

conservation of energy and momentum for the interaction of photon with electron. Consider an x-ray photon of

energy h incident on an electron at rest (fig. 1.6.) After the interaction, the x-ray photon gets scattered at an angle with its energy changed to a value h and the electron which was initially at rest recoils at an

angle

It

can

be

shown

that

the

increase

in

wavelength is given by

1.6

Schematic diagram of the scattering of a photon by a stationary electron.

= _h_ (1-cos ) mo c is the rest mass of the electron. = 90o, = __h__ mo c = 0.0242 A.

(1.11)

where mo When

This constant value is called Compton wavelength. When = 180o, = 2h mo c

Experimental observation indicate that the change in

the wavelength of the scattered x-rays is indeed in agreement with equation (1.11), thus providing further confirmation to the photon model.

Thus, Plancks theory of radiation, photoelectric effect and Compton effect are experimental evidences in favour of the quantum theory of radiation. 1.5 MATTER WAVES AND DE BROGLIES HYPOTHESIS

Quantum theory and the theory of relativity are the two important concepts that led to the development of modern physics. The quantum theory was first proposed by Planck to explain and overcome the inadequacies of classical theories of black body radiation. The

consequences were very spectacular. Louis de Broglie made the suggestion might that particles wave of matter, and like hence

electrons,

possess

properties

exhibit dual nature. His hypothesis was based on the following arguments: The Plancks theory of radiation suggests that energy is quantized and is given by E = h (1.12)

where is the frequency associated with the radiation. Einsteins mass-energy relation states that E = mc2 (1.13)

Combining the two equations, it can be written as E = h = mc2

Hence, the momentum associated with the photon is given by P = mc = h/c = h/ Extending this to particles, he suggested that any

particle having a momentum p is associated with a wave of wavelength given by = h/p and is called the de Broglie wavelength. The de Broglie wavelength can be calculated for any particle using the above relation. In case of charged particles like electrons, a beam of high energy (1.14)

This is called de Broglies hypothesis of matter waves

particles can be obtained by accelerating them in an electric field. For example, an electron starting from rest when accelerated with a potential difference V, the kinetic energy acquired by the electron is given by (1/2)mv2 = eV where v is the velocity of the electron. The momentum may be calculated as p = mv = (2meV)1/2 Using the de with Broglie the equation, the wavelength can be

associated

accelerated

electron

calculated as = h/p = h/(2meV)1/2 (1.15)

This equation suggests that, at a given speed, the de Broglie wavelength associated with the particle varies inversely as the mass of the particle. This concept of

matter

waves

aroused

great

interest

and

several

physicists launched experiments designed to test the hypothesis. Heisenberg and Schrodinger proceeded on to develop mathematical theories whereas Davisson and

Germer, G.P.Thomson and Kikuchi attempted experimental verification. 1.5.1 Davisson-Germer experiment The hypothesis of de Broglie was verified by the electron diffraction experiment conducted by Davisson and Germer in the United States. The experimental set up used by them is shown in the figure 1.7.

1.7

Experimental arrangement for Davisson-Germer experiment.

The

apparatus

consists

of

filament

heated

with

small a.c power supply to produce thermionic emission

of electrons. These electrons are attracted towards an anode in the form of a cylinder with a small aperture maintained at a finite positive potential with respect to the filament. They pass through the narrow aperture forming electron a fine beam beam was of made accelerated to electrons. on a This

incident

single

crystalline sample of nickel. The electrons scattered at different angles were counted using an ionization counter as a detector. The experiment was repeated by recording the scattered electron intensities at various positions of the detector for different accelerating potentials (Fig.1.8).

Fig.1.8. Scattered electron intensity maps at different accelerating potentials.The vertical axis represents the direction of the incident electron beam and is the scattering at any angle.The angle radial distance the from the of origin represents intensity

scattered electrons.

When a beam of electrons accelerated with a potential of 54 V a was directed perpendicular occurred in to the nickel

target,

sharp

maximum

the

electron

density at an angle of 500 with the incident beam. When the angle between the direction of the incident beam and the direction of the angle of incidence will be scattered beam is 500, the 250 and the corresponding

angle of diffraction will be 650. The spacing of the planes responsible for diffraction was found to be

0.091 nm from x-ray diffraction experiment. Assuming first order diffraction, the wavelength of the electron beam can be calculated as = 2d sin = 2 x 0.091 x sin 650 = 0.165 nm. The wavelength of the electrons can also be calculated using the de Broglies relation as = h/(2meV)1/2 = 6.63 x 10-34/(2 x 9.1 x 10-31 x 1.6 x 10-19 x 54)1/2 = 0.166 nm. Thus, the Davisson-Germer experiment directly verifies the de Broglies hypothesis. 1.5.2 At G.P.Thomson experiment almost the same time as the Davisson-Germer

experiment, G.P.Thomson of England carried out electron diffraction experiments foil independently of aluminium using a thin The

polycrystalline

metal.

experimental set up is shown in fig. 1.9.

1.9

Experimental arrangement of G.P.Thomson experiment.

He allowed a beam of accelerated electrons to fall on the aluminium foil and observed a diffraction pattern consisting of a series of concentric rings around the direction similar to of the incident beam. This pattern obtained the was for data

the using

Debye-Scherrer x-ray

pattern

aluminium

diffraction.

Using

available on aluminium, he calculated the wavelength of the electrons using the Braggs equation, n = 2d sin He also calculated the de Broglie wavelength of the electrons with the knowledge of accelerating potential using the relation, = h/(2meV)1/2

The

value

of

wavelength

calculated

from

the

two

equations matched well thereby experimentally proving the de Broglies relation. A similar experiment was conducted by Kikuchi in Japan in which he obtained electron diffraction pattern by passing an electron beam through a thin foil of mica to confirm the validity of de Broglies relation. The wave nature of particles is not restricted to electrons. Any particle with a momentum p has a de

Broglie wavelength equal to (h/p). Neutrons produced in nuclear reactors possess energies corresponding to

wavelength of the order of 0.1 nm. These particles also should Neutrons thermal be suitable a for diffraction reactor order of are kT by slowed and crystals. down used to for

from energy

nuclear of the

diffraction and interference experiments. The results agree well with the de Broglie relation. Since neutrons are uncharged particles, they are particularly useful in certain situations for diffraction studies. Neutron beams have also been used as probes to investigate the magnetic properties of nuclei. 1.5.3 Wave packet and de Broglie waves We have seen that moving particles may be

represented by de Broglie waves. The amplitude of these de Broglie waves does not represent any parameter

directly describing the particle but is related to the probability of finding the particle at a particular place at a particular time. Hence, we cannot describe

de Broglie waves with a simple wave equation of the type, y = A cos(t-kx) Instead, group of we have to In use an equation words, (1.16) representing a wave a

waves.

other

packet

consisting of waves of slightly differing wavelengths may represent the moving particle. Superposition of

these waves constituting the wave packet results in the net amplitude of the being wave modified, group. thereby phase defining velocity the of

shape

The

individual waves depends on the wavelength. Since the wave group consists of waves with different

wavelengths, all the waves do not proceed together and the wave group has a velocity different from the phase velocities of the individual waves. Hence, de Broglie waves may be associated with group velocity rather than the phase velocity. 1.5.4 Characteristics of matter waves

1. Matter waves are associated with a moving body. 2. The wavelength of matter waves is inversely

proportional to the velocity with which the body is moving. Hence, a body at rest has an infinite wavelength and the one traveling with a high

velocity has a lower wavelength. 3. Wavelength of matter waves also depends on the mass of the body and decreases with increase in mass. Due to this reason, the wavelike behaviour of heavier bodies is not very evident whereas wave

nature

of

subatomic

bodies

could

be

observed

experimentally. 4. A wave is normally associated with some quantity that varies periodically with the frequency of the wave. For example, in a water wave, it is the height of the water surface; in a sound wave it is the pressure and in an electromagnetic wave, it is the electric and magnetic fields that vary

periodically. But in matter waves, there is no physical quantity that varies periodically. We use a wave function to define matter waves and this wave function is related to the probability of finding the particle at any place at any instant, which varies periodically. 5. Matter waves are represented by a wave packet made up of a group of waves of slightly differing

wavelengths. Hence, we talk of group velocity of matter waves rather than the phase velocity. The group velocity can be shown to be equal to the particle velocity. 6. Matter waves. waves For show properties a beam similar of and to other

example,

accelerated diffraction wave of

electrons effects

produces to

interference an

similar

electromagnetic

same wavelength.

1.6

PHASE AND GROUP VELOCITIES: A wave is represented by the formula y = A cos (t kx) (1.16)

where y is the displacement at any instant t, A is the amplitude of vibration, is the angular frequency

equal to 2 and k is the wave vector, equal to (2/). The phase velocity of such a wave is the velocity with which a particular phase point of the wave travels. This corresponds to the phase being constant. i.e., (t kx) = constant or x = constant + t/k /k (1.17)

Phase velocity vp = dx/dt =

= 2/(2/) =

vp is called the wave velocity or phase velocity. The de Broglie waves are represented by a wave packet and hence we have group velocity associated with

them. Group velocity is the velocity with which the wave packet travels. In order to understand the concept of group velocity, consider the combination of two

waves represented by the formula y1 = A cos (t-kx) y2 = A cos {(+)t (k+k)x } The resultant displacement is given by y = y1 + y2 = 2A cos {(++)t(k+k+k)x} cos (t-kx) 2 2 2A cos(tkx).cos(t/2-kx/2) (1.18)

The

velocity

of

the

resultant

wave

is

given

by

the speed with which a reference point, say the maximum amplitude point, moves. Taking the amplitude of the

resultant wave as constant, we have

2A cos(t/2-kx/2) = constant

or

(t/2-kx/2) = constant

or x = constant + (t/k) Group velocity vg = dx/dt = (/k) (1.19)

Instead of two discrete values for and k, if the group of waves has a continuous spread from to (+) and k to (k+k), then, the group velocity is given by (1.20) vg = d dk It can be shown that the group velocity of the wave packet is equal to the velocity of the particle with which the wave packet is associated. 1.6.1 Relation between phase velocity and group

velocity: We have the mathematical relation for phase velocity given by vp = /k or = k.vp

The group velocity vg is given by vg = d = d(k.vp) dk dk = vp + k.dvp dk = vp + (2/). dvp d(2/) = vp + (2/).(-2/2).dvp d = vp - . dvp d (1.21)

In the above expression, if (dvp/d) = 0, i.e., if the phase velocity does not depend on wavelength, then the group velocity and phase velocity are equal. Such a medium is called a non-dispersive medium. In a

dispersive medium, (dvp/d) is positive and hence the group velocity is less than the phase velocity. 1.6.2 Relation between group velocity and particle

velocity (Velocity of de Broglie waves): The wavelength. phase This is velocity of waves for depend the well on the

responsible

known

phenomenon of dispersion. In the case of light waves in vacuum, the phase velocity is same for all wavelengths. In the case of de Broglie waves, we have, = 2 = 2mc2/h = 2m0c2 h(1-v2/c2)1/2 (1.22)

2m0v (1.23) h(1-v2/c2)1/2 The group velocity of de Broglie waves is given by Vg = d/dk = d/dv dk/dv (1.24)

and

k = 2/ = 2mv/h =

d/dv = (2m0c2/h).d(1-v2/c2)1/2 = 2m0v dv h(1-v2/c2)3/2

dk/dv =

____2m0_____ h(1-v2/c2)3/2

(1.25)

From equations 1.24 and 1.25 we get,

vg = v Thus, the group velocity associated with de

Broglie waves is just equal to the velocity with which the particle is moving. If we try to calculate the phase velocity, Vp= /k = c2/v = c2/vg (1.26)

Since the group velocity or the particle velocity is always less than c, the phase velocity of de Broglie waves turn out to be greater than c. This only

indicates that we cannot talk of phase velocity of de Broglie waves since they are made up of a group of waves. Phase velocity has no physical significance for de Broglie waves. 1.6.3 Derivation of de Broglie relation: The de Broglie relation may be derived as follows. If we assume a particle having a kinetic energy equal

to

mv2/2

to have a de Broglie wavelength , we can

write h = mv2/2 = (assuming the energy of the particle

to be purely kinetic) _m .v2 2h Differentiating with respect to , or d d = m . 2v. dv 2h d = v = d dk = 2d = 2d(1/) -2 d d (1.29) (1.27)

(1.28)

But we have vg

d = - v_ d 2 Substituting in eqn.1.28, we get mv h . dv d = - v 2

Rewriting this, we have dv_ d

- h_ m2

(1.30)

Integrating with respect to , h _ + c m where c is the constant of integration. By applying the boundary condition that the wavelength tends to infinity as the velocity tends to zero, we find that the constant of integration has to be zero. Hence, we get v = _h_ mv which is the de Broglie relation. = (1.31)

1.7 1.7.1

HEISENBERGS UNCERTAINTY

PRINCIPLE:

Origin and nature of the Principle:

When we assign wave properties to particles there is a limitation to the accuracy with which we can

measure the properties like position and momentum.

1.10

A wave packet with an extension x along x-axis.

Consider

wave

packet

as

shown

in

fig.1.10.

The

particle to which this wave packet corresponds to may be located anywhere within the wave packet at any

instant. The probability density suggests that it is most likely to be packet. However, found in there is the a middle of the wave of

finite

probability

finding the particle anywhere within the wave packet. If the wave of packet the is smaller can in be extension, specified the more

position precisely.

particle

But the wavelength of the waves will not be Since wavelength

well defined in a narrow wave packet.

is related to momentum through de Broglies relation, the momentum is not precisely known. On the otherhand,

a wave packet with large extension can have a more clearly defined wavelength and hence momentum at cost of the knowledge about the position. the

This leads

to the conclusion that it is impossible to know both the position and momentum of an object precisely at the same time. For a This is known as wave in to packet the be wave the of Uncertainty principle. extension k x with an the the

uncertainty uncertainties

number

assuming in

standard

deviation

respective quantities, it may be shown that a minimum value of the product of such deviations is given by x . k = (1.32)

This minimum value of the product of uncertainties is for the case of a gaussian distribution of the wave functions. Since the wave packets in general do not

have gaussian forms, the uncertainty relation becomes x . k But we have k = 2/ Also = h/p (1.34) (1.35) (1.33)

Hence, k =

k =

2p/h (1.36)

2 . p h

Substituting in equation (1.33), we get x . p h_ 4 or x. p 2 states that the (1.37)

This

equation

product

of

uncertainty x in the position of an object at some instant and the uncertainty in the momentum in the xdirection at the same instant is equal to or greater than /2. Another form of uncertainty principle relates energy and time. In the atomic process, if energy E is

emitted as an electromagnetic wave during an interval of time t, then, the uncertainty E in the measured value of E depends on the duration of the time interval t according to the equation, E . t /2 (1.38)

It may be mentioned that these uncertainties are not due to the limitations of the precision of the measuring methods or measuring instruments but due to the nature of the quantities involved. 1.7.2 An illustration of uncertainty principle:

We

have the

the

following

Thought principle.

experiment Imagine

to an

illustrate

uncertainty

electron being observed using a microscope (fig.1.11).

1.11 Schematic diagram of experimental set up to study uncertainty principle.

The

process

of

observation on the

involves electron The in

photon and

of

wavelength scattered considered

incident the a

getting may a be

into as

microscope. problem

event which

two-body

photon

interacts with an electron. The change in the velocity of the photon during the interaction may be anything between zero( for grazing angle of incidence) and 2c ( for head-on collision and reflection). The average change in the momentum of the photon may be written as

equal to (h/c) or (h/). This difference in momentum is carried by the recoiling electron which was

initially at rest. The change or uncertainty in the momentum of the electron may thus be written as (h/). At the same time, the position of the electron can be determined to an accuracy limited by the resolving power of the microscope, which is of the order of . Hence, the product of the uncertainties in position and momentum is of the order of h. that the uncertainties are This argument implies associated with the

measuring process. the accuracy in of the

This illustration only estimates measurement, nature of the the uncertainty moving being

inherent involved.

particles

1.7.3

Physical significance of uncertainty principle:

Uncertainty principle is a consequence of the wave particle duality. know both the It states that it is impossible to and momentum of an object

position

exactly and at the same time. be shown that the product of

Mathematically, it can uncertainties in the

position and momentum measured simultaneously will have a value greater than /2, ie (h/4). object and px If x is the

uncertainty in the measurement of the position x of an is the uncertainty in the measurement

of momentum px , then, at any instant,

x . px

> /2

We can try to estimate the product of the uncertainties with the help of illustrations as the one mentioned above. The principle is based on the assumption that a moving particle is associated with a wave packet, the extension uncertainty uncertainty of in in which the the in space of accounts the for the The the

position

particle. due to

momentum

arises

indeterminacy of the wavelength because of the finite size of the is wave not packet. due to the Thus, the uncertainty accuracy of

principle

limited

measurement but due to the inherent uncertainties in determining the quantities involved. define the position the particle is where But we can still

the probability of finding and also the most probable

maximum

momentum of the particle.

1.7.4 The

Applications of uncertainty principle: uncertainty In fact, principle it has has been far very reaching useful in

implications.

explaining many observations which cannot be explained otherwise. A few of the applications of the uncertainty principle are worth mentioning. (a) Diffraction of a beam of electrons: Diffraction of a beam of electrons at a slit is the effect of

uncertainty principle. As the slit is made narrower, thereby reducing the uncertainty in the position of the electrons in the beam, the beam spreads even more

indicating momentum.

larger

uncertainty

in

its

velocity

or

1.12 Diffraction at a single slit.

Figure 1.12 shows the diffraction of an electron beam by a narrow slit of width x. The beam traveling along OX is diffracted along OY through an angle . Due to the wave nature of the electron, we observe Fraunhoffer diffraction on the screen placed along XY. The accuracy with which the position of the electron is known is x since it is uncertain from which place in the slit the electron passes. = x.sin According to the theory of

diffraction, we have or x = / sin

Further, the initial momentum of the electron along XY was zero and after diffraction, the momentum of the electron is p. sin where p is the momentum of the

electron

along

the

incidence

direction.

Hence,

the

change in momentum of the electron along XY is p. sin or (h/). sin . Assuming the change in the momentum as representative of the uncertainty in momentum, we get x. px = h.sin = h sin

(b) Nuclear beta decay: In beta decay, electrons are emitted from the nucleus of the radioactive element. Assuming the diameter of the nucleus to represent the uncertainty nucleus, in the position in of electron inside can the be

the

uncertainty

the

momentum

calculated as follows: Radius of the nucleus = r = 5 x 10-15 m x = 2r = 10-14 m. p = h/2x = 6.62x10-34/(2x3.14x10-14) = 1.055x10-20 kg m s-1 Assuming that the electron was at rest before its emission, the change in momentum can be taken as equal to its momentum. large This magnitude for of the change in

momentum

indicates

velocity

electron.

Hence, the energy of the emitted electron will be E = pc = 1.055x10-20 x 3x108 = 3.165 x 10-12 J = 19.8 MeV. This indicates that the electrons inside the nucleus must have kinetic energy of 19.8 MeV. But the electrons emitted during beta decay have kinetic energy of the order of 1 MeV. This indicates that electrons do not

exist in the nucleus of the atom but are manufactured by the nucleus at the time of decay. (c)Binding energy of an electron in an atom: In a hydrogen atom, the electron revolves round the nucleus in an orbit of radius 5 X 10-11 m. Assuming this as the maximum uncertainty in position, we can calculate

the minimum uncertainty in the momentum as (p)min = h/2(x)max = 2.1 X 10-24 kg m s-1. Assuming this as the momentum of electron, the kinetic energy of the electron will be equal to K.E. = p2/2m = 2.45 X 10-18 J = 15.3 eV. Thus, the binding energy of an electron in hydrogen atom is nearly 15 experimentally. (d) Nitrogen of and doping energy of and silicon: momentum The laws of the in eV which is found to be correct

conservation generation

restrict

recombination

processes

semiconductors. Silicon, which is an indirect band gap semiconductor, has low efficiency as a material for photo diode or light emitting diode. Nitrogen doping of silicon will bind the free electrons to the lattice thereby position. momentum restricting This the in value a of uncertainty uncertainty probability in in for

results

larger the

thereby

increasing

generation or recombination process.

1.8

WAVE MECHANICS: Quantum theory is based on the quantization

of

energies.

It

deals

with

the

particle

nature

of

radiation. It implies that addition or liberation of energy assigns will be between status discrete to a energy of levels. energy It by

particle

packet

calling it quantum of energy or photon and treats the interaction of radiation with matter as a two-body problem. On the other hand, de Broglies hypothesis and the concept of matter waves led to the development of a different formulation called Wave mechanics. This

deals with the wave properties of material particles. It was shown later that the quantum mechanics and the wave mechanics are mathematically identical and lead to the same conclusion.

1.8.1

Characteristics of wave function:

Waves in general are associated with quantities that vary periodically. For example, water waves

involve the periodic variation of the height of the water surface at a point. Similarly, sound waves are

associated with periodic variations of the pressure. In the case of matter waves, the quantity that varies periodically function, is called by wave , function. associated The with wave

represented

matter

waves has no direct physical significance. an observable quantity.

It is not

But the value of the wave

function is related to the probability of finding the body at a given place at a given time. The square of

the absolute magnitude of the wave function of a body evaluated at a particular time at a particular place is proportional to the probability of finding the body at that place at that instant.

The

wave

functions

are

usually

complex.

The

probability in such a case is taken as , i.e. the product of the Since wave function with its complex

conjugate.

the probability of finding the body

somewhere is finite, we have the total probability over all space equal to certainty. i.e. dV = 1

(1.39)

Equation (1.39) is called the normalization condition and a wave function that obeys the equation is said to be normalized. Further, must be single valued since

the probability can have only one value at a particular place and time. Since the probability can have any

value between zero and one, the wave function must be continuous. derivatives derivatives Momentum of the /x, being wave and related function, /z wave to the space partial also be

the must

/y

continuous and single valued everywhere. important follows: characteristics of

Thus, the are as

function

(1)

must be finite, continuous and single valued /x, /y and /z must be finite, continuous must be normalizable.

everywhere. (2)

and single valued everywhere. (3)

1.8.2

Physical significance of wave function:

We have already seen that the wave function has no direct physical significance. However, it contains

information about the system it represents and this can be extracted by appropriate methods. Even though the wave function itself is not directly an observable

quantity, the square of the absolute value of the wave function is intimately related to the moving body and is known as the probability density. This probability density is the quantum mechanical method of finding the body at a particular position at a particular time. The wave function carries information about the particles wave-like behaviour. It also provides information about the momentum and energy of the particle at any instant of time.

1.8.3

Schrodingers wave equation:

The motion of a free particle can be described by the wave equation. = A exp{-i(t kx)}

(1.40)

But = 2 and k = 2/

= 2 (E/h) = (E/) = 2 (p/h) = (p/)

where E is the total energy and p is the momentum of the particle. get, = A exp{-i (Et-px)} (1.41) Substituting in the equation (1.40), we

Differentiating equation (1.41) with respect to x twice, we get, 2 = x2 -p2 2 or p2 = - 2 . 2 x2 (1.42)

Differentiating equation (1.41) with respect to t, we get, t . or E = - . i t

- iE

(1.43)

The total energy of the particle can be written as p2 2m is

+ U

(1.44)

where

the

potential

energy

of

the

particle.

Multiplying both sides of the equation by E = p2 2m + U (1.45)

Substituting for E and p2 from equation (1.42) and (1.43) - i t = - 2 2m 2 x2 + U (1.46)

This is known as Schrodingers time dependent equation in one dimension. The wave function in equation (1.41) may also be written as = A exp{-i (Et-px)} = exp (-iEt) A exp(-iEt) . exp(ipx) (1.47 )

where is a position dependent function. this form of in equation (1.45), E exp(-iEt) =

Substituting

p2 exp(-iEt) + U exp(-iEt) 2m

or E exp(-iEt) = - 2 . 2 . exp(-iEt) + U exp(-iEt) 2m x2 or 2 exp(-iEt) x2 + 2m (E-U) exp(-iEt) 2 = 0

2 + 2m (E-U) = 0 x2 2 This is the Schrodingers or

(1.48) wave equation in one

dimension. In three dimensions, the above equation may be written as

2 + x2 or

2 + y2

2 + 2m(E-U) = 0 z2 2

2 + 2m(E-U) =0 2 This equation is known as the steady state or time independent dimensions. Schrodinger wave equation in three

1.8.4 Eigen values and eigen functions:

These terms come from the German words and mean proper or characteristic The values of values energy or for functions which the

respectively. Schrodingers

equation can be solved are called Eigen

values and the corresponding wave functions are called Eigen functions. characteristics The eigen functions possess all the of wave functions in

properties

general (see section 1.8.1). 1.9 1.9.1 APPLICATIONS OF SCHRODINGERS EQUATION: Case of a free particle: A free particle is defined as one which is not acted upon by any external force that energy modifies U and in does its the not the

motion.

Hence,

the

potential is a

Schrodingers depend on

equation or

constant For

position

time.

convenience,

potential energy may be assumed to be zero. Then, the Schrodingers equation for the particle becomes

2 + 2m E = 0 (1.49) x2 2 where E is the total energy of the particle which is purely kinetic. This is of the form, 2 + k 2 = 0 x2 where k2 = 2mE/2. The solution of this equation may be written as = A cos kx + B sin kx

Solving

for

the

constants we

and apply as it

pose

some

difficulties conditions single on

because the

cannot function not

any

boundary

wave

represents a and not

wave

which

is

localized

normalizable. Since the solution has not imposed any restriction on the value of k, the free particle is permitted to have any value of energy given by the equation, E = 2k2/2m Since the total energy is purely kinetic, the momentum of the particle would be p = k or h/. This is just what we would expect, since we have constructed the Schrodinger equation to yield the solution for the free particle corresponding to a de Broglie wave.

1.9.2 Particle in a box:

The

simplest

problem

for

which

Schrodingers

time independent equation can be applied and solved is

the

case

of

particle

trapped

in

box

with

impenetrable walls. Consider a particle of mass m and energy E travelling along x-axis inside a box of width L. The

particle is thus restricted to move inside the box by reflections at x=0 and x=L (Fig. 1.13).

1.13 Schematic for a particle in a box. the wall extends to infinity.

The height of

The particle does not lose any energy when it collides with the walls and hence the total energy of the

particle remains constant.

The potential energy of the

particle is considered to be zero inside the box and infinite outside. Since the total energy of the

particle cannot be infinite, it is restricted to move within the box. The example is an oversimplified case

of

an

electron

acted

upon

by

the

electrostatic

potential of the ion cores in a crystal lattice. Since the particle cannot exist outside the box, = 0 for x < 0 and x L (1.50)

We have to evaluate the wave function inside the box. The Schrodingers 2 x2 = + 2m 2 E = equation (1.48) becomes 0 for 0 < x < L (1.51)

A sin (2mE)1/2 x + B cos (2mE )1/2 2 2

(1.52)

where A and B are constants. Applying the boundary condition that =0 at x = 0, equation 1.52 becomes A sin 0 + B cos 0 = 0 or B = 0. Again, we have = 0 at x = L. A.sin(2mE)1/2.L=0 2 If A = 0, the wavefunction will become zero Then,

irrespective of the value of x. Hence, A cannot be zero. Therefore, sin(2mE)1/2.L=0 2 or (2mE)1/2L=n where n=1,2,3 .. (1.53) 2 From (1.53), the energy eigen values may be written as En = n22 2 2mL2 where n = 1,2,3, (1.54)

From this equation, we infer that the energy of the particle is discrete as n can have integer values. In other words, the energy is quantized. We also note that n cannot be as zero well because as the in that case, of the wave the

function

probability

finding

particle becomes zero for all values of x. Hence, n = 0 is forbidden. E 1 = 2 2 2mL2 This is called ground state energy or zero point energy. The higher excited states will have energies like 4E1, 9E1, 16E1, etc. This indicates that the energy levels are not equally spaced. The given by n n wave functions or the eigen functions are The lowest energy the particle can

possess is corresponding to n = 1 and is equal to

= A. Sin

2mEn1/2 x 2 n x L (1.55)

or

A. Sin

Applying the normalization condition, i.e. A2 Sin2 nx . dx L = 1 (1.56)

Since the wave function is non-vanishing only for 0 < x < L, it can be shown that

 Sin2 nx L

dx

= (L ) 2

(1.57)

Substituting in equation (1.56), we have A2 (L ) = 1 or A = ( 2 )1/2 (1.58) 2 L The eigen function or wave functions in equation (1.55) becomes n = ( 2 ) L sin (2mEn) x 2 nx L (1.59)

n = ( 2 ) sin L

1.14 Variation of wave function associated with an electron confined to a box in its ground state & excited states.

Fig. 1.14 shows the variation of the

wave function

inside the box for different values of n and Fig.1.15 shows the probability densities of finding the particle

1.15 Probability function as a function of position.

at

different

places

inside

the

box

for

different

values of n. probability of

Thus, wave mechanics suggests that the finding any particle at the lowest

energy level is maximum at the centre of the box which is in agreement with the classical picture. the probability states is of finding the particle However, in by higher the two

energy

predicted

differently

formulations.

1.9.3 Finite Potential well: In real life situations, the potential energy is never infinite. The box with impenetrable walls has no physical significance. However, we come across

situations where the potential energy is finite. Let us try to solve the case of an electron in a finite

potential well. We can consider

two different cases

corresponding to the following situations: (i) the total energy E being greater than the

potential energy U, and (ii) the total energy E being less than the

potential energy U.

Fig 1.16 Schematic for a particle in a potential well of finite depth ( E greater than U).

The first case may be represented by the figure 1.16. Consider the particle with total energy E inside a potential well of height U. In the region II, where

the particle is not influenced by the potential (U = 0), the solution of the Schrodingers equation is of the form, = A cos kx + B sin kx where k = (2mE/2)1/2. This particle may be represented by a wave of wavelength = 2/k. When the particle is in region I and III, its wavelength changes to = 2/k where k = [2m(E-U)/2]1/2. In other words, the effect of the potential energy step is to reduce the kinetic energy of the particle as evident from an

increase in the value of the wavelength. In the second case, the total energy of the

particle is less than the potential energy. Under this condition, classically, the particle cannot propagate beyond energy the step since this But, amounts wave to the kinetic a

being

negative.

mechanically,

different solution results. Let U be greater than the total energy E of the electron but finite. this case, we have to consider the To analyze regions

three

separately. In region II, since U = 0, the electron is free and the Schrodingers equation is d2 dx2 + 2m E 2 = 0 (1.60)

In regions I and III, we have d2 dx2 + 2m (E U) = 2 0 (1.61)

The solutions for these equations can be assumed to be I II and where since E = A eix + B e-ix in region I in region II in region III (1.62) (1.63) (1.64) (1.65) (1.66) (E-U) is (-)ve and is

= C eix + D e-ix G e-ix

III = F eix + = [(2mE)/2 ]1/2

= [ 2m (E-U)/2 ]1/2 is less than U,

imaginary. Let us define a new constant I = -i B ex G ex (1.67)

Then the equations (1.62) and (1.64) become = A e-x + + (1.68) (1.69)

III = F e-x

To evaluate the constants, we condition should becomes 0 = A . + B .0 in the to region zero as I x

consider the boundary the wave function (1.68)

where

reduce

-.

Then

eqn

or A = 0. (1.70)

I = B ex Similarly, in region III, since the wave

function

should reduce to zero as x , eqn (1.69) becomes 0 = F . 0 + G . III = F e-x This indicates that the wave function or G = 0. (1.71) decreases

exponentially as we move away from the potential well

on either sides. Inside the potential well the wave function represented by the equation (1.63) varies

sinusoidally. Further, since the wave function and its derivative are continuous at the boundaries

corresponding to x = 0 and x = L, the wave functions are non-zero at these boundaries. The plots of the wave functions and the probability densities are shown in Fig. 1.17 and 1.18 respectively.

1.17 Variation of wave function of a particle in a finite potential well.

1.18 Probability function as a function of position.

Thus,

we

observe

that

in

case

of

particle

in

potential well of finite height, the particle has a finite probability of penetrating into the wall.

However, if the walls of the well are infinitely thick, the particle will be confined to the well and performs oscillatory motion inside the well. 1.9.4 Tunnel effect: In the previous case of a finite potential well, even though the height of the wall was finite, the thickness of the wall was assumed to be infinite. As a result, the particle was trapped in the well in spite of penetrating into the wall. Under the same condition of the total energy being less than the potential

energy, if the thickness of the wall is reduced and made finite, the solution of the Schrodingers equation

predicts a finite probability of the particle passing through the barrier and finding itself on the other side. Thus, a particle without the necessary energy to pass over the barrier can still penetrate through the barrier. This phenomenon is called Quantum mechanical tunneling.

1.19 Electron tunneling across a finite potential barrier. Consider a particle with energy E incident on a potential barrier of height U and width L as shown in Fig. 1.19. The potential energy is zero in the regions I and III, but is finite and equal to U in region II. The Schrodingers equation for the three regions will be d2 dx2 d2 dx2 + 2m E 2 = 0 in region I (1.72)

2m (E U) = 2

in region II

(1.73)

d2 dx2

2m 2

in region III

(1.74)

The solutions of these equations can be written as I II = A eix + B e-ix = C e-x + D ex in region I in region II in region III (1.75) (1.76) (1.77) (1.65) (1.66) (1.67)

III = F eix + G e-ix where and = [(2mE)/2 ]1/2

= [ 2m (E-U)/2 ]1/2 = -i

The wavefunction in the region I is made up of two terms as evident from Equation (1.75). The first term with a positive exponent represents an incoming or

incident wave moving in the positive x-direction and the second term represents a wave reflected by the

barrier moving in the negative x-direction. Similarly, the first term in equation (1.77) represents the

transmitted wave moving in region III in the positive x-direction. The wavefunction in the region II is given by equation (1.76). and hence Here, the the exponents are does real not

quantities

wavefunction

oscillate. The probability density II2 is finite and represent the probability of finding the particle

within the barrier. Such a particle may emerge into region III. This is called tunneling. The transmission probability T for a particle to pass through the barrier is given by

T = III2 = FF* e-2L I2 AA* The above equation represents the

(1.78) dependence of

tunneling probability on the width of the barrier and the energy of the particle. 1.9.5 Examples of tunneling across a finite barrier: There are a few examples of thin finite potential barrier tunneling across a in nature. These

observations are in fact proof in favour of the theory of quantum mechanical tunneling. Let us consider a few of them. (a) Alpha decay: Alpha particles are made up of two

protons and two neutrons. In radioactive decay, the alpha particle must free itself nuclear force and penetrate from the attractive a barrier of

through

repulsive coulombic potential to be emitted out of the nucleus(Fig.1.20). A calculation of the energy of the particle inside the nucleus and the measurement of the energy of the emitted alpha particle indicate that it is not possible that the particle has surmounted the

barrier of coulombic potential but must have penetrated through it.

1.20 Emission of an particle in nuclear decay.

(b) Ammonia inversion: In a molecule of ammonia, the three hydrogen atoms form a plane with the nitrogen atom placed symmetrically at a finite distance from the plane. It has been observed experimentally that the nitrogen atom oscillates between two positions on

either sides of the plane(Fig.1.21). Classical cannot calculations such show that the since nitrogen the atom

perform

oscillation

hydrogen

atoms form a barrier against nitrogen atom to prevent it from moving through the plane formed by the hydrogen atoms. However, nitrogen atom oscillates across the plane with a frequency higher than 1010 per second. This can be explained only on the basis of tunneling

process.

1.21 Schematic diagram of ammonia molecule. Nitrogen atom oscillates between two symmetric positions across the repulsive plane of hydrogen atoms.

(c) Zener and tunnel diodes: These are diodes made out of heavily doped semiconductors with special

characteristics. The current-voltage characteristics of these diodes can be explained only on the basis of quantum mechanical tunneling process. The high speed of operation of these devices can be explained only as due to tunneling since the movement of charge carriers is otherwise by diffusion which is a very slow process. The scanning tunneling microscope is another device

operating on the principle of tunneling. (d) Frustrated total internal reflection: Figure 1.22 shows a beam of light reflected totally from the

surface of glass. If a second prism of glass is brought

close to the first, the beam appears through the second glass prism indicating tunneling of light through the surfaces barriers. of glass which were otherwise acting as

1.22 Demonstration of frustrated total internal reflection.

1.9.6. Theoretical interpretation of tunneling: Penetration of a particle into the forbidden

region of a step or a barrier can be explained with the help of Heisenbergs uncertainty

principle. To enter this region, the particle must gain an energy of atleast (U-E) and to move in this region, it must have an additional kinetic energy, K. This is a violation of the principle of conservation of energy for the particle. However,

according write

to

the

uncertainty

relation,

we

may

E. t

(1.79)

According to this, the conservation of energy does not apply for a time duration t if the change in energy is not greater than E. If we presume that

the particle borrows an energy E and returns the borrowed energy within a time interval of t, the observer will still believe that the energy is conserved. The time interval within which the

extra energy must be returned is given by t = /E = /(U-E+K) (1.80)

The particle moves with a velocity v given by v = (2K/m)1/2 (1.81)

If the particle travels a distance x into the forbidden region and returns, then, the total distance travelled is 2x and hence we can write x = v.t/2 = (1.82)

As the kinetic energy K tends to zero, the value of x also tends to zero since the velocity tends to zero. Also, as K tends to infinity, x tends to interval t tending to zero. In between zero since it is the distance travelled in a time these

limits,

there

must to a

be

maximum

value

of of

x K.

corresponding

particular

value

Differentiating x with respect to K in equation 1.82, we can find the maximum value of x as xmax = Or xmax = (1/2)

(1.83) (1.84)

From equation 1.78, the probability of finding the particle at a distance T = e-2xmax Hence, we may xmax from the step is (1.85) maximum penetration

= e-1 the

define

distance as the distance at which the transmission probability is (1/e). It never may be mentioned in the that the particle region. is The

observed

forbidden

particles incident on the potential energy step will be reflected back. Some are reflected at the step itself where as others penetrate a finite distance before returning. If the barrier width is small, the particle will re-emerge on the other side of the barrier. This phenomenon is known as quantum mechanical tunneling.

1.9.7

Harmonic oscillator: When a body vibrates about an equilibrium

position, the body is said to be executing harmonic

motion. We have many examples of such motion which we come across, like the vibration in a spring that is stretched and released, vibrations of atoms in a

crystal lattice, etc. Whenever a system is disturbed from its equilibrium position, it can come back to its original position only under the influence of a

restoring force. Hence, the presence of a restoring force is a necessary condition for harmonic motion. The system oscillates indefinitely if there is no loss of energy. A harmonic special motion. case In of harmonic motion is simple the

simple

harmonic

motion,

restoring force F acting on a particle of mass m is linear. In other words, the restoring force is

proportional to the displacement x of the particle from its equilibrium position and is in the opposite

direction. i.e., F = -kx (1.86)

where k is called the force constant. The relation is called Hookes law. From the second law of motion, we have, F = ma -kx = m d2x dt2 or d2x + k.x = 0 dt2 m (1.88) (1.87)

This

is

the The

equation solution

for of

the this

simple equation

harmonic may be

oscillator. written as

x = A cos (t+) where = 2 = (k/m)1/2

(1.89) (1.90)

is called the frequency of the oscillator. is the phase angle and depends on the value of x at t = 0. The potential energy U corresponding to the restoring force F may be calculated as equal to the work done in

bringing a particle from x = 0 to x = x against the force. i.e., U(x) = F(x) dx = k x dx = kx2/2 U as a (1.91) function of

A plot of the

potential energy

displacement x is a parabola as shown in fig. 1.23. This indicates that an oscillator with energy E

1.23 Energy states in a one dimensional harmonic oscillator.

vibrates back and forth with an amplitude from a to +a. Classically, it appears that the oscillator can

have any value of energy forming a continuous spectrum. Let us examine the quantum mechanical modification to this classical picture. The Schrodingers equation for the harmonic oscillator with a potential energy U equal to kx2/2 may be written as 2 +2m(E kx2/2) = 0 x2 2 equation may be rewritten 2 + (a y2) = 0 y2 where a = 2E/h and y2 = kmx2/2. (1.92) in terms of

This

dimensionless quantities a and y as (1.93)

The solution to the equation 1.93 has to satisfy the boundary condition, = 0 as y and the normalization condition, 2 dy = 1 - These conditions will be satisfied when a = (2n+1) i.e., or where n = 0,1,2,3,..

a = 2E/h = (2n+1) E = (n +1/2) h where n = 0,1,2,3,.. (1.94)

This solution leads to the following conclusions: (i) The allowed energies will form a discrete spectrum

and not a continuous spectrum. (ii) The least allowed energy is not zero but a finite minimum value.

At n = 0, E0 = h/2 This minimum energy E0 is called the zero point energy. It is also observed that the higher energy

levels are all equally spaced with a spacing of h. This is in contrast to the result obtained for the case of a particle in a potential well of infinite depth.

1.9.8

Practical

applications

of

Schrodingers

wave

equation:

The real life situations are much different from the one considered while deriving the Schrodingers

wave equation. analyzing the

This is especially true when one is motion of a particle like electron

traveling at velocities comparable to that of light. Relativistic modification to the Schrodingers equation and its solution are complex. Further, the boundary

condition of an infinitely high potential barrier is never encountered. In case of metals, conduction

electrons move in crystal lattice under the influence of finite potentials of the ion cores. The potential

energy due to the influence of external forces acting on it may also be functions of position of the particle and time. Incorporation of these factors while

formulating and solving the Schrodingers wave equation has led to accurate prediction of the behaviour of

subatomic, systems.

atomic,

molecular

and

other

microscopic

NUMERICAL EXAMPLES:

1.1

Calculate the velocity of photoelectrons emitted

from a metal surface of work function 1.5 eV when the metal surface is irradiated with a light beam of wavelength 4 x 10-7 m. Solution: Incident energy = h = hc = 6.62x10-34x3x108 4 x 10-7 = 4.97x10-19 J Threshold energy = ho = = 1.5eV = 1.5 x 1.6 x 10-19 J = 2.4 x 10-19 J Kinetic energy of electrons = (h - h0 ) = (4.97-2.40) x 10-19 = Velocity of Photoelectrons 2.57 x 10-19 J. = [2(h - h0)/m]1/2 7.52 x 105 ms-1 (Ans.)

1.2

In a photoelectric effect experiment, a stopping

potential of 4.6 V was required to stop photoelectron emission with an incident light of frequency 2x 1015 Hz and a stopping potential of 12.9 V when the incident light had a frequency 4 x 1015 Hz. Evaluate the Plancks constant. Solution: If V1 and V2 represent the stopping potentials corresponding to incident frequencies 1 and 2, then eV1 eV2 = = h1 - h2 - 1.6 x 10-19 (12.9 4.6) (4 x 1015 2x1015) (Ans.)

h = e(V2-V1) = (2 - 1)

h = 6.64 x 10-34 Js.

1.3

Calculate the maximum change in wavelength that

can take place during Compton scattering of a photon. Solution: Change in wavelength = = __h (1-cos ) mo c

This will be maximum when Cos =-1,i.e.,when = 180. ()max = _2h mo c = __2x6.62 x 10-34___ 9.1 x 10-31 x 3 x 108

()max 1.4 work

4.85 x 10-12m (Ans.)

The material of the emitter of a photocell has a function of 2eV. Calculate the threshold

frequency.

Solution: Work function = h0 = 2 x 1.6 x 10-19 J Threshold frequency 0 = 2x1.6x10-19/6.62x10-34 = 4.83 x 1014 Hz.

1.5

The threshold frequency for the material of the

emitter of a Photocell is 4 x 1014 Hz. What is the stopping potential required to supress photo electrons emission when light of frequency 6x 1014 Hz is incident on the emitter? Solution: Stopping potential V0 = h(-0)/e = 6.62x10-34(6x1014-4x1014)/1.6x10-19 = 0.829 V (Ans). 1.6 In a photocell, a stopping potential of 2.5 V is to stop the photo the electron energy emission of the

required

completely.

Calculate

kinetic

emitted photo electrons. Solution: Kinetic energy = potential energy = e.V = 1.6 x 10-19 x 2.5 J = 2.5 eV (Ans).

1.7

In a photocell illuminated by light of frequency

5x1014Hz,a reverse potential of 2V is required to stop the photo electron emission. the material of the emitter. Solution: Work function = h(-0) = (h-eV) =6.62x10-34x5x1014-1.6x10-19x2 = 0.072 eV (Ans). Find the work function of

1.8

X-rays

of

wavelength

1.54

are

Compton

scattered at

an angle of 60.

Calculate the change in

the wavelength. Solution: Change in wavelength = = h (1-cos ) mo c

= h (1-cos 600) mo c 1.9 In a Compton

= 1.2 x 10-12m (Ans).

scattering

experiment,

incident

photons of energy 10 KeV are scattered at 45 to the incident beam. photon. Solution: Change in wavelength = = h (1-cos ) mo c = 7.1 x 10-13m. Calculate the energy of the scattered

Wavelength of incident photon = = hc/eE = 1.243 x 10-10m. Wavelength of scattered photon == + = 1.25 x 10-10m.

Energy of scattered photon = hc/ = 1.59 x 10-15 J = 9.93 keV (Ans).

1.10

Gamma Rays of energy 0.5 MeV are scattered by What is the energy of scattered gamma rays What is the kinetic

electrons.

at a scattering angle of 30? energy of scattered electron? Solution:

Wavelength of incident gamma rays = = hc/E = 6.62x10-34x3x108/1.6x10-19x0.5x106 = 2.486 x 10-12m. Change in wavelength = = h (1-cos ) mo c = 3.24 x 10-13m.

Wavelength of scattered photon == + 2.81 x 10-12m. Kinetic energy of the scattered electron = hc/ = 0.442 MeV (Ans).

1.11

X-rays

of

wavelength

1.5

are

Compton

scattered.

At what angle will be scattered x-rays have

a wavelength of 1.506 A? Solution: Change in wavelength = h (1-cos ) mo c cos = (1 m0c. /h) = (1 0.247) = 0.753 =

Angle of scattering, = 41.20 (Ans).

1.12 Calculate the de Broglie wavelength associated with an electron travelling with a velocity of 105 ms-1. Assume the mass of the electron to be 9.1 x 10-31kg. and h = 6.62x10-34Js.

Solution: De Broglie wavelength = h P = 6.62 x 10-34____ 9.1 x 10-31x105

= 7.27 x 10-9 m. (Ans.) 1.13 In an electron diffraction apparatus, the

electron beam is accelerated to a potential of 25 kV. Calculate the de Broglie wavelength associated with the electrons. Given:m =9.1 x 10-31kg,h=6.62 x 10-34 JS. e = 1.6 x 10-19 C. Solution: De Broglie wavelength = __h___ = (2mE)1/2 = = 1.14 ___h___ (2meV)1/2

_____6.62 x 10-34_______________________ ( 2x 9.1 x 10-31 x 1.6 x 10-19 x 25 x 103) 7.6 x 10-12 m. (Ans.)

Calculate the phase velocity and group velocity

associated with an electron assuming (i) nonrelativistic case and (ii) relativistic case. Solution: Non relativistic case.

Phase velocity vp = = (E/) = E = (p2/2m) = p = v K (p/) p p 2m 2 Phase velocity is half the particle velocity. Group velocity vg = d dk = dE dp = d(p2/2m) dp = p_ m = v

Group velocity is equal to the particle velocity. Relativistic case: Phase velocity vp = E p where E = (p2c2 + mo2c4)1/2

vp = c [ 1+ mo2c2 ]1/2 p2 Phase velocity is greater than c. This indicates that

we cannot talk of phase velocity of a particle since it is represented by a group of waves or a wave packet. Group velocity vg = dE = _d_ [p2c2+moc4]1/2 dp dp = pc2 E

= pc2 {p2c2 + mo2c4]-1/2 = mvc2 mc2

= v assuming E = mc2

Group velocity is equal to the particle velocity.

1.15

An electron is trapped in a one dimensional

potential well of infinite depth and a width of

1x10-10 m.

What

is

the

probability

of

finding

the

electron in the region from x = 0.09 x 10-10 m to x = 0.11 x 10-10 m in the ground state. Solution:

Method I: The probability of finding an electron in the region between x1 and x2 is given by Pn x2 x2 * = dx = (2/L) sin2(2nx/L)dx x1 x1 x2 =

[x/L

(1/2n).sin(2nx/L)] x1

For ground state, n = 1. x2 P1 =

[x/L

(1/2).sin(2x/L)] x1

= [0.11-(1/2x3.14)sin(2x180x0.11/1.0)] -[0.09-(1/2x3.14)sin(2x180x0.09/1.0)] = (0.11 0.10150) (0.09 0.08532) = 0.00382 (Ans). Method II: The probability of finding an electron in the region of width x around x is given by Pn = |n|2. x = (2/L) sin2(2nx/L). x Here, we take n = 1, x = 1x10-10m and x = 0.02x10-10m.

P1 = (2/1x10-10) sin2(1x180x0.1). 0.02x10-10 = 0.00382 (Ans). Note: The second method is only approximate and gives result close to the one obtained by method I only when x is very small.

1.16

An electron is trapped in a one dimensional

potential well of width 1x10-10 m and infinite height. Find the amount of energy required to excite the electron to its first excited state. What is the

probability of finding the electron in its first excited state between x =0.4x10-10 m and x =0.6x10-10 m?

Solution: Energy of the electron in the nth excited state is given by n2h2 8mL2 Energy required to take the electron from ground state En = (n = 1) to the first excited state (n = 2) is given by E = E2 E1 = h2__(22-12) = 3h2__ 8mL2 8mL2

= 3 x (6.62 x 10-34)2_______ 8 x 9.1 x 10-31 x (10-10)2 = 1.81 x 10-17 J = 112.87 eV. (Ans.)

The probability of finding the electron in the first excited state between x = 0.4 A given by x2 x2 * dx = (2/L) sin2(2x/L)dx x1 x1 x2 = and x = 0.6 A is

[x/L

(1/4).sin(4x/L)] x1

= = 1.17

(0.6 0.076) (0.4 + 0.076) 0.048 (Ans)

The velocity of an electron is measured to be If the velocity

3x106 ms-1 in a particular direction.

is measured with a precision of 1%, what is the accuracy with which its position can be measured simultaneously? Solution: Momentum of the electron (in non relativistic calculation) is = 9.1 x 10-31 x 3 x 106 = 2.73x10-24kg.m.s-1

Px

= mvx

Uncertainty in momentum

= px = 1% of px = 2.73x10-26 kg.ms-1 px 3.86 x 10-9 m (Ans.)

Uncertainty in position, x =

1.18

In an experimental study of nuclear decay, the

emitted energy spectrum shows a peak with a spread of energy equal to 120 MeV. decaying nuclei. Solution: Life time of the decaying nuclei = t __ E t =____6.62 x 10-34___________________ 120 x 106 x 1.6 x 10-19 x 2 x 3.14 = 5.5 x 10-24 s. (Ans.) Compute the life time of the

1.19

Calculate the de Broglie wavelength associated

with the following: (a) A car of mass 1000 kg moving with a velocity of 50 ms-1 (b) A tennis ball of mass 50 gms moving at a speed An air molecule of average mass 2x10-26kg of 75 ms-1. (c) moving with a velociity of 300 ms-1. (d) Solution: The deBroglie wavelength can be calculated as = h/p (a) = 6.62 x 10-34/1000x50 = 1.324 x 10-38m.This value is too low to be observable. (b) = 6.62 x 10-34/50 x 10-3x75 = 1.765 x 10-34m. (c) = 6.62 x 10-34/2 x 10-26 x 300 = 1.103 x 10-10m. An electron with an energy of 1 MeV.

(d) = h/(2meV)1/2 = 6.62 x 10-34/(2x9.1x10-31x1.6x10-19x106)1/2 = 1.23 x 10-12m (Ans).

1.20

Compute the accelerating potential required to

produce an electron beam of de Broglie wavelength 0.1 A. Solution: V = h2/2me2 = (6.62x10-34)2/2x1.6x10-19x(0.1x10-10)2 = 15.1 kV (Ans). 1.21 Calculate the deBroglie wavelength associated with a thermal neutron at 270 C. Kinetic energy of thermal neutrons = (3/2)kT = h/(3mkT)1/2 = 6.62x10-34/(3x1.67x10-27x1.38x10-23x300)1/2 = 1.45 x 10-10m (Ans).

1.22

A cricket ball of mass 250 gms moves with a If its velocity is measured with

velocity of 100 ms-1.

an accuracy of 1%, what is the accuracy of a simultaneous measurement of its position? Solution: x . px > /2 or x . px

px = 1% of 250x10-3x100 = 250x10-3 kgms-1 x = /px = 6.62 x10-34/250x10-3 = 2.65 x 10-33m(Ans).

1.23

In a gamma decay process, the life time of Compute the

decaying nuclei is found to be 2 ns.

uncertainty in the energy of gamma rays emitted. Solution: E . t E = /t /2 or E . t

= 6.62 x 10-34/2 x 3.14 x 2 x 10-9

= 5.27 x 10-26 J (Ans).

EXERCISE

1.1

Explain photoelectric effect. Give the assumptions

needed, and the laws of photoelectric emission. Calculate the velocity of the photoelectrons emitted from a metal surface whose work function is 1.5 eV and the wavelength of the incident light being 4x10-7m. (March 99) 1.2 Describe the ultraviolet catastrophe. Explain how (March 99)

the Plancks law of radiation overcomes it. 1.3

Explain Wiens law and Rayleigh-Jeans law. (August 99)

Mention their drawbacks. 1.4

Explain Einsteins theory of photo-electric (August 99)

effect. 1.5

What is Plancks radiation law? Show how Wiens

law and Rayleigh-Jeans law can be derived from it. (August 99)

1.6

The work function of tungsten is 5.4 eV. When

light of wavelength 170 nm is incident on the surface, electrons with energy 1.7 eV are ejected. Estimate the Plancks constant. 1.7 (August 99)

What is the nature of black body radiation? (March 2000)

Explain its significance. 1.8

In Compton scattering, calculate the maximum

kinetic energy of the scattered electron for a given photon energy. A metal surface has a photoelectric cut off wavelength of 325.6 nm. What is the stopping potential for an incident light of wavelength of 259.8 nm? 1.9 (March 2000) State Compton effect and explain the experimental (August 2000)

observations of Compton shift.

1.10 The stopping potential of 5.2 V was observed for light of frequency 3 x 1015 Hz. What would be the frequency of light when the stopping potential is doubled? (August 2000)

1.11 State and explain Plancks law of radiation. Show that it reduces to Wiens law and Rayleigh-Jeans law under certain conditions. (August 2000)

1.12 The photoelectric threshold for a certain metal is 5000 AU. Determine the maximum energy of the photoelectrons emitted when a radiation of wavelength 3000 AU is incident on its surface. (March 01)

1.13 Explain Plancks radiation law. Discuss Einsteins theory of photoelectric effect. (March 01)

1.14 Explain Wiens Displacement law. Mention its drawbacks. (August 01)

1.15 Explain Compton effect and give its physical significance. (August 01)

1.16 What is ultraviolet catastrophe? Show how it can be overcome with the help of Plancks radiation law. (August 01) 1.17 What is photoelectric effect? Mention the features of photoelectric emission. (March 02)

1.18 What is Compton scattering? With necessary equations, explain Compton scattering effect.(March 02) 1.19 Calculate the change in wavelength in Compton scattering at an angle of 600 to the incident direction. (March02)

1.20 Calculate the wavelength associated with an electron carrying an energy 2000 eV. (March 99)

1.21 Set up one dimensional Schrodingers wave equation for a free particle. (March 99)

1.22 Explain group velocity and phase velocity. Derive a relation between the two. (August 99)

1.23 Explain Heisenbergs uncertainty principle. Give its physical significance. (August 99)

1.24 What is de Broglies concept of matter waves? An electron has a wavelength of 1.66 x 10-10m. Find the kinetic energy, phase velocity and group velocityof the de Broglie wave. 1.25 (August 99)

Explain Heisenbergs uncertainty principle.

Give its physical significance. The position of an

electron can be measured with an accuracy of 1.5 x 1010

m. Find the uncertainty in its position after 1 sec.

(August 2001) 1.26 What are Eigen functions and Eigen values?

Find them for a particle in one dimensional potential well of infinite height. 2001) 1.27 Obtain the time independent Schrodingers wave (August

equation for a particle in one dimensional potential well of infinite height and discuss the solution. (August 2000) 1.28 Write a note on group velocity and phase

velocity. (March 2001) 1.29 Explain group velocity and phase velocity.

Derive relation between the two. (August 2001) 1.30 What is a wave function? Give its physical

significance. What is normalization of a wave function? (August 2001) 1.31 What is de Broglie concept of matter waves?

Derive an expression for de Broglie wavelength. (August 2001) 1.32 Set up time independent Schrodingers wave

equation and explain Eigen functions and Eigen values. (August 99) 1.33 What is Heisenbergs uncertainty principle? (March 2000)

Discuss its consequences.

1.34

Explain the behaviour of a particle in a one-

dimensional infinite potential well in terms of de Broglie waves. (March 2000)

1.35 What is the physical interpretation of wave function, nature of Eigen values and Eigen functions. (March 2000) 1.36 Discuss phase velocity and group velocity. (August 2000) 1.37 Explain only the conclusions drawn in photoelectric effect and Davisson-Germer experiment leading to deBroglie hypothesis. (Feb 2005)

1.38 Show that a free electron cannot exist in a nucleus of an atom. (Feb 2005)

1.39 What are matter waves? Show that the electron accelerated by a potential difference V volt is 1.226/ V = nm for non-relativistic case.(July 2005)

1.40 Explain phase velocity and group velocity. Derive the expression for deBroglie wavelength using the concept of group velocity.(July 2005)

1.41 Explain only the conclusions drawn in photoelectric effect and Davisson-Germer experiment leading to deBroglie hypothesis. (Feb 2005)

1.42 Show that a free electron cannot exist in a nucleus of an atom. (Feb 2005)