102 Complete - GOOD

A Technical Introduction
to Wireless
A Technical Introduction
to Wireless
102.1 - 1 April, 2004 Technical Introduction to Wireless -- 102 v1.5 - (c) 2004 Scott Baxter
How Did We Get Here?
Days before radio.....
1680 Newton first suggested
concept of spectrum, but for
visible light only
1831 Faraday demonstrated that
light, electricity, and magnetism
are related
1864 Maxwells Equations:
spectrum includes more than light
1890s First successful demos of
radio transmission
U
N S
LF HF VHF UHF MW IR UV X
RAY
Telegraphy
I Samuel F.B. Morse had the idea of the telegraph on a
sea cruise in the 1833. He studied physics for two years,
and In 1835 demonstrated a working prototype, which he
patented in 1837.
I Derivatives of Morse binary code are still in use today
I The US Congress funded a demonstration line from
Washington to Baltimore, completed in 1844.
I 1844: the first commercial telegraph circuits were coming
into use. The railroads soon were using them for train
dispatching, and the Western Union company resold idle
time on railroad circuits for public telegrams, nationwide
I 1857: first trans-Atlantic submarine cable was installed
Samuel F. B. Morse
at the peak of his career
Field Telegraphy
during the US Civil War, 1860s
Submarine Cable Installation
news sketch from the 1850s
Telephony
I By the 1870s, the telegraph was in use all over the world and largely taken for
granted by the public, government, and business.
I In 1876, Alexander Graham Bell patented his telephone, a device for carrying
actual voices over wires.
I Initial telephone demonstrations sparked intense public interest and by the late
1890s, telephone service was available in most towns and cities across the USA
Telephone Line Installation Crew
1880s
Alexander Graham Bell and his phone
from 1876 demonstration
Radio Milestones
I 1888: Heinrich Hertz, German physicist, gives lab demo of
existance of electromagnetic waves at radio frequencies
I 1895: Guglielmo Marconi demonstrates a wireless radio
telegraph over a 3-km path near his home it Italy
I 1897: the British fund Marconis development of reliable
radio telegraphy over ranges of 100 kM
I 1902: Marconis successful trans-Atlantic demonstration
I 1902: Nathan Stubblefield demonstrates voice over radio
I 1906: Lee De Forest invents audion, triode vacuum tube
feasible now to make steady carriers, and to amplify signals
I 1914: Radio became valuable military tool in World War I
I 1920s: Radio used for commercial broadcasting
I 1940s: first application of RADAR - English detection of
incoming German planes during WW II
I 1950s: first public marriage of radio and telephony - MTS,
Mobile Telephone System
I 1961: transistor developed: portable radio now practical
I 1961: IMTS - Improved Mobile Telephone Service
I 1970s: Integrated circuit progress: MSI, LSI, VLSI, ASICs
I 1979, 1983: AMPS cellular demo, commercial deployment
Guglielmo Marconi
radio pioneer, 1895
Lee De Forest
vacuum tube inventor
MTS,
IMTS
Frequencies Used by Wireless Systems
Overview of the Radio Spectrum
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.4 3.0 MHz
3,000,000 i.e., 3x10
6
Hz
AM LORAN Marine
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 MHz
30,000,000 i.e., 3x10
7
Hz
Short Wave -- International Broadcast -- Amateur CB
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 120 140 160 180 200 240 300 MHz
300,000,000 i.e., 3x10
8
Hz
FM VHF TV 7-13 VHF LOW Band VHF VHF TV 2-6
0.3 0.4 0.5 0/6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.4 3.0 GHz
3,000,000,000 i.e., 3x10
9
Hz
UHF TV 14-69 UHF GPS
DCS, PCS Cellular
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 GHz
30,000,000,000 i.e., 3x10
10
Hz
Broadcasting Land-Mobile Aeronautical Mobile Telephony
Terrestrial Microwave Satellite
Development of North American Cellular
I In the late 1970s, the FCC (USA Federal Communications Commission)
and the Canadian government allocated 40 MHz. of spectrum in the 800
MHz. range for public mobile telephony.
I FCC adopted Bell Labs AMPS (Advanced
Mobile Phone System) standard, creating
cellular as we know it today
The USA was divided into 333 MSAs
(Metropolitan Service Areas) and over
300 RSAs (Rural Service Areas)
I By 1990, all MSAs and RSAs had competing licenses granted and at
least one system operating. Canadian markets also developed.
I In 1987, the FCC allocated 10 mHz. of expanded spectrum
I In the 1990s, additional technologies were developed for cellular
TDMA (IS-54,55,56, IS-136) (also, GSM in Europe/worldwide)
CDMA (IS-95)
I US Operators did not pay for their spectrum, although processing fees
(typically $10,000s) were charged to cover license administrative cost
333 MSAs
300+ RSAs
North American Cellular Spectrum
Downlink Frequencies
(Forward Path)
Uplink Frequencies
(Reverse Path)
Frequency, MHz
824 835 845 870 880 894
869
849
846.5
825
890
891.5
Paging, ESMR, etc.
A B A B
Ownership and
Licensing
Frequencies used by A Cellular Operator
Initial ownership by Non-Wireline companies
Frequencies used by B Cellular Operator
Initial ownership by Wireline companies
I In each MSA and RSA, eligibility for ownership was restricted
A licenses awarded to non-telephone-company applicants only
B licenses awareded to existing telephone companies only
subsequent sales are unrestricted after system in actual operation
Development of North America PCS
I By 1994, US cellular systems were seriously
overloaded and looking for capacity relief
The FCC allocated 120 MHz. of spectrum
around 1900 MHz. for new wireless telephony
known as PCS (Personal Communications
Systems), and 20 MHz. for unlicensed services
allocation was divided into 6 blocks; 10-year
licenses were auctioned to highest bidders
51 MTAs
493 BTAs
I PCS Licensing and Auction Details
A & B spectrum blocks licensed in 51 MTAs (Major Trading Areas )
Revenue from auction: $7.2 billion (1995)
C, D, E, F blocks were licensed in 493 BTAs (Basic Trading Areas)
C-block auction revenue: $10.2 B, D-E-F block auction: $2+ B (1996)
Auction winners are free to choose any desired technology
A D B E F C
unlic.
data
unlic.
voice
A D B E F C
1850
MHz.
1910
MHz.
1990
MHz.
1930
MHz.
15 15 15 5 5 5 15 15 15 5 5 5
PCS SPECTRUM ALLOCATIONS IN NORTH AMERICA
Global and US Wireless Snapshot 4Q 2003
Worldwide USA
Total Wireless Users
GSM users
CDMA users
TDMA users
IDEN users
Analog users
1,320,000,000 100%
870,000,000 65.9%
224,000,000 17.0%
124,000,000 9.4%
68,000,000 5.2%
34,000,000 2.6%
141,000,000 100%
33,732,506 23.9%
64,503,287 45.7%
26,375,232 18.6%
11,978,382 8.5%
4,510,594 3.2%
I Total Worldwide Wireless customers surpassed total worldwide landline
customers at year-end 2002, with 1,00,080,000 of each.
I 2/3 of worldwide wireless customers use the GSM technology
I CDMA is second-most-prevalent with 17.0%
I In the US, CDMA is the most prevalent technology at 45.7%
I Both CDMA and GSM are growing in the US
most IS-136 TDMA systems are converting to GSM + GPRS + EDGE
Global and US Wireless Users by Technology
GSM
24%
CDMA
46%
TDMA
19%
Analog
3%
IDEN
8%
GSM
66%
CDMA
17%
TDMA
9%
Analog
3%
IDEN
5%
I GSM is by far the dominant global technology
I CDMA is dominant in its country of origin, the USA
I The IS-136 TDMA community is rapidly implementing GSM
primary motivation is to provide GPRS and/or EDGE fast data
US Wireless Operators:
Technologies and Subscribers
Totals: 64,503,287 33,732,506 26,275,232 11,978,382 4,510,594
Company Subscribers CDMA GSM TDMA IDEN Analog
Verizon 33,166,130 29,849,517 3,316,613
Cingular 22,348,869 11,174,435 11,174,435
AT&T Wireless 21,328,373 10,664,187 10,664,187
Sprint PCS 15,103,346 15,103,346
Nextel 10,817,261 10,817,261
T-Mobile 10,102,914 10,102,914
Alltel 7,755,772 6,980,195 775,577
US Cellular 4,184,035 2,928,824 836,807 418,403
Leap Wireless 1,530,744 1,530,744
Western Wireless 1,224,596 1,224,596
Dobson 1,122,546 1,122,546
Quest 1,020,496 1,020,496
Nextel Partners 895,792 895,792
Triton PCS 847,012 423,506 423,506
Rural Cellular Corp. 736,801 736,801
Alamosa Holdings 634,749 634,749
Airgate PCS 601,518 601,518
US Unwired 552,374 552,374
Centennial 540,863 540,863
Midwest Wireless 288,313 288,313
SourhernLINC 265,329 265,329
Ntelos 256,166 256,166
Horizon PCS 246,858 246,858
Ubiquitel 239,408 239,408
MetroPCS 1,694,024 1,694,024
Cellular South 561,273 280,636 280,636
Commnet PCS 357,174 357,174
NewComm 306,149 306,149
West Coast PCs 295,944 295,944
Meriwether Communications 275,534 275,534
Touch America 224,509 224,509
Airadigm Communications 163,279 163,279
Cellcomn 163,279 163,279
Conestoga Wireless 142,869 142,869
Lewis and Clark 132,665 132,665
Public Service Cellular 112,255 112,255
Entertainment Unlimited 112,255 112,255
NPI Wireless 112,255 112,255
Poplar PCS 102,050 102,050
CorrWireless 102,050 102,050
Iowa Wireless 102,050 102,050
NTCH 81,640 81,640
Edge Wireless 75,006 75,006
Skagit Wireless 73,476 73,476
141,000,000
Wireless Systems:
Modulation and Signal Bandwidth
Wireless Systems:
Modulation and Signal Bandwidth
Chapter 2
102.2 - 1 April, 2004 Technical Introduction to Wireless -- 102 -- (c) 2004 Scott Baxter - V1.5
f
c
f
c
Upper
Sideband
Lower
Sideband
f
c
f
c
1 0 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 0 1 0
I axis
Q axis
a
b
c
QPSK
I axis
Q axis
c
a
b
p
r
v
/4 shifted DQPSK
Characteristics of a Radio Signal
The purpose of telecommunications is to
send information from one place to another
Our civilization exploits the transmissible
nature of radio signals, using them in a
sense as our carrier pigeons
To convey information, some characteristic
of the radio signal must be altered (I.e.,
modulated) to represent the information
The sender and receiver must have a
consistent understanding of what the
variations mean to each other
RF signal characteristics which can be
varied for information transmission:
Amplitude
Frequency
Phase
SIGNAL CHARACTERISTICS
S(t) = A cos [
c
t + ]
The complete, time-
varying radio signal
Amplitude (strength)
of the signal
Natural Frequency
of the signal
Phase of the signal
Compare these Signals:
Different
Amplitudes
Different
Frequencies
Different
Phases
The Emergence of AM: A bit of History
The early radio pioneers first used binary transmission, turning their
crude transmitters on and off to form the dots and dashes of Morse
code. The first successful demonstrations of radio occurred during
the mid-1890s by experimenters in Italy, England, Kentucky, and
elsewhere.
Amplitude modulation was the first method used to transmit voice
over radio. The early experimenters couldnt foresee other methods
(FM, etc.), or todays advanced digital devices and techniques.
Commercial AM broadcasting to the public began in the early
1920s.
Despite its disadvantages and antiquity, AM is still alive:
AM broadcasting continues today in 540-1600 KHz.
AM modulation remains the international civil aviation standard,
used by all commercial aircraft (108-132 MHz. band).
AM modulation is used for the visual portion of commercial
television signals (sound portion carried by FM modulation)
Citizens Band (CB) radios use AM modulation
Special variations of AM featuring single or independent
sidebands, with carrier suppressed or attenuated, are used for
marine, commercial, military, and amateur communications SSB
LSB USB
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
TIME-DOMAIN VIEW
of AM MODULATOR
x(t) = [1 + am
n
(t)]cos
c
t
where:
a = modulation index (0 < a <= 1)
m
n
(t) = modulating waveform
c
= 2 f
c
, the radian carrier freq.
a
1
+
+
x(t)
cos
c
m
n
(t)
AM is linear modulation -- the
spectrum of the baseband signal
translates directly into sidebands on
both sides of the carrier frequency
Despite its simplicity, AM has definite
drawbacks which complicate its use for
wireless systems:
Only part of an AM signals energy
actually carries information
(sidebands); the rest is the carrier
The two identical sidebands waste
bandwidth
AM signals can be faithfully
amplified only by linear amplifiers
AM is highly vulnerable to external
noise during transmission
AM requires a very high C/I (~30 to
40 dB); otherwise, interference is
objectionable
FREQUENCY-DOMAIN VIEW
V
o
l
t
a
g
e
Frequency
0
f
c
m
n
(t)
BASEBAND
x(t)
UPPER
SIDEBAND
LOWER
SIDEBAND
CARRIER
An AM Modulator and Detector
TIME-DOMAIN VIEW:
AM MODULATOR
x(t)
cos
c
m
n
(t)
[1 + am
n
(t)]
Sat.
Lin.
AM modulation can be simply
accomplished in a saturated
amplifier
superimpose the modulating
waveform on the supply
voltage of the saturated
amplifier
AM de-modulation (detection) can
be easily performed using a
simple envelope detector
example: half-wave rectifier
this non-coherent detection
works well if S/N >10 dB.
AM demodulation can also be
performed by coherent detectors
incoming signal is mixed
(multiplied) with a locally
generated carrier
enhances performance when
S/N ratio is poor (<10 dB.)
TIME-DOMAIN VIEW:
AM DETECTOR
(non-coherent)
x(t)
m
n
(t)
Frequency Modulation (FM)
TIME-DOMAIN VIEW
s
FM
(t) =A cos [
c
t + m

m(x)dx+
0
]
t
t
0
where:
A = signal amplitude (constant)
c
= radian carrier frequency
m

= frequency deviation index
m(x) = modulating signal
0
= initial phase
Frequency Modulation (FM) is a type of
angle modulation
in FM, the instantaneous frequency
of the signal is varied by the
modulating waveform
Advantages of FM
the amplitude is constant
simple saturated amplifiers can
be used
the signal is relatively immune
to external noise
the signal is relatively robust;
required C/I values are typically
17-18 dB. in wireless
applications
Disadvantages of FM
relatively complex detectors are
required
a large number of sidebands are
produced, requiring even larger
bandwidth than AM
V
o
l
t
a
g
e
Frequency
0
f
c
S
FM
(t)
UPPER
SIDEBANDS
LOWER
SIDEBANDS
An FM Modulator and Detector
FM modulation can be
accomplished in tuned or voltage-
controlled oscillator
the modulating signal varies a
reactance (varactor, etc.) or
otherwise changes the
frequency of the oscillator
the modulation may be
performed at a low intermediate
frequency, then heterodyned to
a desired communications
frequency
FM de-modulation (detection) can
be performed by any of several
types of detectors
Phase-locked loop (PLL)
Pulse shaper and integrator
Ratio Detector
TIME-DOMAIN VIEW:
FM MODULATOR
s
FM
(t)
m(x)
~
VCO
x
LO
HPA
TIME-DOMAIN VIEW:
FM DETECTOR
x
LO
LNA
PLL
s
FM
(t)
m(x)
Phase Modulation (PM)
TIME-DOMAIN VIEW
s
PM
(t) =A cos [
c
t + m

m(x) +
0
]
where:
A = signal amplitude (constant)
c
= radian carrier frequency
m

= phase deviation index
m(x) = modulating signal
0
= initial phase
Phase Modulation (PM) is a type of angle
modulation, a sister of FM
the instantaneous phase of the
signal is varied according to the
modulating waveform
Advantages of PM: similar to FM
the amplitude is constant
simple saturated amplifiers can
be used
the signal is relatively immune
to external noise
the signal is relatively robust;
required C/I values are typically
17-18 dB. in wireless
applications
Disadvantages of PM
relatively complex detectors are
required
a large number of sidebands are
produced, requiring even larger
bandwidth than AM
V
o
l
t
a
g
e
Frequency
0
f
c
S
FM
(t)
UPPER
SIDEBANDS
LOWER
SIDEBANDS
Generating and Detecting Phase Modulation
PM and FM signals can be considered
identical with only one exception: in
FM, the analog modulating signal is
inherently de-emphasized by 1/F
Consequences of this realization:
the same types of circuitry can be
used to generate and detect both
analog PM or FM, determined by
filtering the modulating signal at
baseband
FM has poorer signal-to-noise
ratio than PM at high modulating
frequencies. Therefore, pre-
emphasis and de-emphasis are
often used in FM systems
TIME-DOMAIN VIEW:
FM DETECTOR FOR PM
x
LO
LNA
PLL
s
FM
(t)
m(x)
The phase of an FM signal is
proportional to the integral of the
amplitude of the modulating signal.
The phase of a PM signal is proportional
to the amplitude of the modulating
signal.
TIME-DOMAIN VIEW:
PHASE MODULATOR
s
FM
(t)
m(x)
~
Phase Shifter
x
LO
HPA
Modulation and Occupied Bandwidth
The bandwidth occupied by a signal
depends on:
input information bandwidth
modulation method
Information to be transmitted, called
input or baseband
bandwidth usually is small, much
lower than frequency of carrier
Unmodulated carrier
the carrier itself has Zero bandwidth!!
AM-modulated carrier
Notice the upper & lower sidebands
total bandwidth = 2 x baseband
FM-modulated carrier
Many sidebands! bandwidth is a
complex mathematical function
PM-modulated carrier
Many sidebands! bandwidth is a
complex mathematical function
Voltage
Time
Time-Domain
(as viewed on an
Oscilloscope)
Frequency-Domain
(as viewed on a
Spectrum Analyzer)
Voltage
Frequency
0
f
c
f
c
Upper
Sideband
Lower
Sideband
f
c
f
c
Introduction to Digital Modulation
The modulating signals shown in previous
slides were all analog. It is also possible to
quantize modulating signals, restricting them
to discrete values, and use such signals to
perform digital modulation. Digital
modulation has several advantages over
analog modulation:
Digital signals can be more easily
regenerated than analog
in analog systems, the effects of noise
and distortion are cumulative: each
demodulation and remodulation
introduces new noise and distortion,
added to the noise and distortion from
previous demodulations/remodulations.
in digital systems, each demodulation
and remodulation produces a clean
output signal free of past noise and
distortion
Digital bit streams are ideally suited to many
flexible multiplexing schemes
transmission
demodulation-remodulation
transmission
transmission
Theory of Digital Modulation: Sampling
Voice and other analog signals first must
be sampled (converted to digital form) for
digital modulation and transmission
The sampling theorem gives the criteria
necessary for successful sampling,
digital modulation, and demodulation
The analog signal must be band-
limited (low-pass filtered) to contain
no frequencies higher than f
M
Sampling must occur at least twice
as fast as f
M
in the analog signal.
This is called the Nyquist Rate
Required Bandwidth for p(t)
If each sample p(t) is expressed as
an n-bit binary number, the
bandwidth required to convey p(t) as
a digital signal is at least N*2* f
M
this follows Shannons Theorem: at
least one Hertz of bandwidth is
required to convey one bit per
second of data
The Sampling Theorem: Two Parts
If the signal contains no frequency higher
than f
M
Hz., it is comletely described by
specifying its samples taken at instants of
time spaced 1/2 f
M
s.
The signal can be completely recovered
from its samples taken at the rate of 2 f
M
samples per second or higher.
m(t)
Sampling
Recovery
m(t)
p(t)
Sampling Example: the 64 kb/s DS-0
Telephony has adopted a world-wide PCM
standard digital signal employing a 64 kb/s
stream derived from sampled voice data
Voice waveforms are band-limited
upper cutoff between 3500-4000 Hz. to
avoid aliasing
rolloff below 300 Hz. to minimize
vulnerability to hum from AC power mains
Voice waveforms sampled at 8000/second rate
8000 samples x 1 byte = 64,000 bits/second
A>D conversion is non-linear, one byte per
sample, thus 256 quantized levels are
possible
Levels are defined logarithmically rather
than linearly to accommodate a wider range
of audio levels with minimum distortion
-law companding (popular in North
America & Japan)
A-law companding (used in most other
countries)
A>D and D>A functions are performed in a
CODEC (coder-decoder) (see following figure)
-10dB
-20dB
-30dB
-40dB
0 dB
100 300 1000 3000 10000
Frequency, Hz
C-Message Weighting
t
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
8
7
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
4
16
1
3
15
8
3
4
8
A-LAW
y= sgn(x)
A| x|
ln(1+A)
for 0 x
1
A
(where A = 87. 6)
y= sgn(x)
ln(1+A| x)|
ln(1+ A)
for
1
A
< x 1
-Law
y = sgn(x)
ln(1+ | x|)
ln(1 + )
(where = 255)
Companding
Band-Limiting
x = analog audio voltage
y = quantized level (digital)
CODEC Block Diagram
Sample and
Hold, or Pulse
Stretcher
(Boxcar)
Circuit
8 kHz clock
pulse train
analog
input
analog
input
filtered
(smoothed)
analog
signal
stair step
(Pulse
Amplitude
Modulation-
PAM) signal
Analog-
Digital
Convertor
(A or -
law)
Digital-
Analog
Convertor
(A or -
law)
Digital
output
(serial or
parallel)
Pulse Code
Modulation
(PCM)
Digital
input
(serial or
parallel)
CODER
DECODER
Low-pass Filters
Digital Signals: the Bandwidth Penalty
Although digital modulation has many advantages, it requires
substantially more bandwidth than corresponding analog methods
Various techniques are used to minimize and compensate for the
bandwidth-appetite of digital
Advanced modulation techniques: maximizing the number of
bits carried per hertz of bandwidth
QPSK, DQPSK, GMSK, and other advanced forms
Compression of the content of digital signals: reducing the
number of bits required to carry the message
for voice information content: Vocoding techniques
(VSELP, RLP-LTP, CELP, etc.)
for data content: various compression techniques
Vocoders: Compression vs. Distortion
Objective: to significantly reduce the number of bits which must be
transmitted, but without creating objectionable levels of distortion
We are concerned mainly with telephone applications, with voice signal
already band-limited to 4 kHz. max. and sampled at 8 kHz.
The objective is toll-quality voice reproduction
General Categories of Speech Coders
Waveform Coders
attempt to re-create the input waveform
good speech quality but at relatively high bit rates
Vocoders
attempt to re-create the sound as perceived by humans
quantize and mimic speech-parameter-defined properties
lower bit rates but at some penalty in speech quality
Hybrid Coders
mixed approach, using elements of Waveform Coders &
Vocoders
use vector quantization against a codebook reference
low bit rates and good quality speech
Symbol Rate, bit/s/Hz and Constant
Envelope PM
Bit rate= (symbols/sec)*(bits/symbol)
Use of a rapid symbol rate requires increased bandwidth in a non-
bandlimited channel
Unless phase transitions are synchronized with carrier zero
voltage crossings, the resulting waveform discontinuities will
require large bandwidth
Using a rapid symbol rate together with narrow band channel
filtering causes the envelope of the resulting signal to fluctuate
Envelope oscillation occurs when symbol rate exceeds
channel bandwidth
Such a non-constant envelope requires use of a linear RF
power amplifier, which is more complex and less efficient than
constant envelope waveform with a Class C power amplifier
Digital Modulation
Digital Modulation
Claude Shannon:
The Einstein of Information Theory and Signal Science
The core idea that makes CDMA
possible was first explained by
Claude Shannon, a Bell Labs
research mathematician
Shannon's work relates amount
of information carried, channel
bandwidth, signal-to-noise-ratio,
and detection error probability
It shows the theoretical
upper limit attainable
In 1948 Claude Shannon published his landmark paper on information theory,
A Mathematical Theory of Communication. He observed that "the
fundamental problem of communication is that of reproducing at one point
either exactly or approximately a message selected at another point." His
paper so clearly established the foundations of information theory that his
framework and terminology are standard today.
Shannon died Feb. 24, 2001, at age 84.
Digital Modulation Systems
Modulation
Scheme
Shannon Limit,
BitsHz
BPSK 1 b/s/hz
QPSK 2 b/s/hz
8PSK 3 b/s/hz
16 QAM 4 b/s/hz
32 QAM 5 b/s/hz
64 QAM 6 b/s/hz
256 QAM 8 b/s/hz
Each symbol of a digitally
modulated RF signal conveys
a number of bits of information
determined by the number
of degrees of modulation
freedom
More complex modulation
schemes can carry more bits
per symbol in a given
bandwidth, but require better
signal-to-noise ratios
The actual number of bits per
second which can be
conveyed in a given bandwidth
under given signal-to-noise
conditions is described by
Shannons equations
SHANNONS
CAPACITY EQUATION
C = B
log
2
[ 1 + ]
S
N
B
= bandwidth in Hertz
C = channel capacity in bits/second
S = signal power
N = noise power
Modulation by Digital Inputs
For example, modulate a signal with this
digital waveform. No more continuous
analog variations, now were shifting
between discrete levels. We call this shift
keying.
The user gets to decide what levels
mean 0 and 1 -- there are no
inherent values
Steady Carrier without modulation
Amplitude Shift Keying
ASK applications: digital microwave
Frequency Shift Keying
FSK applications: control messages in
AMPS cellular; TDMA cellular
Phase Shift Keying
PSK applications: TDMA cellular,
GSM & PCS-1900
Our previous modulation examples used continuously-variable
analog inputs. If we quantize the inputs, restricting them to
digital values, we will produce digital modulation.
Voltage
Time
1 0 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 0 1 0
Digital Modulation Schemes
There are many different schemes for digital modulation, each a
compromise between complexity, immunity to errors in transmission,
required channel bandwidth, and possible requirement for linear amplifiers
Linear Modulation Techniques
BPSK Binary Phase Shift Keying
DPSK Differential Phase Shift Keying
QPSK Quadrature Phase Shift Keying IS-95 CDMA forward link
Offset QPSK IS-95 CDMA reverse link
Pi/4 DQPSK IS-54, IS-136 control and traffic channels
Constant Envelope Modulation Schemes
BFSK Binary Frequency Shift Keying AMPS control channels
MSK Minimum Shift Keying
GMSK Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying GSM systems, CDPD
Hybrid Combinations of Linear and Constant Envelope Modulation
MPSK M-ary Phase Shift Keying
QAM M-ary Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
MFSK M-ary Frequency Shift Keying FLEX paging protocol
Spread Spectrum Multiple Access Techniques
DSSS Direct-Sequence Spread Spectrum IS-95 CDMA
FHSS Frequency-Hopping Spread Spectrum
Phase-Plane (Argand) Diagrams for
BPSK, QPSK, /4 DQPSK
I axis
Q axis
c
a
b
Binary (bipolar)
phase shift keying
I axis
Q axis
a
b
c
QPSK
I axis
Q axis
c
a
b
p
r
v
/4 shifted DQPSK
The I axis is in-phase with a carrier reference signal. Each dot
represents a digital code value. The decision area is bounded by
a sector (180 or 90 deg) around the point. QPSK may use absolute
or differential coding. Phase change sequences shown by green
lines may occur. Transitions from a to p,r,or v are permitted, others are
not. Phasor ab represents additive interference, the resulting
phase angle.
Error Vulnerabilities of
Higher-Order Modulation Schemes
Q
I
Distortion
(Gain Compression)
Higher-Order Modulation
Schemes (16PSK, 32QAM,
64QAM...) are more
vulnerable to transmission
errors than the simpler, more
rugged schemes (BPSK,
QPSK)
Closely-packed
constellations leave little
room for vector error
Non-linearities (gain
compression, clipping,
reflections within antenna
system) warp the
constellation
Noise and long-delayed
echoes cause scatter
around constellation points
Interference blurs
constellation points into
rings of error
Q
I
Normal 64QAM
Q
I
Noise
Q
I
Interference
Error Vector Magnitude and (Rho)
A common measurement of
overall error is Error Vector
Magnitude EVM
usually a small fraction of
total vector amplitude, ~0.1
EVM is usually averaged over
a large number of symbols
Root-mean-square (RMS)
Commercial test equipment
for BTS maintenance
measures EVM
Signal quality is often
expressed as 1-EVM
normally called (Rho)
typically 0.89-0.96
Digital Modulation Schemes: Binary FSK
Binary Frequency Shift Keying is the modulation scheme used to
carry digital information on the AMPS analog cellular control
channel
The constant-amplitude carrier signal is switched between two
frequencies according to the binary value of the message bits
In AMPS control channels, the two FSK frequencies are 8 kHz.
above and below the channel center frequency and the bit rate is
10 kb/s.
Required bandwidth: Carsons Rule gives the bandwidth required:
BT = 2f + 2B, where:
BT = total bandwidth of BFSK signal
f = difference between the two frequencies employed
B = bandwidth of the digital baseband signal
Binary FSK signals can be detected non-coherently or coherently
Digital Modulation: GMSK for GSM and CDPD
MSK (Minimum Shift Keying) is a version of FSK in which the peak
frequency deviation is set equal to half the bit rate. This is the
minimum frequency separation that allows orthogonal detection of
the two binary states
Advantages of MSK:
constant envelope, spectral efficiency, good BER performance,
self-synchronizing capabilities
GMSK is a derivative of MSK
before modulation, the message waveform (in NRZ format) is
fed through a Gaussian filter to accomplish pulse shaping
this greatly reduces the sidelobes in the signals spectrum
this introduces a small penalty in BER performance, but it has
been shown that the mobile channel introduces an irreducible
error rate larger than the GMSK penalty anyway. Thus there is
no effective penalty for using GMSK
Modulation used in IS-95 CDMA Systems
Base Stations: QPSK
Q Axis
I Axis
Short
PN Q
cos t
sin t
Users
chips
Short
PN I
Mobiles: OQPSK
Q Axis
I Axis
Short
PN Q
cos t
sin t
Users
chips
1/2
chip
Short
PN I
CDMA mobiles use offset
QPSK modulation
the Q-sequence is
delayed half a chip, so
that I and Q never
change simultaneously
and the mobile TX never
passes through (0,0)
CDMA base stations use
QPSK modulation
every signal (voice, pilot,
sync, paging) has its own
amplitude, so the
transmitter is unavoidably
going through (0,0)
sometimes; no reason to
include 1/2 chip delay
CDMA Base Station Modulation Views
The view at top right shows the
actual measured QPSK phase
constellation of a CDMA base
station in normal service
The view at bottom right shows
the measured power in the code
domain for each walsh code on a
CDMA BTS in actual service
Notice that not all walsh codes
are active
Pilot, Sync, Paging, and
certain traffic channels are in
use
1xEV DO and 1xEV DV Constellations
16-QAM 64-QAM
Dynamic selection of modulation type, coding scheme, and data
rate squeeze the best performance out of each moment
Although complex modulation schemes pack large amounts of
data into a relatively small bandwidth, they are very vulnerable to
noise and distortion during transmission
Wireless Systems:
Multiple Access Technologies & Standards
Wireless Systems:
Multiple Access Technologies & Standards
Chapter 3
April, 2004 RF Engineering 102 - V1.50 (c) 2004 Scott Baxter 102.3 - 1
Multiple Access Methods
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
T
i
m
e
Power
FDMA
FDMA: AMPS & NAMPS
Each user occupies a private Frequency,
protected from interference through physical
separation from other users on the same
frequency
TDMA: IS-136, GSM
Each user occupies a specific frequency but
only during an assigned time slot. The
frequency is used by other users during
other time slots.
CDMA
Each user occupies a signal on a particular
frequency simultaneously with many other
users, but is uniquely distinguishable by
correlation with a special code used only by
this user
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
T
i
m
e
Power
TDMA
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
T
i
m
e
Power
CDMA
C
O
D
E
The CDMA Technology Path to 3G
Technology
Generation
Signal
Bandwidth,
#Users
Features:
Incremental
Progress
1G
AMPS
Data
Capabilities
30 kHz.
1
First
System,
Capacity
&
Handoffs
None,
2.4K by
modem
2G
IS-95A/J-Std008
1250 kHz.
20-35
First CDMA,
Capacity,
Quality
14.4K
2G
IS-95B
1250 kHz.
25-40
Improved
Access
Smarter
Handoffs
64K
2.5G or 3?
IS-2000:
1xRTT
1250 kHz.
50-80 voice
and data
Enhanced
Access
Channel
Structure
153K
307K
230K
3G
1xEV:
HDR or
1Xtreme
1250 kHz.
Many packet
users
Faster data
rates on
dedicated
1x RF data
carrier
2.4 Mb/s
(HDR)
5 Mb/s
(1Xtreme)
3G
IS-2000:
3xRTT
F: 3x 1250k
R: 3687k
120-210 per
3 carriers
Faster data
rates on
shared 3-
carrier
bundle
1.0 Mb/s
CDMAone CDMA2000/IS-2000
The GSM Technology Path to 3G
Technology
Generation
Signal
Bandwidth,
#Users
Features:
Incremental
Progress
1G
various
analog
Data
Capabilities
various
various
various
2G
GSM
200 kHz.
7.5 avg.
Europes
first Digital
wireless
none
2.5G or 3?
GPRS
200 kHz.
Many
Pkt. users
Packet IP
access
Multiple
attached
users
9-160 Kb/s
(conditions
determine)
3G
EDGE
200 kHz.
fast data
many users
Faster data
rates on
dedicated
200 kHz
data carrier
384 Kb/s
mobile user
3G
UMTS
UTRA
WCDMA
3.84 MHz.
up to 200+
voice users
and data
Integrated
voice and
data
2Mb/s
static user
The TDMA IS-136 Technology Path to 3G
2G
CDPD
30 kHz.
Many
Pkt Usrs
19.2
kbps
US
Packet
Data
Svc.
Technology
Generation
Signal
Bandwidth,
#Users
Features:
Incremental
Progress
Data
Capabilities
2G
TDMA
IS-54
IS-136
30 kHz.
3 users
USAs
first
Digital
wireless
none
2.5G or 3?
GPRS
200 kHz.
Many
Pkt. users
Packet IP
access
Multiple
attached
users
9-160 Kb/s
(conditions
determine)
3G
EDGE
200 kHz.
fast data
many users
Faster data
rates on
dedicated
200 kHz
data carrier
384 Kb/s
mobile user
3G
UMTS
UTRA
WCDMA
3.84 MHz.
up to 200+
voice users
and data
Integrated
voice and
data
1G
AMPS
30 kHz.
1
First
System,
Capacity
&
Handoffs
None,
2.4K by
modem
2Mb/s
static user
2G
GSM
200 kHz.
7.5 avg.
Europes
first
Digital
wireless
none
Wideband LAN (WiLAN) Technologies
Technology
Modulation
Type
Infrared
IRDA
Max Raw
Data Rate
various
4 Mb/s
802.11b
CCK
11 Mb/s
802.11a
BPSK, QPSK,
16QAM, or
64QAM
54 Mb/s
HIPERLAN
Type 1
FSK or
GMSK
23.5 Mb/s
HIPERLAN
Type 2
BPSK, QPSK,
16QAM, or
64QAM
54 Mb/s
Bluetooth
GFSK
FH
1 Mb/s
Access
Method
Single User per
Optical Carrier
various DSSS DSSS OFDM
3.84 MHz.
Frequency
Band
Optical 2.4 GHz 5 GHz 5 GHz 5 GHz 2.4 GHz
BLUETOOTH
802.11A, B,
WIFI, WILAN
Infrared IRDA
Survey of Analog Wireless Technologies
AMPS
IS553
TACS NMT450 NMT900 C-450
Frequency Band
Channel Spacing
Speech Modulation
Freq. Deviation
Signalling Modulation
Signalling Bit Rate
Overlay Signalling?
In-Call Supervision
In-Call Control
800 900 450 900 450
30 kHz. 25 25 12.5 20
FM
12 kHz. 9.5 5.0 5.0 4.0
Dir.FSK Dir.FSK Aud.FFSK Aud.FFSK Dir.FSK
10 kb/s 8 kb/s 1200 b/s 1200 b/s 5280 b/s
no no no no yes
SAT SAT ? ? overlay
FM FM FM FM
NAMPS
IS-91
800
10 kHz.
FM
5 kHz.
Dir.FSK
10 kb/s
no
DSAT
ST ST ? ? overlay DSAT
Call Control ST ST ? ? overlay DSAT
Paging/Access CCH (f) CCH (f) CCH (f) CCH (f) CCH (f) CCH (f)
Handoff Logic BTSLCR BTSLCR BTSLCR BTSLCR BTSLCR BTSLCR
Survey of Digital Wireless Technologies
GSM,
DCS1800
PCS1900
D-AMPS
IS-54
IS-136
Japan
PDC CT-2
Frequency Band(s)
Channel Spacing
Modulation type
Signal Bandwidth
Signalling Modulation
Transmission, kb/s
900
1800
1900
800
1900*
CDMA
IS-95
JStd008
Access Method TDMA TDMA CDMA
800
1900
200 30, 50* x 50/25i 100
865
TDMA TDMA
8/900
1400
GMSK
DQPSK
QPSK DQPSK GFSK
200+ 30 1250+ 50 100
GMSK DQPSK QPSK DQPSK GFSK
~240 ~44 1229ss 42 72
DECT
1728
1880
TDMA
GFSK
1800
GFSK
1152
Handoff Logic
Info kb/s
Signalling kb/s
TCH,
SDCCH
TCH,
SACCH
TCH
ACCH
SACCH
hybrid
14.4 x 9.6,14.4 11.2 32
~30 ~44 9.6 x 32
hybrid
MDHO
32
In-Call signalling
Paging/Access ch. CCH (t) CCH(f) CCH(c) CCH(f) BCH BCH
MAHO MAHO+ MDHO ? ?
32
Info frames/s ~200 50 50 50 packets 100
Spectrum Usage Capacity Considerations:
Signal Bandwidth, C/I and Frequency Reuse
GSM
AMPS, D-AMPS, N-AMPS
CDMA
30 30 10 kHz Bandwidth
200 kHz
1250 kHz
1 3 1 Users
8 Users
22 Users
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
3
4
4
3
2
5
6
1
7
Typical Frequency Reuse N=7
Vulnerability:
C/I 17 dB
Vulnerability:
C/I 6.5-9 dB
Vulnerability:
E
b
N
o
6 dB
Each wireless technology
(AMPS, NAMPS, D-AMPS,
GSM, CDMA) uses a specific
modulation type with its own
unique signal characteristics
Q Signal Bandwidth
determines how many RF
signals will fit in the
operators licensed
spectrum
Q Robustness of RF signal
determines tolerable level of
interference and necessary
physical separation of
cochannel cells
Q Number of users per RF
signal directly affects
capacity
Interference From Where?
FDMA vs CDMA Uplink Example
Q AMPS, N-AMPS, TDMA, and
GSM systems use FDMA and
separate same-frequency
users into cells physically far
apart to achieve required C/I
values
Q CDMA systems allow all
users in all cells/sectors to
use the same frequency.
Thus, each nearby user is a
source of interfering energy
against all other users, and a
users raw C/I is actually
negative. Each user is
recovered with its own unique
code, the processing gain
elevating that user above the
demodulated noise floor
2
3
4
5 6
7
4
6
4
7 2
7
2
5
3
5
3
6
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
AMPS-TDMA
CDMA
users
Survey of Wireless
Data Technologies
Q Each wireless technology offers
some data capability today
Q One or more circuit-switched
traffic channels may be assigned
for fast data instead of voice
Dial-up modem emulation is
provided at the wireless
switch
Packet data access may be
provided by a router at the
switch, but the RF link is
circuit-switched
Data rates are slow;
compression may be provided
Q Even 2G CDPD and Mobitex
Data-Only technologies are slow!
Q 3G technologies are much better!
Much faster RF traffic
channels
True packet-switched channel
management
TDMA
IS-136
9600 Circuit
Switched
GSM
9600
14400
Circuit
Switched
IDEN
19200
Circuit
Switched
CDMA
IS-95
9600
Circuit
Switched
64K 14400
AMPS
9600
14400
Circuit
Switched
2G
Mobitex
9600
Shared
IP
Packets
CDPD
19200
IP
Packets
CDMA2000
1xRTT
153K
230K
307K
IP
Packets
GPRS,
EDGE
9000
115K
IP
Packets
40,000
2.5G
CDMA2000
1xEV
2.4 M
5+M
IP
Packets
WCDMA
UMTS
1M
2M
IP
Packets
3G
18000
384k
120,000
2G to 3G Migration Paths
Technology
Family
3G Technology
2G Technology
CDMA
GSM
TDMA
cdma2000
UMTS
WCDMA
UWC-136
3xRTT
Frequency
Division
Duplex
Time
Division
Duplex
EDGE and
136 HS
outdoor
136 HS
indoor
1xEV DV
1xEV DO
GSM+
GPRS
GSM+
EDGE
North American Operators Technology Paths
3xRTT
1xEV DV
1xEV DO
1900 MHz.. 800 MHz..
Cingular/SBC/BellSouth
22,348,869
Verizon/VodaAccess Terminal/BAMS/GTE
33,166,130
Alltel
7,755,772
Other CDMA Independents
12,570,229
Nextel+
11,978,382
AT&T Wireless
21,328,373
Sprint PCS
15,103,346
WCDMA
UMTS
UTRA
1xRTT
cdma2000
T-Mobile
10,102,914
??!
Other TDMA Independents
4,436,611
X
UWCC
IS-136
GPRS
EDGE
GSM
X
4G: Broadband Wireless Access Technologies
Not BWA; for comparison only
802.16
BPSK to
256QAM
OFDM
54 Mb/s
TDD, FDD
various
2-11 GHz
10-66 GHz
802.20
Mobile BWA
Technology
Modulation
Type
Max Raw
Data Rate
Access
Method
Frequency
Band
Infrared
IRDA
various
4 Mb/s
Single User per
Optical Carrier
Optical
802.11b
CCK
11
Mb/s
DSSS
2.4 GHz
802.11a
BPSK, QPSK,
16QAM, or
64QAM
54 Mb/s
DSSS
5 GHz
HIPERLAN
Type 1
FSK or
GMSK
23.5 Mb/s
OFDM
5 GHz
HIPERLAN
Type 2
BPSK, QPSK,
16QAM, or
64QAM
54 Mb/s
various.
5 GHz
Bluetooth
GFSK
FH
1 Mb/s
various
2.4 GHz
BLUETOOTH
802.11A, B,
WIFI, WILAN
Infrared IRDA
Comparison of Wireless System Capacities
Fwd/Rev Spectrum kHz. 12,500 12,500 12,500 15,000 15,000 15,000 5,000 5,000 5,000
Technology AMPS TDMA CDMA TDMA GSM CDMA TDMA GSM CDMA
Req'd C/I or Eb/No, db 17 17 6 17 12 6 17 12 6
Freq Reuse Factor, N 7 7 1 7 4 1 7 4 1
RF Signal BW, kHz 30 30 1250 30 200 1250 30 200 1250
Total # RF Carriers 416 416 9 500 75 11 166 25 3
RF Sigs. per cell @N 59 59 9 71 18 11 23 6 3
# Sectors per cell 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
#CCH per sector 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
RF Signals per sector 18 18 9 22 6 11 6 2 3
Voicepaths/RF signal 1 3 22 3 8 22 3 8 22
SH average links used 1 1 1.66 1 1 1.66 1 1 1.66
Unique Voicepaths/carrier 1 3 13.253 3 8 13.253 3 8 13.253
Voicepaths/Sector 18 54 198 66 48 242 18 16 66
Unique Voicepaths/Sector 18 54 119 66 48 145 18 16 39
P.02 Erlangs per sector 11.5 44 105.5 55.3 38.4 130.9 11.5 9.83 30.1
P.02 Erlangs per site 34.5 132 316.5 165.9 115.2 392.7 34.5 29.49 90.3
Capacity vs. AMPS800 1 3.8 9.2 4.8 3.3 11.4 1.0 0.9 2.6
800 Cellular (A,B) 1900 PCS (A, B, C) 1900 PCS (D, E, F)
Capacity of Multicarrier CDMA Systems
f
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011
CDMA Carrier Frequencies
Fwd/Rev Spectrum kHz. 12,500 1,800 3,050 4,300 5,550 6,800 8,050 9,300 10,550 11,800 13,050 14,300
Technology AMPS CDMA CDMA CDMA CDMA CDMA CDMA CDMA CDMA CDMA CDMA CDMA
Req'd C/I or Eb/No, db 17 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
Freq Reuse Factor, N 7 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
RF Signal BW, kHz 30 1250 1250 1250 1250 1250 1250 1250 1250 1250 1250 1250
Total # RF Carriers 416 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
RF Sigs. per cell @N 59 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
# Sectors per cell 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
#CCH per sector 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
RF Signals per sector 18 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Voicepaths/RF signal 1 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 22
SH average links used 1 1.66 1.66 1.66 1.66 1.66 1.66 1.66 1.66 1.66 1.66 1.66
Unique Voicepaths/carrier 1 13.3 13.3 13.3 13.3 13.3 13.3 13.3 13.3 13.3 13.3 13.3
Voicepaths/Sector 18 22 44 66 88 110 132 154 176 198 220 242
Unique Voicepaths/Sector 18 13 26 39 53 66 79 92 106 119 132 145
P.02 Erlangs per sector 11.5 7.4 18.4 30.1 43.1 55.3 67.7 80.2 93.8 105.5 119.1 130.9
P.02 Erlangs per site 34.5 22.2 55.2 90.3 129.3 165.9 203.1 240.6 281.4 316.5 357.3 392.7
Capacity vs. AMPS800 1 0.64 1.60 2.6 3.7 4.8 5.9 7.0 8.2 9.2 10.4 11.4
Chapter 4
Physical Principles of
Propagation
Physical Principles of
Propagation
April, 2004 RF Engineering 102 v1.5 (c)2004 Scott Baxter 102.4 -1
Introduction to Propagation
Propagation is a key process within every radio link. During propagation, many
processes act on the radio signal.
attenuation
the signal amplitude is reduced by various natural mechanisms; if there is
too much attenuation, the signal will fall below the reliable detection
threshold at the receiver. Attenuation is the most important single factor
in propagation.
multipath and group delay distortions
the signal diffracts and reflects off irregularly shaped objects, producing a
host of components which arrive in random timings and random RF
phases at the receiver. This blurs pulses and also produces intermittent
signal cancellation and reinforcement. These effects are combatted
through a variety of special techniques
time variability - signal strength and quality varies with time, often dramatically
space variability - signal strength and quality varies with location and distance
frequency variability - signal strength and quality differs on different
frequencies
Effective masteryof propagation relies on
Physics: understand the basic propagation processes
Measurement: obtain data on propagation behavior in area of interest
Statistics: characterize what is known, extrapolate to predict the unknown
Modelmaking: formalize all the above into useful models
Propagation Effects of Earths Atmosphere
Earths unique atmosphere supports life (ours
included) and also introduces many propagation
effects -- some useful, some troublesome
Skywave Propagation: reflection from Ionized
Layers
LF and HF frequencies (below roughly 50
MHz.) are routinely reflected off layers of the
upper atmosphere which become ionized by
the sun
this phenomena produces intermittent world-
wide propagation and occasional total outages
this phenomena is strongly correlated with
frequency, day/night cycles, variations in
earths magnetic field, 11-year sunspot cycle
these effects are negligible for wireless
systems at their much-higher frequencies
More Atmospheric Propagation Effects
Attenuation at Microwave Frequencies
rain droplets can substantially attenuate RF
signals whose wavelengths are comparable to, or
smaller than, droplet size
rain attenuations of 20 dB. or more per km. are
possible
troublesome mainly above 10 GHz., and in
tropical areas
must be considered in reliability calculations
during path design
not major factor in wireless systems propagation
Diffraction, Wave Bending, Ducting
signals 50-2000 MHz. can be bent or reflected at
boundaries of different air density or humidity
phenomena: very sporadic unexpected long-
distance propagation beyond the horizon. May
last minutes or hours
can occur in wireless systems
Refraction
by air layers
Ducting
by air layers
>100 mi.
Rain Fades on
MIcrowave Links
Influence of Wavelength on Propagation
Radio signals in the atmosphere
propagate at almost speed of light
= wavelength
C = distance propagated in 1 second
F = frequency, Hertz
The wavelength of a radio signal
determines many of its propagation
characteristics
Antenna elements size are
typically in the order of 1/4 to 1/2
wavelength
Objects bigger than a wavelength
can reflect or obstruct RF energy
RF energy can penetrate into a
building or vehicle if they have
apertures a wavelength in size, or
larger
/2
= C / F
for AMPS: F= 870 MHz
= 0.345 m = 13.6 inches
for PCS-1900: F = 1960 MHz
= 0.153 m = 6.0 inches
Dominant Mechanisms of Mobile Propagation
Most propagation in the mobile
environment is dominated by these
three mechanisms:
Free space
No reflections, no obstructions
first Fresnel Zone clear
Signal spreading is only mechanism
Signal decays 20 dB/decade
Reflection
Reflected wave 180out of phase
Reflected wave not attenuated much
Signal decays 30-40 dB/decade
Knife-edge diffraction
Direct path is blocked by obstruction
Additional loss is introduced
Formulae available for simple cases
Well explore each of these further...
B
A
d
D
Free Space
Reflection
with partial cancellation
Knife-edge
Diffraction
Free-Space Propagation
The simplest propagation mode
Antenna radiates energy which spreads in space
Path Loss, db (between two isotropic antennas)
= 36.58 +20*Log
10
(F
MHZ
)+20Log
10
(Dist
MILES
)
Path Loss, db (between two dipole antennas)
= 32.26 +20*Log
10
(F
MHZ
)+20Log
10
(Dist
MILES
)
Notice the rate of signal decay:
6 db per octave of distance change, which is
20 db per decade of distance change
Free-Space propagation is applicable if:
there is only one signal path (no reflections)
the path is unobstructed (i.e., first Fresnel zone
is not penetrated by obstacles)
Free Space
Spreading Loss
energy intercepted
by receiving
antenna is
proportional to 1/r
2
r
First Fresnel Zone =
{Points P where AP + PB - AB < /2 }
Fresnel Zone radius d = 1/2 (D)^
(1/2)
1st Fresnel Zone
B
A
d
D
Reflection With Partial Cancellation
Mobile environment characteristics:
Small angles of incidence and reflection
Reflection is unattenuated (reflection coefficient =1)
Reflection causes phase shift of 180 degrees
Analysis
Physics of the reflection cancellation predicts signal
decay of 40 dB per decade of distance
Heights Exaggerated
for Clarity
HT
FT
HT
FT
D
MILES
Path Loss [dB ]= 172 + 34 x Log (D
Miles
)
- 20 x Log (Base Ant. Ht
Feet
)
- 10 x Log (Mobile Ant. Ht
Feet
)
SCALE PERSPECTIVE
Comparison of Free-Space and Reflection Propagation Modes
Assumptions: Flat earth, TX ERP = 50 dBm, @ 1950 MHz. Base Ht = 200 ft, Mobile Ht = 5 ft.
Received Signal in
Free Space, DBM
Received Signal in
Reflection Mode
Distance
MILES
-52.4
-69.0
1
-58.4
-79.2
2
-64.4
-89.5
4
-67.9
-95.4
6
-70.4
-99.7
8
-72.4
-103.0
10
-75.9
-109.0
15
-78.4
-113.2
20
Signal Decay Rates in Various Environments
Weve seen how the signal decays
with distance in two basic modes
of propagation:
Free-Space
20 dB per decade of distance
6 db per octave of distance
Reflection Cancellation
40 dB per decade of distance
12 db per octave of distance
Real-life wireless propagation
decay rates are typically
somewhere between 30 and 40
dB per decade of distance
Signal Level vs. Distance
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
Distance, Miles
1 3.16 10 2 5 7 8 6
One Octave
of distance (2x)
One Decade
of distance (10x)
Knife-Edge Diffraction
Sometimes a single well-defined
obstruction blocks the path, introducing
additional loss. This calculation is fairly
easy and can be used as a manual tool
to estimate the effects of individual
obstructions.
First calculate the diffraction parameter
from the geometry of the path
Next consult the table to obtain the
obstruction loss in db
Add this loss to the otherwise-
determined path loss to obtain the total
path loss.
Other losses such as free space and
reflection cancellation still apply, but
computed independently for the path as
if the obstruction did not exist
H
R
1
R
2
atten
dB
0
-5
-10
-15
-20
-25
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 -5
( + )
= -H
2
1 1
R
1
R
2
Combating Rayleigh Fading: Space Diversity
Fortunately, Rayleigh fades are
very short and last a small
percentage of the time
Two antennas separated by
several wavelengths will not
generally experience fades at the
same time
Space Diversity can be
obtained by using two receiving
antennas and switching instant-
by-instant to whichever is best
Required separation D for good
decorrelation is 10-20
12-24 ft. @ 800 MHz.
5-10 ft. @ 1900 MHz.
Signal received
by Antenna 1
Signal received
by Antenna 2
Combined
Signal
D
Types Of Propagation Models And Their Uses
Simple Analytical
Free space (Friis formula)
Reflection cancellation
Area
Okumura-Hata
Euro/Cost-231
Walfisch-Betroni/Ikegami
Point-to-Point
Ray Tracing
- Lees Method, others
Tech-Note 101
Longley-Rice, Biby-C
Local Variability
Rayleigh Distribution
Normal Distribution
Joint Probability Techniques
Examples of various model types
Simple Analytical models
Used for understanding and
predicting individual paths and
specific obstruction cases
General Area models
Primary drivers: statistical
Used for early system
dimensioning (cell counts, etc.)
Point-to-Point models
Primary drivers: analytical
Used for detailed coverage
analysis and cell planning
Local Variability models
Primary drivers: statistical
Characterizes microscopic level
fluctuations in a given locale,
confidence-of-service probability
General Principles Of Area Models
Area models mimic an average
path in a defined area
Theyre based on measured data
alone, with no consideration of
individual path features or
physical mechanisms
Typical inputs used by model:
Frequency
Distance from transmitter to
receiver
Actual or effective base
station & mobile heights
Average terrain elevation
Morphology correction loss
(Urban, Suburban, Rural, etc.)
Results may be quite different
than observed on individual paths
in the area
RSSI,
dBm
-120
-110
-100
-90
-80
-70
-60
-50
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33
Distance from Cell Site, km
Field
Strength,
dBV/m
+90
+80
+70
+60
+50
+40
+30
+20
Green Trace shows actual measured signal
strengths on a drive test radial, as determined
by real-world physics.
Red Trace shows the Okumura-Hata
prediction for the same radial. The smooth
curve is a good fit for real data. However,
the signal strength at a specific location on the
radial may be much higher or much lower
than the simple prediction.
The Okumura Model: General Concept
M
e
d
i
a
n

A
t
t
e
n
u
a
t
i
o
n

A
(
f
,
d
)
,

d
B
1
2
5
40
70
80
100
100 3000 500
Frequency f, MHz
10
50
70
Urban Area
d
,

k
m
30
850
26
35
100 200 300 500 700 1000 2000 3000
Frequency f, (MHz)
5
10
15
20
25
30
C
o
r
r
e
c
t
i
o
n

f
a
c
t
o
r
,

G
a
r
e
a
(
d
B
)
9 dB
850 MHz
O
p
e
n
a
re
a
Q
u
a
s
i o
p
e
n
a
r
e
a
S
u
b
u
r
b
a
n
a
r
e
a
The Okumura model is based on detailed analysis of exhaustive drive-test measurements
made in Tokyo and its suburbs during the late 1960s and early 1970s. The collected
date included measurements on numerous VHF, UHF, and microwave signal sources,
both horizontally and vertically polarized, at a wide range of heights.
The measurements were statistically processed and analyzed with respect to almost every
imaginable variable. This analysis was distilled into the curves above, showing a
median attenuation relative to free space loss Amu (f,d) and correlation factor Garea
(f,area), for BS antenna height ht = 200 m and MS antenna height hr = 3 m.
Okumura has served as the basis for high-level design of many existing wireless
systems, and has spawned a number of newer models adapted from its basic
concepts and numerical parameters.
Structure of the Okumura Model
Path Loss [dB] = L
FS
+ A
mu
(f,d) - G(H
b
) - G(H
m
) - G
area
Free-Space
Path Loss
Base Station
Height Gain
= 20 x Log (H
b
/200)
Mobile Station
Height Gain
= 10 x Log (H
m
/3)
A
mu
(f,d) Additional
Median Loss
from
Okumuras Curves
M
e
d
i
a
n

A
t
t
e
n
u
a
t
i
o
n

A
(
f
,
d
)
,

d
B
1
2
5
40
70
80
100
100 3000 500
Frequency f, MHz
10
50
70
Urban Area
d
,

k
m
30
850
26
Morphology Gain
0 dense urban
5 urban
10 suburban
17 rural
35
100
200 300 500 700 1000 2000 3000
Frequency f, (MHz)
5
10
15
20
25
30
C
o
r
r
e
c
t
i
o
n

f
a
c
t
o
r
,

G
a
r
e
a
(
d
B
)
850 MHz
Open area
Q
uasi open area
S
u
bu
rb
an area
The Okumura Model uses a combination of terms from basic physical
mechanisms and arbitrary factors to fit 1960-1970 Tokyo drive test data
Later researchers (HATA, COST231, others) have expressed Okumuras
curves as formulas and automated the computation
The Hata Model: General Concept
The Hata model is an empirical formula for propagation loss derived from
Okumuras model, to facilitate automatic calculation.
The propagation loss in an urban area is presented in a simple general format A +
B x log R, where A and B are functions of frequency and antenna height, R is
distance between BS and MS antennas
The model is applicable to frequencies 100 MHz-1500 MHz, distances 1-20 km, BS
antenna heights 30-200 m, MS antenna heights 1-10 m
The model is simplified due to following limitations:
Isotropic antennas
Quasi-smooth (not irregular) terrain
Urban area propagation loss is presented as the standard formula
Correction equations are used for other areas
Although Hata model does not imply path-specific corrections, it has significant
practical value and provide predictions which are very closely comparable with
Okumuras model
Hata Model General Concept and Formulas
(1) L
HATA
(urban) [dB] =69.55 + 26.16 x log ( f ) + [ 44.9 - 6.55 x log ( h
b
) ] x log ( d )
-13.82 x log ( h
b
) - A ( h
m
)
(2) L
HATA
(suburban) [dB] = L
HATA
(urban) - 2 x [ log ( f/28 ) ]
2
- 5.4
(3) L
HATA
(rural) [dB] =L
HATA
(urban) - 4.78 x [ log ( f ) ]
2
- 18.33 x log ( f ) -40.98
(4) A ( h
m
) [dB] = [ 11 x log ( f ) - 0.7 ] x h
m
- [ 1.56 x log ( f ) - 0.8 ]
(5) A ( h
m
) [dB] = 8.29 x [ log ( 1.54 x h
m
) ]
2
- 1.1 (for f<= 300 MHz.)
(6) A ( h
m
) [dB] = 3.2 x [ log ( 1175 x h
m
) ]
2
- 4.97 (for f > 300 MHz.)
Formulas for median path loss are:
(1) - Standard formula for urban areas
(2) - For suburban areas
(3) - For rural areas
Formulas for MS antenna ht. gain
correction factor A(hm)
(4) - For a small to medium sizes cities
(5) and (6) - For large cities
f - carrier frequency, MHz
h
b
and h
m
- BS and MS
antenna heights, m
d - distance between BS
and MS antennas, km
Environmental Factor C
0 dense urban
-5 urban
-10 suburban
-17 rural
The EURO COST-231 Model
L
COST
(urban) [dB] = 46.3 + 33.9 x log ( f ) + [ 44.9 - 6.55 x log ( h
b
) ]
x log ( d ) + C
m
-13.82 x log ( h
b
) - A ( h
m
)
The COST-231 model was developed by European
COoperative for Scientific and Technical Research
committee. It extends the HATA model to the 1.8-2
GHz. band in anticipation of PCS use.
COST-231 is applicable for frequencies 1500-2000
MHz, distances 1-20 km, BS antenna heights 30-200
m, MS antenna heights 1-10 m
Parameters and variables:
f is carrier frequency , in MHz
hb and hm are BS and MS antenna heights (m)
d is BS and MS separation, in km
A(hm) is MS antenna height correction factor
(same as in Hata model)
Cm is city size correction factor: Cm=0 dB for
suburbs and Cm=3 dB for metropolitan centers
Environmental
Factor C
1900
-2 dense urban
-5 urban
-10 suburban
-26 rural
Examples of Morphological Zones
Suburban: Mix of
residential and business
communities. Structures
include 1-2 story houses
50 feet apart and 2-5
story shops and offices.
Urban: Urban residential
and office areas (Typical
structures are 5-10 story
buildings, hotels,
hospitals, etc.)
Dense Urban: Dense
business districts with
skyscrapers (10-20 stories
and above) and high-rise
apartments
Suburban Suburban Suburban
Urban Urban Urban
Dense Urban
Dense Urban Dense Urban
Although zone definitions are arbitrary, the examples and definitions illustrated above
are typical of practice in North American PCS designs.
Example Morphological Zones
Rural - Highway:
Highways near open
farm land, large
open spaces, and
sparsely populated
residential areas.
Typical structures
are 1-2 story
houses, barns, etc.
Rural - In-town:
Open farm land,
large open spaces,
and sparsely
populated residential
areas. Typical
structures are 1-2
story houses, barns,
etc. Suburban Suburban
Rural Rural
Suburban
Rural
Rural Rural - - Highway Highway Rural - Highway
Notice how different zones may abruptly adjoin one another. In the case immediately
above, farm land (rural) adjoins built-up subdivisions (suburban) -- same terrain, but
different land use, penetration requirements, and anticipated traffic densities.
The MSI Planet General Model
P
r
- received power (dBm)
P
t
- transmit ERP (dBm)
H
b
- base station effective antenna height
H
m
- mobile station effective antenna height
DL - diffraction loss (dB)
K
1
- intercept K
2
- slope
K
3
- correction factor for base station antenna height gain
K
4
- correction factor for diffraction loss (accounts for clutter heights)
K
5
- Okumura-Hata correction factor for antenna height and distance
K
6
- correction factor for mobile station antenna height gain
K
c
- correction factor due to clutter at mobile station location
K
o
- correction factor for street orientation
P
r
= P
t
+ K
1
+ k
2
log(d) + k
3
log(H
b
) + K
4
DL + K
5
log(H
b
) log(d)
+ K
6
log (H
m
) + K
c
+ K
o
This is the general model format used in MSIs popular PlaNET propagation
prediction software for wireless systems. It includes terms similar to
Okumura-Hata and COST-231 models, along with additional terms to
include effects of specific obstructions and clutter on specific paths in the
mobile environment.
Typical Model Results
Including Environmental Correction
Tower
Height,
m
EIRP
(watts)
C,
dB
Range,
km
f = 870 MHz.
Dense Urban
Urban
Suburban
Rural
30
30
30
50
200
200
200
200
-2
-5
-10
-26
4.0
4.9
6.7
26.8
Okumura/Hata
Tower
Height,
m
EIRP
(watts)
C,
dB
Range,
km
f =1900 MHz.
Dense Urban
Urban
Suburban
Rural
30
30
30
50
200
200
200
200
0
-5
-10
-17
2.52
3.50
4.8
10.3
COST-231/Hata
Propagation at 1900 MHz. vs. 800 MHz.
Propagation at 1900 MHz. is similar to 800 MHz., but all effects are
more pronounced.
Reflections are more effective
Shadows from obstructions are deeper
Foliage absorption is more attenuative
Penetration into buildings through openings is more effective,
but absorbing materials within buildings and their walls
attenuate the signal more severely than at 800 MHz.
The net result of all these effects is to increase the contrast of hot
and cold signal areas throughout a 1900 MHz. system, compared
to what would have been obtained at 800 MHz.
Overall, coverage radius of a 1900 MHz. BTS is approximately
two-thirds the distance which would be obtained with the same
ERP, same antenna height, at 800 MHz.
Walfisch-Betroni/Walfisch-Ikegami Models
Ordinary Okumura-type models do work in
this environment, but the Walfisch models
attempt to improve accuracy by exploiting
the actual propagation mechanisms
involved
Path Loss = L
FS
+ L
RT
+ L
MS
L
FS
= free space path loss (Friis formula)
L
RT
= rooftop diffraction loss
L
MS
= multiscreen reflection loss
Propagation in built-up portions of cities is
dominated by ray diffraction over the tops of
buildings and by ray channeling through
multiple reflections down the street canyons
-20 dBm
-30 dBm
-40 dBm
-50 dBm
-60 dBm
-70 dBm
-80 dBm
-90 dBm
-100 dBm
-110 dBm
-120 dBm
Signal
Level
Legend
Area View
Statistical Techniques
Distribution Statistics Concept
An area model predicts signal
strength Vs. distance over an area
This is the median or most
probable signal strength at every
distance from the cell
The actual signal strength at any
real location is determined by
local physical effects, and will be
higher or lower
It is feasible to measure the
observed median signal strength
M and standard deviation
M and can be applied to find
probability of receiving an
arbitrary signal level at a given
distance
Median
Signal
Strength
,
dB
Occurrences
RSSI
Normal
Distribution
RSSI,
dBm
Distance
Signal Strength predicted
by area model
Signal Strength Predicted Vs. Observed
Observed
Signal Strength
Statistical Techniques
Practical Application Of Distribution Statistics
General Approach:
Use a model to predict RSSI
Compare measurements with model
obtain median signal strength M
obtain standard deviation
now apply correction factor to
obtain field strength required for
desired probability of service
Applications: Given
A desired outdoor signal level (dbm)
The observed standard deviation
from signal strength measurements
A desired percentage of locations
which must receive that signal level
Compute a cushion in dB which will
give us that % coverage confidence
RSSI,
dBm
Distance
10% of locations
exceed this RSSI
50%
90%
Percentage of locations where
observed RSSI exceeds predicted
RSSI
Median
Signal
Strength
,
dB
Occurrences
RSSI
Normal
Distribution
Cell Edge
Area Availability And Probability Of Service
Overall probability of service is best close to the
BTS, and decreases with increasing distance away
from BTS
For overall 90% location probability within cell
coverage area, probability will be 75% at cell edge
Result derived theoretically, confirmed in
modeling with propagation tools, and observed
from measurements
True if path loss variations are log-normally
distributed around predicted median values, as
in mobile environment
90%/75% is a commonly-used wireless
numerical coverage objective
Recent publications by Nortels Dr. Pete
Bernardin describe the relationship between
area and edge reliability, and the field
measurement techniques necessary to
demonstrate an arbitrary degree of coverage
reliability
Statistical View of
Cell Coverage
Area Availability:
90% overall within area
75%at edge of area
90%
75%
Application Of Distribution Statistics: Example
Lets design a cell to deliver at least -
95 dBm to at least 75% of the
locations at the cell edge
(This will provide coverage to 90% of
total locations within the cell)
Assume that measurements you
have made show a 10 dB standard
deviation
On the chart:
To serve 75% of locations at the
cell edge , we must deliver a
median signal strength which is
.675 times stronger than -95
dBm
Calculate:
- 95 dBm + ( .675 x 10 dB )
= - 88 dBm
So, design for a median signal
strength of -88 dBm!
Standard Deviations from
Median (Average) Signal Strength
Cumulative Normal Distribution
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
-3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
75%
0.675
Statistical Techniques:
Normal Distribution Graph & Table For Convenient Reference
Standard Deviation from Mean Signal Strength
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
-3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Cumulative
Probability
0.1%
1%
5%
10%
Standard
Deviation
-3.09
-2.32
-1.65
-1.28
-0.84 20%
-0.52 30%
0.675 75%
0 50%
0.52 70%
0.84 80%
1.28 90%
1.65 95%
2.35 99%
3.09 99.9%
3.72 99.99%
4.27 99.999%
Building Penetration
Statistical Characterization
Statistical techniques are effective
against situations that are difficult to
characterize analytically
Many analytical parameters, all
highly variable and complex
Building coverage is modeled using
existing outdoor path loss plus an
additional building penetration loss
Median value estimated/sampled
Statistical distribution determined
Standard deviation estimated or
measured
Additional margin allowed in link
budget to offset assumed loss
Typical values are shown at left
Building penetration
Typical Penetration Losses, dB
compared to outdoor street level
Environment
Type
(morphology)
Median
Loss,
dB
Std.
Dev.
, dB
Urban Bldg. 15 8
Suburban Bldg. 10 8
Rural Bldg. 10 8
8 4 Typical Vehicle
Dense Urban Bldg. 20 8
Vehicle penetration
Composite Probability Of Service
Adding Multiple Attenuating Mechanisms
COMPOSITE
= ((
OUTDOOR
)
2
+(
PENETRATION
)
2
)
1/2
LOSS
COMPOSITE
= LOSS
OUTDOOR
+LOSS
PENETRATION
Building
Outdoor Loss + Penetration Loss
For an in-building user, the actual signal level includes regular
outdoor path attenuation plus building penetration loss
Both outdoor and penetration losses have their own variabilities
with their own standard deviations
The users overall composite probability of service must include
composite median and standard deviation factors
Composite Probability of Service
Calculating Fade Margin For Link Budget
Example Case: Outdoor attenuation is 8 dB., and penetration loss
is 8 dB. Desired probability of service is 75% at the cell edge
What is the composite ? How much fade margin is required?
Composite Probability of Service
Calculating Required Fade Margin
Environment
Type
(morphology)
Median
Loss,
dB
Std.
Dev.
, dB
Urban Bldg. 15 8
Suburban Bldg. 10 8
Rural Bldg. 10 8
8 4 Typical Vehicle
Dense Urban Bldg. 20 8
Building
Penetration
Out-
Door
Std.
Dev.
, dB
8
8
8
8
8
Composite
Total
Area
Availability
Target, %
90%/75% @edge
90%/75% @edge
90%/75% @edge
90%/75% @edge
90%/75% @edge
Fade
Margin
dB
7.6
7.6
7.6
6.0
7.6
COMPOSITE
= ((
OUTDOOR
)
2
+(
PENETRATION
)
2
)
1/2
= ((8)
2
+(8)
2
)
1/2
=(64+64)
1/2
=(128)
1/2
= 11.31 dB
On cumulative normal distribution curve, 75%
probability is 0.675 above median.
Fade Margin required =
(11.31) (0.675) = 7.63 dB.
Standard Deviations from
Median (Average) Signal Strength
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
-3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
75%
.675
Propagation Data Collection Philosophy
RF testing of sites is usually performed for one of two reasons:
Drive Testing for model calibration
Prior to cell design of a wireless system, accurate models of
propagation in the area must be developed for use by the prediction
software. A significant number of typical sites are evaluated using the
test transmitter and receiver to determine signal decay rates and to
get a fairly accurate understanding of the effects of typical clutter in
the area.
Tests are also conducted to evaluate the additional attenuation which
the signal suffers during penetration of typical buildings and vehicles.
The focus is on developing models generally applicable to the area,
not on the performance of specific individual sites.
Drive Testing for site evaluation
Although propagation models for an area already have been refined,
coverage of a particular site is so critical, or its environment so
variable due to urban clutter, that it is essential to actually measure
the coverage and interference it will produce. The focus is on this
specific site.
Elements of Typical Measurement Systems
Wireless
Receiver
PC or
Collector
GPS
Receiver
Dead
Reckoning
Main Features
Field strength measurement
Accurate collection in real-time
Multi-channel, averaging
capability
Location Data Collection Methods:
Global Positioning System (GPS)
Dead reckoning on digitized map
database using on-board
compass and wheel revolutions
sensor
A combination of both methods is
recommended for the best results
Ideally, a system should be calibrated
in absolute units, not just raw
received power level indications
Record normalized antenna gain,
measured line loss
Typical Test Transmitter Operations
Typical Characteristics
portable, low power needs
weatherproof or weather resistant
regulated power output
frequency-agile: synthesized
Operational Concerns
spectrum coordination and proper
authorization to radiate test signal
antenna unobstructed
stable AC power
SAFETY:
people/equipment falling due to
wind, or tripping on obstacles
electric shock
damage to rooftop
A Typical Mobile Test Receiver
Receivers and decoders are installed
only for the appropriate technologies
and frequency bands
Internal GPS or external GPS may
be used, with or without dead-
reckoning capabilities
Internal GPS
Receiver,
if used
Up to 4
technology-specific
decoder boards:
AMPS, TDMA
GSM, CDMA
Paging
Up to 4
technology and
band-specific
receivers:
800 MHz. cellular
150, 450, 800 Paging
1900 PCS
Up to 2 handsets
may be connected
for GSM or CDMA
at 800 or 1900 MHz.
inputs to internal RXs
Main
On/Off
RF to
Int. GPS
Selecting and Tuning Propagation Models
Parameters of propagation
models must be adjusted for
best fit to actual drive-test
measured data in the area
where the model is applied
The figure at right shows drive-
test signal strengths obtained
using a test transmitter at an
actual test site
Tools automate the process of
comparing the measured data
with its own predictions, and
deriving error statistics
Prediction model parameters
then can be tuned to
minimize observed error
Measured Data vs. Model Predictions
Is the propagation model approximately correct?
Is the data scatter small enough to justify use of a model?
correct slope to match data
correct position up/down on Y-axis?
Analysis of Measured vs. Predicted
Several tools produce histograms showing the distribution of the
differences between measured and predicted values
The mean of the difference between predicted and measured is a
very important quantity. It should be small (on order of a few dB).
The standard deviation of the difference also should be small. If it is
substantially larger than 8 dB., then either:
the environment is very diverse
(perhaps it should be broken
into pieces with separate
models for better fit) or
the slope of the model is
significantly different than the
observed slope of the
measurements (review the Sig.
vs. Dist. graph)
Displaying Error Distribution by Location
Suppose a major hill blocked
the signal in one direction, or
the antenna pattern had an
unexpected minimum in that
direction
This would cause the data in
the shadowed region to differ
substantially from data in all
remaining directions
Some tools can display the
error values on a map like the
one at right, to provide quick
visual evidence for recognizing
this type of problem
Chapter 5
Antennas for
Wireless Systems
Antennas for
Wireless Systems
Dipole
Typical Wireless
Omni Antenna
Isotropic
April, 2004 RF Engineering 102 v1.5 (c)2004 Scott Baxter 102.5 - 1
Understanding Antenna Radiation
The Principle Of Current Moments
Q An antenna is just a passive
conductor carrying RF current
RF power causes the current
flow
Current flowing radiates
electromagnetic fields
Electromagnetic fields cause
current in receiving antennas
Q The effect of the total antenna is the
sum of what every tiny slice of the
antenna is doing
Radiation of a tiny slice is
proportional to its length times
the magnitude of the current in
it, at the phase of the current
TX
RX
Width of band
denotes current
magnitude
Zero current
at each end
Maximum current
at the middle
Current induced in
receiving antenna
is vector sum of
contribution of every
tiny slice of
radiating antenna
each tiny
imaginary slice
of the antenna
does its share
of radiating
Different Radiation In Different Directions
Q Each slice of the antenna produces
a definite amount of radiation at a
specific phase angle
Q Strength of signal received varies,
depending on direction of departure
from radiating antenna
In some directions, the
components add up in phase
to a strong signal level
In other directions, due to the
different distances the various
components must travel to
reach the receiver, they are
out of phase and cancel,
leaving a much weaker signal
Q An antennas directivity is the same
for transmission & reception
TX
Maximum
Radiation:
contributions
in phase,
reinforce
Minimum
Radiation:
contributions
out of phase,
cancel
Minimum
Radiation:
contributions
out of phase,
cancel
Antenna Polarization
TX
Electromagnetic
Field
current
almost
no
current
Antenna 1
Vertically
Polarized
Antenna 2
Horizontally
Polarized
RX
RF current in a conductor
causes electromagnetic fields
that seek to induce current
flowing in the same direction
in other conductors.
The orientation of the antenna is
called its polarization.
Q To intercept significant energy, a receiving antenna must be oriented
parallel to the transmitting antenna
A receiving antenna oriented at right angles to the transmitting
antenna is cross-polarized; will have very little current induced
Vertical polarization is the default convention in wireless telephony
In the cluttered urban environment, energy becomes scattered and
de-polarized during propagation, so polarization is not as critical
Handset users hold the antennas at seemingly random angles..
Antenna Gain
Q Antennas are passive devices: they do not produce
power
Can only receive power in one form and pass
it on in another, minus incidental losses
Cannot generate power or amplify
Q However, an antenna can appear to have gain
compared against another antenna or condition. This
gain can be expressed in dB or as a power ratio. It
applies both to radiating and receiving
Q A directional antenna, in its direction of maximum
radiation, appears to have gain compared against a
non-directional antenna
Q Gain in one direction comes at the expense of less
radiation in other directions
Q Antenna Gain is RELATIVE, not ABSOLUTE
When describing antenna gain, the
comparison condition must be stated or
implied
Omni-directional
Antenna
Directional
Antenna
Effective Radiated Power
A
B
ERP B A (ref)
100w 275w
Reference
Antenna
TX
100 W
A
Directional
Antenna
TX
100 W
B
Q An antenna radiates all power fed to it from the
transmitter, minus any incidental losses.
Every direction gets some amount of power
Q Effective Radiated Power (ERP) is the apparent
power in a particular direction
Equal to actual transmitter power times
antenna gain in that direction
Q Effective Radiated Power is expressed in
comparison to a standard radiator
ERP: compared with dipole antenna
EIRP: compared with Isotropic antenna
Example: Antennas A and B each radiate 100 watts from
their own transmitters. Antenna A is our reference.
Antenna B is directional. In its maximum direction, its
signal seems 2.75 stronger than the signal from antenna
A. Antenna Bs ERP in this case is 275 watts.
Reference Antennas
Defining Gain And Effective Radiated Power
Q Isotropic Radiator
Truly non-directional -- in 3 dimensions
Difficult to build or approximate physically,
but mathematically very simple to describe
A popular reference: 1000 MHz and above
PCS, microwave, etc.
Q Dipole Antenna
Non-directional in 2-dimensional plane only
Can be easily constructed, physically
practical
A popular reference: below 1000 MHz
800 MHz. cellular, land mobile, TV & FM
Isotropic
Antenna
(watts or dBm) ERP Effective Radiated Power Vs. Dipole
Effective Radiated Power Vs. Isotropic
Gain above Dipole reference
Gain above Isotropic radiator
(watts or dBm) EIRP
dBd
dBi
Quantity Units
Dipole Antenna
Notice that a dipole
has 2.15 dB gain
compared to an
isotropic antenna.
Antenna Gain And ERP
Examples
Q Many wireless systems at 1900 & 800 MHz use omni
antennas like the one shown in this figure
Q These patterns are drawn to scale in E-field radiation
units, based on equal power to each antenna
Q Notice the typical wireless omni antenna concentrates
most of its radiation toward the horizon, where users
are, at the expense of sending less radiation sharply
upward or downward
Q The wireless antennas maximum radiation is 12.1 dB
stronger than the isotropic (thus 12.1 dBi gain), and
10 dB stronger than the dipole (so 10 dBd gain).
Isotropic
Dipole
Omni
12.1 dBi
10dBd
Gain Comparison
Isotropic
Dipole
Typical Wireless
Omni Antenna
Gain 12.1 dBi or 10 dBd
Radiation Patterns
Key Features And Terminology
An antennas directivity is
expressed as a series of patterns
Q The Horizontal Plane Pattern graphs
the radiation as a function of azimuth
(i.e..,direction N-E-S-W)
Q The Vertical Plane Pattern graphs the
radiation as a function of elevation (i.e..,
up, down, horizontal)
Q Antennas are often compared by noting
specific landmark points on their
patterns:
-3 dB (HPBW), -6 dB, -10 dB
points
Front-to-back ratio
Angles of nulls, minor lobes, etc.
Typical Example
Horizontal Plane Pattern
0 (N)
90
(E)
180 (S)
270
(W)
0
-10
-20
-30 dB
Notice -3 dB points
Front-to-back Ratio
10 dB
points
Main
Lobe
a Minor
Lobe
nulls or
minim
How Antennas Achieve Their Gain
Quasi-Optical Techniques (reflection, focusing)
Reflectors can be used to concentrate
radiation
technique works best at microwave frequencies,
where reflectors are small
Examples:
corner reflector used at cellular or higher
frequencies
parabolic reflector used at microwave
frequencies
grid or single pipe reflector for cellular
Array techniques (discrete elements)
Power is fed or coupled to multiple
antenna elements; each element radiates
Elements radiation in phase in some
directions
In other directions, a phase delay for each
element creates pattern lobes and nulls
In phase
Out of
phase
Types Of Arrays
Q Collinear vertical arrays
Essentially omnidirectional in
horizontal plane
Power gain approximately
equal to the number of
elements
Nulls exist in vertical pattern,
unless deliberately filled
Q Arrays in horizontal plane
Directional in horizontal
plane: useful for sectorization
Yagi
one driven element, parasitic
coupling to others
Log-periodic
all elements driven
wide bandwidth
Q All of these types of antennas are
used in wireless
RF
power
RF
power
Omni Antennas
Collinear Vertical Arrays
The family of omni-directional wireless
antennas:
Q Number of elements determines
Physical size
Gain
Beamwidth, first null angle
Q Models with many elements have
very narrow beamwidths
Require stable mounting and
careful alignment
Watch out: be sure nulls do
not fall in important coverage
areas
Q Rod and grid reflectors are
sometimes added for mild directivity
Examples: 800 MHz.: dB803, PD10017,
BCR-10O, Kathrein 740-198
1900 MHz.: dB-910, ASPP2933
beamwidth
Angle
of
first
null
-3
d
B
Vertical Plane Pattern
Number of
Elements
Power
Gain
Gain,
dB
Angle
0.00 n/a
3.01 26.57
4.77 18.43
6.02 14.04
6.99 11.31
7.78 9.46
8.45 8.13
9.03 7.13
9.54 6.34
10.00 5.71
10.41 5.19
10.79 4.76
11.14 4.40
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14 11.46 4.09
Typical Collinear Arrays
Sector Antennas
Reflectors And Vertical Arrays
Vertical Plane Pattern
Up
Down
Horizontal Plane Pattern
N
E
S
W
Q Typical commercial sector
antennas are vertical combinations
of dipoles, yagis, or log-periodic
elements with reflector (panel or
grid) backing
Vertical plane pattern is
determined by number of
vertically-separated
elements
varies from 1 to 8, affecting
mainly gain and vertical plane
beamwidth
Horizontal plane pattern is
determined by:
number of horizontally-spaced
elements
shape of reflectors (is reflector
folded?)
Example Of Antenna Catalog Specifications
Frequency Range, MHz.
Gain - dBd/dBi
VSWR
Beamwidth (3 dB from maximum)
Polarization
Maximum power input - Watts
Input Impedance - Ohms
Lightning Protection
Termination - Standard
Jumper Cable
Electrical Data
Antenna Model ASPP2933 ASPP2936 dB910C-M
1850-1990 1850-1990 1850-1970
3/5.1
<1.5:1
32
Vertical
400
50
Direct Ground
N-Female
Order Sep.
6/8.1
<1.5:1
15
Vertical
400
50
Direct Ground
N-Female
Order Sep.
10/12.1
<1.5:1
5
Vertical
400
50
Direct Ground
N-Female
Order Sep.
Mechanical Data
Antenna Model
Overall length - in (mm)
Radome OD - in (mm)
Wind area - ft2 (m2)
Wind load @ 125 mph/201 kph lb-f (n)
Maximum wind speed - mph (kph)
Weight - lbs (kg)
Shipping Weight - lbs (kg)
Clamps (steel)
ASPP2933
24 (610)
1.1 (25.4)
.17 (.0155)
4 (17)
140 (225)
4 (1.8)
11 (4.9)
ASPA320
ASPP2936
36 (915)
1.0 (25.4)
.25 (.0233)
6 (26)
140 (225)
6 (2.7)
13 (5.9)
ASPA320
dB910C-M
77 (1955)
1.5 (38)
.54 (.05)
14 (61)
125 (201)
5.2 (2.4)
9 (4.1)
Integral
Example Of Antenna Catalog Radiation Pattern
Q Vertical Plane Pattern
E-Plane (elevation plane)
Gain: 10 dBd
Dipole pattern is superimposed at
scale for comparison (not often
shown in commercial catalogs)
Frequency is shown
Pattern values shown in dBd
Note 1-degree indices through
region of main lobe for most
accurate reading
Notice minor lobe and null detail!
Other Parts of
Antenna Systems
Other Parts of
Antenna Systems
Antenna Systems
Q Antenna systems include more
than just antennas
Q Transmission Lines
Necessary to connect
transmitting and receiving
equipment
Q Other Components necessary to
achieve desired system function
Filters, Combiners,
Duplexers - to achieve
desired connections
Directional Couplers,
wattmeters - for
measurement of
performance
Q Manufacturers system may
include some or all of these
items
Remaining items are added
individually as needed by
system operator
F R
D
u
p
l
e
x
e
r
Combiner
BPF
TX
RX
TX
T
r
a
n
s
m
i
s
s
i
o
n

L
i
n
e
Jumper
Jumpers
Directional
Coupler
Antenna
Types of Transmission Lines
Foam
Dielectric
Air
Dielectric
Typical coaxial cables
Used as feeders in wireless applications
Physical Characteristics
Q Type of line
Coaxial, stripline, open-
wire
Balanced, unbalanced
Q Physical configuration
Dielectric:
air
foam
Outside surface
unjacketed
jacketed
Q Size (nominal outer diameter)
1/4,1/2, 7/8, 1-1/4, 1-
7/8, 2-1/4, 3
Attenuation, Impedance, Velocity, Power Handling
d D
Characteristic Impedance
of a Coaxial Line
Z
o
= ( 138 / (
1/2
) ) Log
10
( D / d )
= Dielectric Constant
= 1 for vacuum or dry air
Electrical Characteristics
Q Attenuation
Varies with frequency, size, dielectric
characteristics of insulation
Usually specified in dB/100 ft and/or
dB/100 m
Q Characteristic impedance Z
0
(50 ohms is the
usual standard; 75 ohms is sometimes used)
Value set by inner/outer diameter ratio
and dielectric characteristics of
insulation
Connectors must preserve constant
impedance (see figure at right)
Q Velocity factor
Determined by dielectric characteristics
of insulation.
Q Power-handling capability
Varies with size, conductor materials,
dielectric characteristics
Special Properties of
Quarter-Wave Line Sections
Z
o
=50
Z
LOAD
=
50
Z
IN
= 50
Matched condition
Z
o
=50
Z
LOAD
=
83
-j22
Z
IN
= ?
Mismatched condition
Z
o
=50
Z
LOAD
=
100
Z
IN
=25
/4
Z
IN
= Z
O
2
/
Z
LOAD
Deliberate mismatch
for impedance transformation
Q Transmission lines have impedance-
transforming properties
When terminated with same
impedance as Z
o
, input to line
appears as impedance Z
o
When terminated with
impedance different from Z
o
,
input to line is a complex
function of frequency and line
length. Use Smith Chart or
formulae to compute
Q Special Case: -wavelength long
line has convenient properties useful
in matching networks
Z
IN
= (Z
o
2
)/(Z
LOAD
)
Transmission Lines
Some Practical Considerations
Foam
Dielectric
Air
Dielectric
Q Transmission lines practical considerations
Periodicity of inner conductor
supporting structure can cause
VSWR peaks at some frequencies,
so specify the frequency band
when ordering
Air dielectric lines
lower loss than foam-dielectric; dry air
is excellent insulator
shipped pressurized; do not accept
delivery if pressure leak
Foam dielectric lines
simple, low maintenance; despite
slightly higher loss
small pinholes and leaks can allow
water penetration and gradual
attenuation increases
Transmission Lines
Important Installation Practices
Observe
Minimum
Bending
Radius!
Q Respect specified minimum
bending radius!
Inner conductor must
remain concentric,
otherwise Z
o
changes
Dents, kinks in outer
conductor change Z
o
Q Dont bend large, stiff lines (1-
5/8 or larger) to make direct
connection with antennas
Q Use appropriate jumpers,
weatherproofed properly.
Q Secure jumpers against wind
vibration.
Transmission Lines
Important Installation Practices, Continued
200 ft
~60 m
Max.
3-6 ft
Q During hoisting
Allow line to support its own
weight only for distances
approved by manufacturer
Deformation and stretching
may result, changing the Z
o
Use hoisting grips,
messenger cable
Q After mounting
Support the line with proper
mounting clamps at
manufacturers
recommended spacing
intervals
Strong winds will set up
damaging metal-fatigue-
inducing vibrations
RF Filters
Types And Applications
Q Filters are the basic building
blocks of duplexers and more
complex devices
Q Most manufacturers network
equipment includes internal
bandpass filters at receiver input
and transmitter output
Q Filters are also available for
special applications
Q Number of poles (filter elements)
and other design variables
determine filters electrical
characteristics
Bandwidth rejection
Insertion loss
Slopes
Ripple, etc.
Notice construction: RF input
excites one quarter-wave
element and electromagnet
fields propagate from element
to element, finally exciting the
last element which is directly
coupled to the output.
Each element is individually set
and forms a pole in the filters
overall response curve.
Typical RF Bandpass Filter
/4
RF Filters
Basic Characteristics And Specifications
Q Types of Filters
Single-pole:
pass
reject (notch)
Multi-pole:
band-pass
band-reject
Q Key electrical characteristics
Insertion loss
Passband ripple
Passband width
upper, lower cutoff frequencies
Attenuation slope at band edge
Ultimate out-of-band attenuation
Typical bandpass filters have
insertion loss of 1-3 dB. and
passband ripple of 2-6 dB.
Bandwidth is typically 1-20% of
center frequency, depending on
application. Attenuation slope
and out-of-band attenuation
depend on # of poles & design
Typical RF bandpass filter
0
A
t
t
e
n
u
a
t
i
o
n
,

d
B
Frequency, megaHertz
passband ripple
insertion
loss
-3 dB
passband
width
Basics Of Transmitting Combiners
Typical tuned combiner
application
TX TX TX TX TX TX TX TX
Antenna
Typical hybrid combiner
application
TX TX TX TX TX TX TX TX
Antenna
~-3 dB
~-3 dB
~-3 dB
Q Allows multiple transmitters to feed single
antenna, providing
Minimum power loss from
transmitter to antenna
Maximum isolation between
transmitters
Q Combiner types
Tuned
low insertion loss ~1-3 dB
transmitter frequencies must be
significantly separated
Hybrid
insertion loss -3 dB per stage
no restriction on transmitter
frequencies
Linear amplifier
linearity and intermodulation are
major design and operation issues
Duplexer Basics
f
R
f
T
RX TX
Antenna
Duplexer
Principle of operation
Duplexer is composed of individual
bandpass filters to isolate TX from
RX while allowing access to antenna
for both. Filter design determines
actual isolation between TX and RX,
and insertion loss TX-to-Antenna
and RX-to-Antenna.
Q Duplexer allows simultaneous
transmitting and receiving on one
antenna
Nortel 1900 MHz BTS RFFEs
include internal duplexer
Nortel 800 MHz BTS does not
include duplexer but commercial
units can be used if desired
Q Important duplexer specifications
TX pass-through insertion loss
RX pass-through insertion loss
TX-to-RX isolation at TX
frequency (RX intermodulation
issue)
TX-to-RX isolation at RX
frequency (TX noise floor issue)
Internally-generated IMP limit
specification
Directional Couplers
Q Couplers are used to measure
forward and reflected energy in a
transmission line; it has 4 ports:
Input (from TX),
Output (to load)
Forward and Reverse Samples
Q Sensing loops probe E& I in line
Equal sensitivity to E & H fields
Terminations absorb induced
current in one direction,
leaving only sample of other
direction
Q Typical performance specifications
Coupling factor ~20, ~30,
~40 dB., order as appropriate
for application
Directivity ~30-~40 dB., f($)
defined as relative
attenuation of unwanted
direction in each sample
Principle of operation
Z
LOAD
=
50
Input
Reverse Sample
Forward Sample
R
T
R
T
Typical directional coupler
Main lines E & I induce equal signals in
sense loops. E is direction-independent,
but Is polarity depends on direction and
cancels sample induced in one direction.
Thus sense loop signals are directional.
One end is used, the other terminated.
Testing Antenna Systems
Testing Antenna Systems
Testing Communications Feedlines and Antennas
Q AC power wiring and voice telephone wiring do not
require extremely critical wiring practices
just make sure the connections and insulation are
good, heat is not allowed to build up, and youll have
good results
AC power frequencies and audio signal frequencies
have wavelengths of many miles
a few feet of wire wont radiate much energy
Q High frequency RF wiring practice is much more critical
since signal wavelengths are only a few inches or feet
any bend or protruding bit of wire can serve as an
unintentional antenna, leaking energy
even splices and connections can leak energy unless
their shape and dimensions are closely controlled
abrupt changes in cable shape reflect energy back
down the transmission line, causing many problems
Q Precisely shaped cables and connectors, careful
installation and accurate testing are required to avoid
significant antenna system performance problems
Forward and Reflected Energy
Transmission Line
Antenna
Transmitter
Forward Power
Virtually no reflected power
50 50
50
Q In a perfect antenna system, the transmission line and the
antenna have the same impedance
we say they are impedance matched
Q All the energy from the transmitter passes through and is radiated
from the antenna
virtually no energy is reflected back to the transmitter
Forward and Reflected Energy
Transmission Line
Antenna
Transmitter
Significant Reflected Power
50
42-j17
Forward Power
dent or kink
37
Q In a damaged antenna system, the impedance match is not good
there could be a dent, kink, or a spot with water in the transmission
line
the different impedance in the line at this spot will cause some of
the energy to be reflected backwards
the antenna could be damaged or dangling, causing it to have an
altered impedance
the antennas different impedance will reflect some of the energy
backwards down the line
Q The Site Master
Distance-To-Fault mode will be helpful in finding the

location of the damage
How Much Reflection? Four Ways to Say It
Q There are four ways of expressing how
much energy is being reflected
different users like different methods
Q Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR)
(used by hobbyists and consumers)
the reflected voltage is in phase with the
incident voltage at some places and out
of phase at others
VSWR is the ratio of Vmax/Vmin
Q Reflected Power as % of Forward Power
(used by field personnel in some industries)
just divide Rev by Fwd, use percent
Q Return Loss (used by field personnel)
how many db weaker is the reflected
energy than the forward energy
Q Reflection Coefficient (academic users)
vector ratio of reflected/incident voltage
or current
usually expressed as a polar vector, with
magnitude and phase
V
max
V
min
SWR: Standing Wave Ratio
= V
max
/ V
min
FORWARD
REFLECTED
Reflected Power (%)
= 100 x
RevPwr
FwdPwr
FORWARD
REFLECTED
Return Loss (db)
= 10 x Log
10
RevPwr
FwdPwr
FORWARD
REFLECTED
Reflection Coefficient (vector ratio)
V
reflected
V
incident
=
Comparing Reflection Reports in Different Forms
Q Reflection expressed in one form can be
converted and expressed in the other forms
Q For example, consider a VSWR of 1.5 : 1
this is 4% reflected power
this is a return loss of 14 db
to calculate the reflection coefficient, the
phase of the reflection is also needed
FORWARD
REFLECTED
Reflected Power (%)
= 100 x
RevPwr
FwdPwr
FORWARD
REFLECTED
Return Loss (db)
= 10 x Log
10
RevPwr
FwdPwr
FORWARD
REFLECTED
Reflection Coefficient (vector ratio)
V
reflected
V
incident
=
V
max
V
min
SWR: STANDING WAVE RATIO
= V
max
/ V
min
=
Reflected Power
Forward Power
Reflected Power
Forward Power
1 +
1 -
VSWR vs. Return Loss
VSWR
0
10
20
30
40
50
1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Practical Antenna Testing:
Using Site Master
Practical Antenna Testing:

Using Site Master

The Anritsu
/Wiltron Site Master
Q The Site Master
is one of the
most convenient and popular
combination instruments for
testing communications
feedlines and antennas
Q Built Into a Site Master
are:
sweep signal generator
directional coupler
signal detector
processing software to
display return loss and
distance to fault
Optional: Spectrum
Analyzer
Optional: Power Meter
Battery and charging circuit
The Site Master
is a combination
instrument not much larger than a cigar box.
In the field, it provides the functions of a
spectrum analyzer with tracking sweep
generator, directional coupler, and power
meter. In the past, a trunk full of instruments
were required to test communications
antenna systems. Today, a Site Master
can
even be carried to the tower top if needed.
Get Acquainted with the Site Master
Top Panel
Port for external RF
detector and attenuator
to make power
measuements.
RF input/output port for
transmission line tests
(VSWR, return loss, DTF)
Optional RF Input port
for optional spectrum
analyzer capabilities
External Power jack. Accepts
DC input 11-15 VDC, 1.2A max.
Note! The inner pin is positive
and the sleve is negative.
Power ON LED
Battery Charging LED
Serial Interface for
direct printing and
transferring traces
to or from a PC.
Introducing the Site Master
Front Panel
Function Hard Keys Soft Keys
Active Function Block
Keypad
Hard Keys
Setting the Mode: What Will Be Displayed
Q The MODE button selects what will be displayed
by the Site Master
:
Frequency on the X-Axis, along with
SWR on the Y-Axis, or
Return Loss on the Y-Axis, or
Cable Loss (one-port) on Y-Axis
Distance-to-Fault (DTF) on the X-Axis, with
SWR on the Y-Axis, or
Return Loss on the Y-Axis
Power Monitor
unit displays power level using optional
Power Monitor and an attenuator
Q In the Frequency and Distance-to-Fault (DTF)
modes, the two top softkeys allow entry of the
upper and lower frequency limits for the sweep
using the keypad or the up-down control
active function block shows key labels
x
y
Setting Freq/Dist: x-Axis Units
Q In Frequency mode, the FREQ/DIST button
selects the frequency range to be swept.
Press F1 softkey, select the low-end sweep
frequency, press ENTER
Press F2 softkey, select the high-end sweep
frequency, press ENTER
Q In Distance-to-Fault mode, the FREQ/DIST
button selects the distance range to be tested,
and allows entry of necessary information about
the line being swept
Press D1 softkey, select starting distance for
sweep, press ENTER
Press D2 softkey, select maximum distance
for sweep, press ENTER
Press DTF AID softkey for a window to
guide selection of line or manual entry of line
characteristics, OR
Press MORE softkey to individually enter the
loss, velocity, type, and window desired
x
Setting AMPLITUDE: y-Axis Units
Q In Frequency and Distance-to-Fault modes,
the AMPLITUDE button allows entry of y-
axis scale values:
Press the top softkey, set the desired
top y-axis value, then press ENTER
you can key in the value or scroll
with the up/down button
Press the second-from-top softkey, set
desired bottom y-axis value, ENTER
y
Setting SWEEP: What Will Be Displayed
Q The SWEEP button selects how the Site
Master
will sweep and display its

measurements:
Resolution can be set to 130, 259, or 517
bins on the x-axis
Single-Sweep will stop the normal
continuous sweeping, and run one sweep
each time the RUN/HOLD keypad button is
pressed
Trace Math can add or subtract the
immediate measurements to the
measurements seen on the previous sweep,
thereby showing a running delta
Trace Overlay will display a previously
stored trace as an overlay for visual
comparison with the current measurement
the stored trace must have the same
settings as the presently-measuring
trace
Course 703
Site Master
Setup
and Calibration
Site Master
Setup
and Calibration
Site Master
Accessories
Extension
Cable
Portable Case
DIN-N
Adaptors
Q The tough fabric carrying case
provides travel protection and
is a comfortable holder for the
Site Master
when measuring
a pouch and zippered
foam-lined carrier hold
power supplies,
terminations and adaptors
Q The extension cable can be
used to place the official
reference point at the end of
the cable
Q Between-series adaptors can
be used to connect the native
Type-N connector with any
other family of adapters.
Powering Up and Calibrating Before Use
Q To provide reliable readings, Site Master
should be calibrated
immediately prior to making important measurements
Q When first powered up, Site Master
will show a welcome screen as it

completes a self-test.
When prompted, press ENTER to begin normal operation, or wait five
seconds and normal operation will begin automatically
If the internal battery is low, connect external DC power
Q If the unit displays CAL OFF, recalibration is required before measuring
Q Decide which location you wish to use as the reference point for the
measurements: the top panel port of the Site Master
, or the end of a
phase-stable extension cable
Site Master
must be calibrated using the OSL method: a reference

open, reference short, and reference load connected to the reference
point during calibration as requested in screen prompts
Calibration is also required if the temperature varies substantially, if
the reference point is changed, or the measurement frequency is
changed
Site Master
Accessories Used In Calibration

InstaCal Module
Precision
Short & Open
Q If you will use an extension cable as the
reference point, attach it now
Q The most convenient calibration process
uses the Anritsu
InstaCal fixture.
This device automatically presents an
open, short, and load in response to
automatic triggers during calibration
Q If a recently certified InstaCal is not
available, the manual calibration process
must be used
Q Press START CAL and follow the prompts,
attaching the reference loads when
requested
Q At conclusion, you should see the CAL ON
message displayed at the top of the
screen
Precision
Load
Antenna Application
Principles
Antenna Application
Principles
Near-Field/Far-Field Considerations
Q Antenna behavior is very different close-in and far out
Q Near-field region: the area within about 10 times the
spacing between antennas internal elements
Inside this region, the signal behaves as
independent fields from each element of the
antenna, with their individual directivity
Q Far-field region: the area beyond roughly 10 times the
spacing between the antennas internal elements
In this region, the antenna seems to be a
point-source and the contributions of the
individual elements are indistinguishable
The pattern is the composite of the array
Q Obstructions in the near-field can dramatically alter the
antenna performance
Near-field
Far-field
Local Obstruction at a Site
Diffraction
over
obstructing
edge
Local obstruction example
Q Obstructions near the site are
sometimes unavoidable
Q Near-field obstructions can
seriously alter pattern shape
Q More distant local
obstructions can cause
severe blockage, as for
example roof edge in the
figure at right
analysis can help
estimate diffraction loss in
these situations
Explore other antenna
mounting positions
Estimating Isolation Between Antennas
Often multiple antennas are needed at a
site and interaction is troublesome
Q Electrical isolation between antennas
Coupling loss between isotropic
antennas one wavelength apart is
22 dB
6 dB additional coupling loss with
each doubling of separation
Add gain or loss referenced from
horizontal plane patterns
Measure vertical separation
between centers of the antennas
vertical separation usually is very
effective
Q One antenna should not be mounted in
main lobe and near-field of another
Typically within 10 feet @ 800 MHz
Typically 5-10 feet @ 1900 MHz
Visually Estimating Depression Angles
in the field
Q Before considering downtilt,
beamwidths, and depression
angles, do some personal
experimentation at a high site
to gain a sense of the angles
involved
Q Visible width of fingers, etc. can
be useful approximate
benchmark for visual
evaluation
Q Measure and remember width
of your own chosen references
Q Standing at a site, correlate
your sightings of objects you
want to cover with angles in
degrees and the antenna
pattern
distance
width
angle = arctangent (width / distance)
Visually estimating angles
with tools always at hand
Typical Angles
Thumb width
Nail of forefinger
All knuckles
~2 degrees
~1 degree
~10 degrees
Calibrate yourself using the formula!
Antenna Downtilt
Whats the goal?
Downtilt is commonly used for two
reasons
Q 1. Reduce Interference
Reduce radiation toward a
distant co-channel cell
Concentrate radiation within
the serving cell
Q 2. Prevent Overshoot
Improve coverage of
nearby targets far below the
antenna
otherwise within null of
antenna pattern
Q Are these good strategies?
Q How is downtilt applied?
Scenario 2
Cell A
Scenario 1
Cell B
Consider Vertical Depression Angles
Q Basic principle: important to match
vertical pattern against intended
coverage targets
Compare the angles toward
objects against the antenna
vertical pattern -- whats radiating
toward the target?
Dont position a null of the
antenna toward an important
coverage target!
Q Sketch and formula
Notice the height and horizontal
distance must be expressed in
the same units before dividing
(both in feet, both in miles, etc.)
Horizontal
distance
Vertical
distance
Depression
angle
= ArcTAN ( Vertical distance / Horizontal distance )
Types Of Downtilt
Q Mechanical downtilt
Physically tilt the antenna
The pattern in front goes
down, and behind goes up
Popular for sectorization
and special omni
applications
Q Electrical downtilt
Incremental phase shift is
applied in the feed network
The pattern droops all
around, like an inverted
saucer
Common technique when
downtilting omni cells
Reduce Interference
Scenario 1
The Concept:
Q Radiate a strong signal toward
everything within the serving
cell, but significantly reduce
the radiation toward the area
of Cell B
The Reality:
Q When actually calculated, its
surprising how small the
difference in angle is between
the far edge of cell A and the
near edge of Cell B
Delta in the example is
only 0.3 degrees!!
Lets look at antenna
patterns
Cell A
Concept
Cell B
weak
strong
1 = ArcTAN ( 150 / ( 4 * 5280 ) )
= -0.4 degrees
2 = ArcTAN ( 150 / ( 12 * 5280 ) )
= -0.1 degrees
Reality
12 miles
4
height
difference
150 ft
2
1
Reduce Interference
Scenario 1 , Continued
Q Its an attractive idea, but usually the
angle between edge of serving cell
and nearest edge of distant cell is
just too small to exploit
Downtilt or not, cant get much
difference in antenna radiation
between 1 and 2
Even if the pattern were sharp
enough, alignment accuracy and
wind-flexing would be problems
delta in this example
is less than one degree!
Also, if downtilting -- watch out
for excessive RSSI and IM
involving mobiles near cell!
Q Soft handoff and good CDMA power
control is more important
-0.4
-0.1
1 = -0.4 degrees
2 = -0.1 degrees
Avoid Overshoot
Scenario 2
Q Application concern: too little radiation
toward low, close-in coverage targets
Q The solution is common-sense matching
of the antenna vertical pattern to the
angles where radiation is needed
Calculate vertical angles to targets!!
Watch the pattern nulls -- where do
they fall on the ground?
Choose a low-gain antenna with a
fat vertical pattern if you have a
wide range of vertical angles to hit
Downtilt if appropriate
If needed, investigate special null-
filled antennas with smooth
patterns
Scenario 2
Other Antenna Selection Considerations
Before choosing an antenna for widespread deployment, investigate:
Q Manufacturers measured patterns
Observe pattern at low end of band, mid-band, and high end of band
Any troublesome back lobes or minor lobes in H or V patterns?
Watch out for nulls which would fall toward populated areas
Be suspicious of extremely symmetrical, clean measured patterns
Obtain Intermod Specifications and test results (-130 or better)
Inspect return loss measurements across the band
Q Inspect a sample unit
Physical integrity? weatherproof?
Dissimilar metals in contact anywhere?
Collinear vertical antennas: feed method?
End (compromise) or center-fed (best)?
Complete your own return loss measurements, if possible
Ideally, do your own limited pattern verification
Q Check with other users for their experiences
Traffic Engineering
Traffic Engineering
Chapter 6
Typical Traffic Distribution
on a Cellular System
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Hour
SUN
MON
TUE
WED
THU
FRI
SAT
# Trunks
Efficiency %
Capacity,
Erlangs
1 50
80%
41
A Game of Avoiding Extremes
The traffic engineer must walk a fine line
between two problems:
Q Overdimensioning
too much cost
insufficient resources to construct
traffic revenue is too low to
support costs
very poor economic efficiency!
Q Underdimensioning
blocking
poor technical performance
(interference)
capacity for billable revenue is low
revenue is low due to poor quality
users unhappy, cancel service
very poor economic efficiency!
Dimensioning the System:
An Interactive, Iterative Process
Q Some traffic engineering decisions trigger
resource acquisition
additional blocks of numbers from the
local exchange carrier
additional cards for various functions in
the switch and peripherals
additional members in PSTN trunk
groups; additional T-1/E-1s to busy sites
Q Some traffic engineering decisions trigger
more engineering
finding more frequencies to add to
blocking sites
adding additional cells to relieve blocking
finding short-term fixes for unanticipated
problems
Q This course is concerned primarily with
determining the number of voice channels
required in cells, with the related site
engineering and frequency or code planning
DMS-MTX
Cell
PSTN
Office
Basics of Traffic Engineering
Terminology & Concept of a Trunk
Q Traffic engineering in telephony is focused on the voice paths
which users occupy. They are called by many different names:
trunks
circuits
radios (AMPS, TDMA), transceivers (TRXs in GSM),
channel elements (CDMA)
Q Some other common terms are:
trunk group
a trunk group is several trunks going to the same
destination, combined and addressed in switch
translations as a unit , for traffic routing purposes
member
one of the trunks in a trunk group
Units of Traffic Measurement
Traffic is expressed in units of Circuit Time
General understanding of telephone traffic engineering began
around 1910. An engineer in the Danish telephone system,
Anger K. Erlang, was one of the first to master the science of
trunk dimensioning and publish the knowledge for others. In his
honor, the basic unit of traffic is named the Erlang.
Q An Erlang of traffic is one circuit continuously used during an
observation period one hour long.
Other units have become popular among various users:
Q CCS (Hundred-Call-Seconds)
Q MOU (Minutes Of Use)
Q Its easy to convert between traffic units if the need arises:
1 Erlang = 60 MOU = 36 CCS
How Much Traffic Can One Trunk Carry?
Q Traffic studies are usually for periods of one hour
Q In one hour, one trunk can carry one hour of traffic -- One Erlang
Q If nothing else matters, this is the limit!
Q If anyone else wants to talk -- sorry!
Absolute Maximum Capacity
of One Trunk
One Trunk
One Erlang
Constant
Talker
Q We must not plan to keep trunks busy all the time. There must be
a reserve to accommodate new talkers! How much reserve? next!
Traffic Engineering And Queuing Theory
Q Traffic engineering is an application of a
science called queuing theory
Queuing theory relates user arrival
statistics, number of servers, and
various queue strategies, with the
probability of a user receiving service
If waiting is not allowed, and a blocked
call simply goes away, Erlang-B
formula applies (popular in wireless)
If unlimited waiting is allowed before a
call receives service, the Erlang-C
formula applies
If a wait is allowed but is limited in
time, Binomial & Poisson formulae
apply
Engset formulae apply to rapid,
packet-like transactions such as
paging channels
Ticket counter analogy
User population
Queue
Servers
Queues we face in
everyday life
1) for telephone calls
2) at the bank
3) at the gas station
4) at the airline counter
Offered And Carried Traffic
Q Offered traffic is what users attempt to
originate
Q Carried traffic is the traffic actually
successfully handled by the system
Q Blocked traffic is the traffic that could
not be handled
Since blocked call attempts never
materialize, blocked traffic must be
estimated based on number of
blocked attempts and average
duration of successful calls
Carried
Traffic
BTS BTS BTS BTS BTS BTS
Offered
Traffic
BSC MTX
Blocked
Traffic
PSTN or other
Wireless user
T
Off
= NCA x TCD
T
Off
= Offered traffic
NCA = Number of call attempts
TCD = Average call duration
Offered Traffic =
Carried Traffic + Blocked Traffic
Principles of Traffic Engineering
Blocking Probability / Grade of Service
Q Blocking is inability to get a circuit when one is needed
Q Probability of Blocking is the likelihood that blocking will
happen
Q In principle, blocking can occur anywhere in a wireless system:
not enough radios, the cell is full
not enough paths between cell site and switch
not enough paths through the switching complex
not enough trunks from switch to PSTN
Q Blocking probability is usually
expressed as a percentage
using a shorthand notation:
P.02 is 2% probability, etc.
Blocking probability sometimes
is called Grade Of Service
Q Most blocking in cellular systems
occurs at the radio level.
P.02 is a common goal at the
radio level in a system
PSTN Office
DMS-MTX
Cell
Cell
Cell
P.001 P.005
P.02
P.005
Typical Wireless System
Design Blocking Probabilities
Number of Trunks
vs. Utilization Efficiency
Q Imagine a cell site with just one voice channel. At a P.02
Grade of Service, how much traffic could it carry?
The trunk can only be used 2% of the time, otherwise the
blocking will be worse than 2%.
98% availability forces 98% idleness. It can only carry
.02 Erlangs. Efficiency 2%!
Q Adding just one trunk relieves things greatly.
Now we can use trunk 1 heavily, with trunk 2
handling the overflow. Efficiency rises to 11%
The Principle of Trunking Efficiency
Q For a given grade of service, trunk
utilization efficiency increases as the
number of trunks in the pool grows larger.
For trunk groups of several hundred,
utilization approaches 100%.
# Trunks
Efficiency %
Capacity,
Erlangs
1 50
80%
41
Erl Eff% Trks
1
2
0.02
0.22
2%
11%
Erlang-B P.02 GOS
Number of Trunks,
Capacity, and Utilization Efficiency
Q The graph at left illustrates
the capacity in Erlangs of a
given number of trunks, as
well as the achievable
utilization efficiency
Q For accurate work, tables of
traffic data are available
Capacity, Erlangs
Blocking Probability
(GOS)
Number of Trunks
Q Notice how capacity and
utilization behave for the
numbers of trunks in typical
cell sites
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
Capacity and Trunk Utilization
Erlang-B for P.02 Grade of Service
Trunks
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
50 40 30 20 10 0
Utilization
Efficiency
Percent
Capacity,
Erlangs
Traffic Engineering & System Dimensioning
Using Erlang-B Tables to determine Number of Circuits Required
A = f (E,n)
Probability
of blocking
0.0001 0.002
0.02
7
E
n
1
2
300
2.935
0.2
Capacity
in Erlangs
Number of
available
circuits
Erlang-B Traffic Tables
Abbreviated - For P.02 Grade of Service Only
#TrunksErlangs #TrunksErlangs
#Trunks #TrunksErlangs #TrunksErlangs #TrunksErlangs #TrunksErlangs #TrunksErlangs
1 0.0204 26 18.4 51 41.2 76 64.9 100 88 150 136.8 200 186.2 250 235.8
2 0.223 27 19.3 52 42.1 77 65.8 102 89.9 152 138.8 202 188.1 300 285.7
3 0.602 28 20.2 53 43.1 78 66.8 104 91.9 154 140.7 204 190.1 350 335.7
4 1.09 29 21 54 44 79 67.7 106 93.8 156 142.7 206 192.1 400 385.9
5 1.66 30 21.9 55 44.9 80 68.7 108 95.7 158 144.7 208 194.1 450 436.1
6 2.28 31 22.8 56 45.9 81 69.6 110 97.7 160 146.6 210 196.1 500 486.4
7 2.94 32 23.7 57 46.8 82 70.6 112 99.6 162 148.6 212 198.1 600 587.2
8 3.63 33 24.6 58 47.8 83 71.6 114 101.6 164 150.6 214 200 700 688.2
9 4.34 34 25.5 59 48.7 84 72.5 116 103.5 166 152.6 216 202 800 789.3
10 5.08 35 26.4 60 49.6 85 73.5 118 105.5 168 154.5 218 204 900 890.6
11 5.84 36 27.3 61 50.6 86 74.5 120 107.4 170 156.5 220 206 1000 999.1
12 6.61 37 28.3 62 51.5 87 75.4 122 109.4 172 158.5 222 208 1100 1093
13 7.4 38 29.2 63 52.5 88 76.4 124 111.3 174 160.4 224 210
14 8.2 39 30.1 64 53.4 89 77.3 126 113.3 176 162.4 226 212
15 9.01 40 31 65 54.4 90 78.3 128 115.2 178 164.4 228 213.9
16 9.83 41 31.9 66 55.3 91 79.3 130 117.2 180 166.4 230 215.9
17 10.7 42 32.8 67 56.3 92 80.2 132 119.1 182 168.3 232 217.9
18 11.5 43 33.8 68 57.2 93 81.2 134 121.1 184 170.3 234 219.9
19 12.3 44 34.7 69 58.2 94 82.2 136 123.1 186 172.4 236 221.9
20 13.2 45 35.6 70 59.1 95 83.1 138 125 188 174.3 238 223.9
21 14 46 36.5 71 60.1 96 84.1 140 127 190 176.3 240 225.9
22 14.9 47 37.5 72 61 97 85.1 142 128.9 192 178.2 242 227.9
23 15.8 48 38.4 73 62 98 86 144 130.9 194 180.2 244 229.9
24 16.6 49 39.3 74 62.9 99 87 146 132.9 196 182.2 246 231.8
25 17.5 50 40.3 75 63.9 100 88 148 134.8 198 184.2 248 233.8
Erlangs
The Equation behind the Erlang-B Table
The Erlang-B formula is fairly simple to implement on
hand-held programmable calculators, in spreadsheets,
or popular programming languages.
P
n
(A) =
A
n
n!
1 + + ... +
A
1!
A
n
n!
P
n
(A) = Blocking Rate (%)
with n trunks
as function of traffic A
A = Traffic (Erlangs)
n = Number of Trunks
Offered Traffic
lost due to
blocking
Number
of
Trunks
time
max # of
trunks
average
# of busy
channels
Offered
Traffic,
A
Wireless Traffic Variation with Time:
A Cellular Example
Q Peak traffic on cellular systems
is usually daytime business-
related traffic; on PCS systems,
evening traffic becomes much
more important and may actually
contain the system busy hour
Q Evening taper is more gradual
than morning rise
Q Wireless systems for PCS and
LEC-displacement have peaks
of residential traffic during early
evening hours, like wireline
systems
Q Friday is the busiest day,
followed by other weekdays in
backwards order, then Saturday,
then Sunday
Q There are seasonal and
annual variations, as well as
long term growth trends
Typical Traffic Distribution
on a Cellular System
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Hour
SUN
MON
TUE
WED
THU
FRI
SAT
Actual traffic from a cellular system in the
mid-south USA in summer 1992. This
system had 45 cells and served an area
of approximately 1,000,000 population.
Busy-Hour
Q In telephony, it is customary to collect and analyze traffic in hourly
blocks, and to track trends over months, quarters, and years
When making decisions about number of trunks required, we
plan the trunks needed to support the busiest hour of a normal
day
Special events (disasters, one-of-a-kind traffic tie-ups, etc.)
are not considered in the analysis (unless a marketing-
sponsored event)
Q Which Hour should be used as the Busy-Hour?
Some planners choose one specific hour and use it every day
Some planners choose the busiest hour of each individual day
(floating busy hour)
Most common preference is to use floating (bouncing) busy
hour determined individually for the total system and for each
cell, but to exclude special events and disasters
In the example just presented, 4 PM was the busy hour every
day
Where is the Traffic?
Q Wireline telephone systems have a big
advantage in traffic planning.
They know the addresses where
their customers generate the traffic!
Q Wireless systems have to guess where
the customers will be next
on existing systems, use
measured traffic data by sector and
cell
analyze past trends
compare subscriber forecast
trend into future, find overloads
for new systems or new cells,
we must use all available clues
11
7
11
10
19
8
5
7
6
5
2
7
3
8
16
7
16
6
9
9
7
Existing System
Traffic In Erlangs
Traffic Clues
Q Subscriber Profiles:
Busy Hour Usage, Call Attempts, etc.
Q Market Penetration:
# Subscribers/Market Population
use Sales forecasts, usage forecasts
Q Population Density
Geographic Distribution
Q Construction Activity
Q Vehicular Traffic Data
Vehicle counts on roads
Calculations of density on major
roadways from knowledge of vehicle
movement, spacing, market
penetration
Q Land Use Database: Area Profiles
Q Aerial Photographs: Count Vehicles!
22,100
3620 6620
1230
5110
4215
920
Vehicular Traffic
Land Use
Databases
Population Density
27 mE/Sub in BH
103,550 Subscribers
1,239,171 Market Population
adding 4,350 subs/month
new
Shopping Center
Traffic Density Along Roadways
Q Number of lanes and speed are the main
variable determining number of vehicles on
major highways
Typical headway ~1.5 seconds
Table and figure show capacity of 1
lane
Q When traffic stops, users generally increase
calling activity
Q Multiply number of vehicles by percentage
penetration of population to estimate number
of subscriber vehicles
Vehicle
Speed,
MPH
Vehicle
Spacing,
feet
Vehicles
per mile,
per lane
0 20 264
10 42 126
20 64 83
30 86 61
45 119 44
60 152 35
Vehicle spacing 20 ft. @stop
Running Headway 1.5 seconds
Vehicles per mile
Vehicle Spacing At Common Roadway Speeds
0
50 MPH
40 MPH
30 MPH
20 MPH
10 MPH
0 MPH
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 feet
Methodical Estimation of Required Trunks
Modern propagation prediction
tools allow experimentation and
estimation of traffic levels
Q Estimate total overall traffic from
subscriber forecasts
Q Form traffic density outlines
from market knowledge,
forecasts
Q Overlay traffic density on land
use data; weight by land use
Q Accumulate intercepted traffic
into serving cells,
obtain Erlangs per cell &
sector
Q From tables, determine number
of trunks required per cell/sector
Q Modern software tools automate
major parts of this process
Cell Grid
Land Use
Traffic
Density
3.5%
27mE
Profile of Typical Cellular Usage
Number of call attempts per subscriber in busy hour
Mobile originated calls
Mobile terminated calls
Number of handoffs per call
Registration attempts per subscriber during busy hour
proportion of total calls on system
successful calls
Calls not answered
calls to a busy line
proportion of total calls on system
successful calls
Calls not answered
paging requests not answered
25 mE
0.87
2
87 %
70 %
15 %
15 %
13 %
15 %
10 %
75 %
Offered Traffic, mE per subscriber in busy hour
Average Call Duration
1.667
150 sec. (41.7 mE)
Determining Number of Trunks
required for a new Growth Cell
When new growth cells are added, they absorb
some of the traffic formerly carried by
surrounding cells
Q Two approaches to estimating traffic on the
new cell and on its older neighbors:
if blocking was not too severe, you can
estimate redistributed traffic in the area
based on the new division of coverage
if blocking is severe, (often the case),
users will stop trying to call in locations
where theyve learned to expect blocking.
Users are self-programming!!
reapply basic traffic assumptions in
the area, like engineering new
system, for every nearby cell
watch out! overall traffic in the area
may increase to fill the additional
capacity and the new cell itself may
block as soon as it goes in service
Dimensioning
System Administrative Functions
System administrative functions also require traffic engineering input. While
these functions are not necessarily performed by the RF engineer, they
require RF awareness and understanding.
Q Paging
The paging channel has a definite capacity which must not be
exceeded. When occupancy approaches this limit, the system must
be divided into zones, and zone paging implemented.
Impact of Short Message Service (and others) must be considered
Q Autonomous Registration
Autonomous registration involves numerous parameters and the
registration attempts must be monitored and controlled to avoid
overloading.
Chapter 7
Planning & Growing
Networks
Planning & Growing
Networks
Link Budgets
Performance Measurements
Re-Radiators
April, 2004 Technical Introduction to Wireless -- 102v1.5 -- (c) 2004 Scott Baxter 102.7 - 1
Basic Network Objectives
Q The basic basic objectives of a wireless system are:
COVERAGE: provide sufficient cells to deliver RF coverage of the
entire desired area
BUILDING/VEHICLE PENETRATION: deliver sufficient signal levels
to adequately penetrate buildings and vehicles where appropriate
TRAFFIC: ensure that no cell captures more traffic than it can handle
at the desired grade of service (i.e., blocking percentage)
SCHEDULE: construct the network and bring it to successful
commercial launch at a date which will prevent significant loss of
potential customers to competitors
PERFORMANCE: design, construct, and adjust the network to deliver
reliable service free from excessive origination and call delivery
failures, dropped calls, quality impairments, and service outages
ECONOMICS: provide return on investment sufficient to support
operating and capital expenses, expand the network to take
advantage of growth opportunities, and retire costs of construction
prior to depreciation of the network equipment
General Design Considerations and Examples
Q Network design impacts every network objective listed on the
previous page. The first three items actually drive successful
network designs, while the final three are largely results of a good
network design.
Q The following design example in a typical large market shows the
high-level planning and decision-making that goes into successful
network design, and provides data to illustrate the tradeoffs
involved.
Q A spreadsheet file will be provided on diskette by your instructor
for your own interactive use in exploring a test network design for
your own market
Section 7A
Link Budgets
Link Budgets
Link Budget Example:
Usage Model and Service Assumptions
Interactive Initial System Design Example v1.2
fill in GREEN fields
YELLOW fields calculate automatically
Step 1. Basic Business Plan Details
Year Launch 1 2 3 4 5
Population 3,886,000 3,949,350 4,012,700 4,076,050 4,139,400 4,202,750
Penetration, % 0.05% 1.85% 3.72% 5.64% 7.60% 9.57%
#Customers 1,781 72,933 149,453 229,941 314,451 402,360
BH Erl/Cust 0.1 0.05 0.045 0.05 0.05 0.05
Total BH erl 178.1 3,646.7 6,725.4 11,497.0 15,722.6 20,118.0
2. Enter building penetration loss and standard deviations from measurements.
Composite Probability Of Service & Required Fade Margin
Environment
Type
("morphology")
Building
Median
Loss, dB
Building
Std. Dev,
dB
Outdoor
Std. Dev,
dB.
Composite
Standard
Deviation
Desired Reliability at
Cell Edge, %
Fade
Margin,
dB.
Dense Urban 20 8 8 11.31 75.0% 7.63
Urban 15 8 8 11.31 75.0% 7.63
Suburban 15 8 8 11.31 75.0% 7.63
Rural 10 8 8 11.31 75.0% 7.63
Highway 8 6 8 10.00 75.0% 6.74
Q This section
outlines the number
of subscribers and
amount of traffic by
year
Q This section shows
the variability of
outdoor and indoor
signals, and the
building penetration
loss
Reverse Link Budget Example
3. Construct Link Budgets
Reverse Link Budget
Term or Factor Given
Dense
Urb. Urban Suburban Rural Highway Formula
MS TX Power (dbm) (+) 23
MS antenna gain and body loss (+/-) 0
MS EIRP (dBm) (+) 23.00 23.00 23.00 23.00 23.00 A
Fade Margin, (dB) (-) -7.63 -7.63 -7.63 -7.63 -6.74 B
Soft Handoff Gain (dB) (+) 4 4 4 4 4 C
Receiver Interf. Margin (dB) (-) -3 -3 -3 -3 -3 D
Building Penetration Loss (dB) (-) -20.00 -15.00 -15.00 -10.00 -8.00 E
BTS RX antenna gain (dBi) (+) 17 17 17 17 17 F
BTS cable loss (dB) (-) -3 -3 -3 -3 -3 G
kTB (dBm/14.4 KHz.) -132.4 H
BTS noise figure (dB) 6.5 I
Eb/Nt (dB) 5.9 J
BTS RX sensitivity (dBm) (-) -120.0 -120.0 -120.0 -120.0 -120.0 H+I+J
Survivable Uplink Path Loss (dB) (+) 130.4 135.4 135.4 140.4 143.3
A+B+C+D+E
+F+G-
(H+I+J)
Q The Reverse Link Budget describes how the energy from the
phone is distributed to the base station, including the major
components of loss and gain within the system
Forward Link Budget Example
Forward Link Budget
Term or Factor Given
Dense
Urb. Urban Suburban Rural Highway Formula
BTS TX power (dBm) (+) 45 45 45 45 45
BTS TX power (watts) 31.62 31.62 31.62 31.62 31.62
% Power for traffic channels 74.0% 74.0% 74.0% 74.0% 74.0%
Number of Traffic Channels in use 19 19 19 19 19
BTS cable loss (dB) (-) -3 -3 -3 -3 -3
BTS TX antenna gain (dBi) (+) 17 17 17 17 17
BTS EIRP/traffic channel (dBm) (+,-) 44.9 44.9 44.9 44.9 44.9 A
Fade margin (dB) (-) -7.63 -7.63 -7.63 -7.63 -6.74 B
Receiver interference margin (db) (-) -3 -3 -3 -3 -3 C
Building Penetration Loss (dB) (-) -20.0 -15.0 -15.0 -10.0 -8.0 D
MS antenna gain & body loss (dB) (+,-) 0 0 0 0 0 E
kTB (dBm/14.4 KHz.) -132.4
Subscriber RX noise figure (dB) 10.5
Eb/Nt (dB) 6
Subscriber RX sensitivity (dBm) (-) -115.9 -115.9 -115.9 -115.9 -115.9 F
Survivable Downlink Path Loss, dB (+)
130.2 135.2 135.2 140.2 143.1
A+B+C+D
+E-F
Forward/Reverse Link Balance Dense
Urban Urban Suburban Rural Highway
Which link is dominant? Reverse Reverse Reverse Reverse Reverse
What advantage, dB? 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
Q This section shows the forward link power distribution, and
compares the relative balance of the forward and reverse links
Link Budgets: What is the Radius of a Cell?
4. Explore propagation model to figure coverage radius of cell.
Frequency, MHz. 870
Subscriber Antenna Height, M 1.5
Dense
Base Station Antenna Height, M 20 20 30 50 50
Dense
Environmental Correction, dB -2 -5 -10 -17 -17
Coverage Radius, kM
1.30 2.17 6.87 20.86 25.40
Coverage Radius, Miles
0.81 1.35 4.27 12.96 15.78
Q This section uses the Okumura-Hata/Cost-231 model to describe
the frequency, antenna heights, and environmental factors, and
their relationship on the cells coverage distance
Link Budgets: Putting It All Together
5. Calculate number of cells required for coverage, ignoring traffic considerations.
Dense Total
Urban Urban Suburban Rural Highway # Cells
Covered Area of this type, kM^2 55 450 1700 3400 1400 Required
One cell's coverage in this zone, kM^2 5.35 14.73 148.46 1367.34 2026.72 for System
# Cells required to cover zone 10.3 30.6 11.5 2.5 0.7 55.5
6. What is the traffic capacity (in erlangs) of your chosen BTS configuration, year-by-year?
Erlangs which one BTS can carry 18.3 18.3 90 90 450 450
7, 8. What is the total busy-hour erlang traffic on your system? How many BTS are required?
Total System Busy-Hour Erlangs 178.1 3,646.7 6,725.4 11,497.0 15,722.6 20,118.0
Capacity of One BTS, erlangs 18.3 18.3 90 90 450 450
# BTS required to handle all the traffic 9.7 199.3 74.7 127.7 34.9 44.7
9. Examine your market, #BTS required for coverage and capacity; estimate total
number of BTS required.
#BTS req'd just to achieve coverage 55.5 55.5 55.5 55.5 55.5 55.5
#BTS required just to carry traffic 9.7 199.3 74.7 127.7 34.9 44.7
Estimated total #BTS required 56.3 206.8 206.8 206.8 206.8 206.8
Q Step 4
estimates
the number
of cells
required to
serve each
distinct
environment
within the
system
Q Steps 5, 6,
and 7
estimate the
RF coverage
from each
cell, and the
number of
cells
required
Section 7B
Operational Measurements
Some Capacity Consideration
Operational Measurements
Some Capacity Consideration
Total Blocked Call Percentage Example
Total Block Call Percentage
1.0%
1.5%
2.0%
2.5%
3.0%
3.5%
4.0%
4.5%
5.0%
5.5%
6.0%
6.5%
7.0%
7.5%
8.0%
Date
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
Blkd
Q This is an example of a cumulative system-wide total blocked call
percentage chart maintained by one PCS customer
Dropped Call Percentage Tracking Example
Total Drop Call Percentage
0.0%
0.5%
1.0%
1.5%
2.0%
2.5%
3.0%
3.5%
4.0%
4.5%
5.0%
Date
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
%Drops
Q Dropped call percentage tracking by a PCS customer.
Total System Daily MOU Example
Daily Total System MOU
0
50000
100000
150000
200000
250000
300000
Date
M
O
U
Daily Total System MOU
Q Total system daily MOU plotted by a PCS customer
Top Ten Performance Tracking Example
Call Attempts
Eng
Site
MSC
Site Call Att
Call
Succ
%Call
Succ
Block
Calls
%Blck
Calls
Acc
Fail
%Acc
Fail
Drop
Calls
%Drop
Calls Call Attempts
6.1 13X 2561 2234 87.2 130 5.1 130 5.1 145 5.7
2.1 2X 2244 2017 89.9 101 4.5 101 4.5 93 4.1
1.2 1Y 1922 1743 90.7 83 4.3 83 4.3 66 3.4
64.3 93Z 1833 1549 84.5 137 7.5 136 7.4 110 6.0
108.2 30Y 1740 1589 91.3 46 2.6 45 2.6 83 4.8
1.3 1Z 1630 1495 91.7 31 1.9 31 1.9 81 5.0
63.2 57Y 1623 1486 91.6 49 3.0 49 3.0 66 4.1
102.2 4Y 1615 1495 92.6 18 1.1 18 1.1 70 4.3
108.1 30X 1490 1387 93.1 27 1.8 27 1.8 54 3.6
43.3 42Z 1488 1410 94.8 4 0.3 4 0.3 53 3.6
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
6
.
1
2
.
1
1
.
2
6
4
.
3
1
0
8
.
2
1
.
3
6
3
.
2
1
0
2
.
2
1
0
8
.
1
4
3
.
3
Sector
C
a
l
l
s
% Blocked Calls September 5, 1997
Eng
Site
MSC
Site Call Att
Call
Succ
%Call
Succ
Block
Calls
%Blck
Calls
Acc
Fail
%Acc
Fail
Drop
Calls
%Drop
Calls % Blocked Calls
64.3 93Z 1833 1549 84.5 137 7.5 136 7.4 110 6.0
6.1 13X 2561 2234 87.2 130 5.1 130 5.1 145 5.7
63.3 57Z 1282 1098 85.7 65 5.1 65 5.1 90 7.0
2.1 2X 2244 2017 89.9 101 4.5 101 4.5 93 4.1
1.2 1Y 1922 1743 90.7 83 4.3 83 4.3 66 3.4
63.2 57Y 1623 1486 91.6 49 3.0 49 3.0 66 4.1
64.1 93X 1027 926 90.2 30 2.9 30 2.9 58 5.7
26.3 35Z 855 698 81.6 24 2.8 24 2.8 112 13.1
108.2 30Y 1740 1589 91.3 46 2.6 45 2.6 83 4.8
1.3 1Z 1630 1495 91.7 31 1.9 31 1.9 81 5.0
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
6
4
.
3
6
.
1
6
3
.
3
2
.
1
1
.
2
6
3
.
2
6
4
.
1
2
6
.
3
1
0
8
.
2
1
.
3
Sector
%
Q Many operators use scripts or spreadsheet macros to produce
ranked lists of sites with heavy traffic, performance problems, etc.
Lucent Reports
Highlight by CDMA_Acs Chn_Oc (2,1,0, ) Mean: 28.2 Std Dev: 27.83 Sort by Sys/ ECP/ Cell/ Name/ Antenna ID/ Ant_Name
Sys/ ECP/ Cell/ Name/ Antenna ID/ Ant_Name CDMA_Acs CDMA_Avg CDMA_Fwd CDMA_Fwd CDMA CDMA_Pg CDMA_Pk CDMA_Pk CDMA_Rev CDMA_Rev
Chn_Oc Sq_DG PCOLdur PCOLcnt Intcpt_Msg Ch_Ocpn Acs_ChOc Pg_ChOc PCOLdur PCOLcnt
TOTALS 5,921.00 1,123,466 581.00 339.00 0.00 489,506 91,989 555,984 305.00 6.00
179 2 1 JACKSON 1 Antenna:1 30.00 6,187.00 12.00 4.00 0.00 2,771.00 985.00 3,264.00 0.00 0.00
179 2 1 JACKSON 2 Antenna:2 28.00 6,157.00 4.00 4.00 0.00 2,763.00 563.00 3,140.00 0.00 0.00
179 2 1 JACKSON 3 Antenna:3 10.00 6,088.00 2.00 1.00 0.00 2,754.00 281.00 3,197.00 0.00 0.00
179 2 2 WILDER 1 Antenna:1 27.00 6,168.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 2,795.00 563.00 3,125.00 0.00 0.00
179 2 2 WILDER 2 Antenna:2 13.00 5,016.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 2,756.00 422.00 3,120.00 0.00 0.00
179 2 2 WILDER 3 Antenna:3 13.00 4,818.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 2,766.00 281.00 3,155.00 0.00 0.00
179 2 3 MARKET 1 Antenna:1 4.00 6,200.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 2,760.00 140.00 3,100.00 0.00 0.00
179 2 3 MARKET 2 Antenna:2 10.00 6,073.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 2,731.00 422.00 3,195.00 0.00 0.00
179 2 3 MARKET 3 Antenna:3 55.00 6,580.00 5.00 3.00 0.00 2,809.00 845.00 3,391.00 0.00 0.00
Highlight by %CDMA Est Calls (2,1,0, ) Mean: 96.71 Std Dev: 1.22 Sort by %CDMA Est Calls
Sys/ ECP/ Cell/ Name/ Label %CDMA ReAcquir CCE CDMA_CE Prim_CS %Prim_CS Sec_CS %CDMA %CDMA CDMA %CDMA TotCDMA CDMATotl
Est Calls ed_Calls erlangs Usage CE_Use CE_Use CE_Use SoftHO Use SUFail Lost_Call Lost Calls Failures Origins
TOTALS 96.83 2.84 6,580 2,368,959 1,451,816 61.28 917,143 38.72 2.79 1,722.00 1.17 7,856.00 5,069.00
179 2 67 MARSHALL 93.55 3.22 62.60 22,535.00 9,300.00 41.27 13,235.00 58.73 6.14 15.00 1.67 95.00 65.00
179 2 10 TIGER 93.58 2.61 128.68 46,323.00 19,788.00 42.72 26,535.00 57.28 5.68 42.00 2.18 208.00 143.00
179 2 28 LEATHERWOOD 94.18 3.89 71.45 25,722.00 13,689.00 53.22 12,033.00 46.78 5.44 20.00 1.18 143.00 89.00
179 2 30 SHEPHERDS 94.36 2.38 63.54 22,873.00 11,113.00 48.59 11,760.00 51.41 3.62 10.00 0.89 77.00 47.00
179 2 121 PENTAGON 94.44 5.26 36.16 13,016.00 8,448.00 64.90 4,568.00 35.10 3.68 64.00 5.98 108.00 73.00
179 2 1 COLLEGE 94.67 2.65 76.37 27,494.00 15,965.00 58.07 11,529.00 41.93 4.64 15.00 0.98 102.00 67.00
179 2 45 MARYLAND 94.73 2.06 115.21 41,476.00 23,219.00 55.98 18,257.00 44.02 5.04 35.00 1.44 206.00 141.00
179 2 16 AVONDALE 94.90 2.99 98.26 35,372.00 20,059.00 56.71 15,313.00 43.29 4.47 41.00 1.78 178.00 130.00
Q This figure shows various operating statistics available through
AutoPace from Lucent systems
forward power control status
origination failures and dropped calls
BTSC MO Attributes
Attribute Name
Data
Type
Seq.
Number
Access,
Range
Description
BlockedOriginationsNoTCE word16
0x0002A
42
P
full
Number of originations blocked because
no idle channel elements were available
BlockedOriginationsNoFwdCap
0x0002B
43
Number of originations blocked due to
lack of BTS forward link excess capacity
BlockedOriginationsNoRevCap
0x0002C
44
Number of originations blocked due to
lack of reverse link capacity
BlockedHandoffsNoTCE
0x0002D
45
Number of handoffs blocked because no
idle channel elements were available
BlockedHandoffsNoFwdCap
0x0002E
46
Number of handoffs blocked due to lack
of BTS forward link excess capacity
BlockedHandoffsNoRevCap
0x0002F
47
Number of handoffs blocked due to lack
of reverse link capaicty
SuccessfulOriginations
0x00030
48
Number of successful originations
SuccessfulHandoffs
0x00031
49
Number of successful handoffs
word16
word16
word16
word16
word16
word16
word16
P
full
P
full
P
full
P
full
P
full
P
full
P
full
Each attribute is a periodic counter maintained during the 15-minute automatic logging period.
Nortel FA MO Attributes
Each attribute is a periodic counter maintained during the 15-minute automatic logging period.
FA MO
Sequence
Number OM name
FA MO
Sequence
Number OM name
16 TCEUtilMaximum 2D soft4softer1Alpha
17 NumOfTCsConfigured 2E soft4softer1Beta
18 soft1softer1Alpha 2F soft4softer1Gamma
19 soft1softer1Beta 30 soft4softer2AlphaBeta
1A soft1softer1Gamma 31 soft4softer2BetaGamma
1B soft1softer2AlphaBeta 32 soft4softer2GammaAlpha
1C soft1softer2BetaGamma 33 soft4softer3
1D soft1softer2GammaAlpha 34 soft5softer1Alpha
1E soft1softer3 35 soft5softer1Beta
1F soft2softer1Alpha 36 soft5softer1Gamma
20 soft2softer1Beta 37 soft5softer2AlphaBeta
21 soft2softer1Gamma 38 soft5softer2BetaGamma
22 soft2softer2AlphaBeta 39 soft5softer2GammaAlpha
23 soft2softer2BetaGamma 3A soft6softer1Alpha
24 soft2softer2GammaAlpha 3B soft6softer1Beta
25 soft2softer3 3C soft6softer1Gamma
26 soft3softer1Alpha 3D TimeNotInUse
27 soft3softer1Beta
28 soft3softer1Gamma
29 soft3softer2AlphaBeta
2A soft3softer2BetaGamma
2B soft3softer2GammaAlpha
2C soft3softer3
Nortel BTSC MO Events
Event Report Name
Type
Event Report
Seq.
Number
Description
Each event counter is maintained during the 15-minute automatic logging period.
BTSCPerformanceData PerformanceData
0x000?
0?
Includes as parameters all attributes with P
access documented in the attribute table for
this MO.
FA MO Events
Event Report Name
Type
Event Report
Seq.
Number
Description
Each event counter is maintained during the 15-minute automatic logging period.
FAPerformanceData PerformanceData
0x000?
0?
Includes as parameters all attributes with P
access documented in the attribute table for
this MO.
Nortel BTSC MO Report Example
XYZ 19971120 BTSC MO Report
+----+----------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
|BTS | Start Date/Time - |OBlock|OBlock|OBlock|HBlock|HBlock|HBlock| Succ | Succ |
| | End Date/Time |No TCE|No Fwd|No Rev|No TCE|No Fwd|No Rev| Origs|Handof|
+----+----------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
| 1|1997/11/20 01:30:00-02:00:00| 0| 0| 0| 0| 0| 0| 3| 5|
| 1|1997/11/20 12:00:00-12:30:00| 0| 0| 0| 0| 0| 0| 46| 314|
| 1|1997/11/20 12:30:00-13:00:00| 0| 0| 0| 0| 0| 0| 76| 470|
| 1|1997/11/20 13:00:00-13:30:00| 0| 0| 0| 0| 0| 0| 45| 414|
| 1|1997/11/20 13:30:00-14:00:00| 0| 0| 0| 0| 0| 0| 55| 375|
| 1|1997/11/20 14:00:00-14:30:00| 0| 0| 0| 0| 0| 0| 50| 525|
| 1|1997/11/20 14:30:00-15:00:00| 0| 0| 0| 0| 0| 0| 72| 433|
| 1|1997/11/20 15:00:00-15:30:00| 0| 0| 0| 0| 0| 0| 66| 412|
| 1|1997/11/20 15:30:00-16:00:00| 0| 0| 0| 0| 0| 0| 53| 323|
| 1|1997/11/20 16:00:00-16:30:00| 0| 0| 0| 0| 0| 0| 63| 342|
| 1|1997/11/20 16:30:00-17:00:00| 0| 0| 0| 0| 0| 0| 51| 331|
| 1|1997/11/20 17:00:00-17:30:00| 0| 0| 0| 0| 0| 0| 39| 323|
| 1|1997/11/20 17:30:00-18:00:00| 0| 0| 0| 0| 0| 0| 51| 310|
| 1|1997/11/20 18:00:00-18:30:00| 0| 0| 0| 0| 0| 0| 45| 237|
| 1|1997/11/20 18:30:00-19:00:00| 0| 0| 0| 0| 0| 0| 31| 299|
| 1|1997/11/20 19:00:00-19:30:00| 0| 0| 0| 0| 0| 0| 37| 282|
| 1|1997/11/20 19:30:00-20:00:00| 0| 0| 0| 0| 0| 0| 19| 143|
| 1|1997/11/20 20:00:00-20:30:00| 0| 0| 0| 0| 0| 0| 18| 96|
| 1|1997/11/20 20:30:00-21:00:00| 0| 0| 0| 0| 0| 0| 33| 192|
| 1|1997/11/20 21:00:00-21:30:00| 0| 0| 0| 0| 0| 0| 25| 226|
| 1|1997/11/20 21:30:00-22:00:00| 0| 0| 0| 0| 0| 0| 15| 235|
| 1|1997/11/20 22:00:00-22:30:00| 0| 0| 0| 0| 0| 0| 15| 216|
| 1|1997/11/20 22:30:00-23:00:00| 0| 0| 0| 0| 0| 0| 9| 162|
| 1|1997/11/20 23:00:00-23:30:00| 0| 0| 0| 0| 0| 0| 3| 40|
| |Totals for BTS 1 | 0| 0| 0| 0| 0| 0| 1235| 8895|
Nortel FAMO Report Example
XYZ 19971120 FA MO Report
+----+----------------------------+---------+---------+-----+-------+-------+-------+-----+---+
|BTS | Start Date/Time - | MOU | MOU | CE/ | MOU | MOU | MOU |%Soft|Max|
| | End Date/Time | CE | Traffic | User| Alpha | Beta | Gamma | HO |TCE|
+----+----------------------------+---------+---------+-----+-------+-------+-------+-----+---+
| 1|1997/11/20 07:00:00-07:30:00| 41.99| 33.35| 1.26| 11.77| 4.62| 16.96|20.58| 15|
| 1|1997/11/20 07:00:00-07:30:00| 73.06| 46.22| 1.58| 17.72| 14.10| 14.39|36.75| 15|
| 1|1997/11/20 08:00:00-08:30:00| 109.87| 66.05| 1.66| 24.78| 20.21| 21.06|39.88| 15|
| 1|1997/11/20 10:00:00-10:30:00| 153.79| 89.81| 1.71| 41.85| 32.19| 15.77|41.60| 15|
| 1|1997/11/20 10:30:00-11:00:00| 181.09| 102.19| 1.77| 43.60| 28.22| 30.38|43.57| 15|
| 1|1997/11/20 11:00:00-11:30:00| 152.59| 84.73| 1.80| 37.61| 18.51| 28.61|44.47| 15|
| 1|1997/11/20 11:30:00-12:00:00| 143.70| 89.16| 1.61| 39.66| 24.78| 24.72|37.95| 15|
| 1|1997/11/20 12:00:00-12:30:00| 156.58| 89.52| 1.75| 25.51| 21.91| 42.10|42.83| 15|
| 1|1997/11/20 12:30:00-13:00:00| 165.54| 89.97| 1.84| 44.41| 22.89| 22.67|45.65| 15|
| 1|1997/11/20 13:00:00-13:30:00| 170.36| 99.19| 1.72| 52.81| 24.58| 21.79|41.78| 15|
| 1|1997/11/20 13:30:00-14:00:00| 145.34| 93.71| 1.55| 41.88| 24.05| 27.77|35.53| 15|
| 1|1997/11/20 14:00:00-14:30:00| 189.61| 121.49| 1.56| 52.43| 30.99| 38.06|35.93| 15|
| 1|1997/11/20 14:30:00-15:00:00| 153.65| 108.08| 1.42| 47.58| 37.52| 22.99|29.65| 15|
| 1|1997/11/20 15:00:00-15:30:00| 165.08| 106.66| 1.55| 49.00| 29.69| 27.97|35.39| 15|
| 1|1997/11/20 15:30:00-16:00:00| 159.27| 94.72| 1.68| 42.04| 28.43| 24.25|40.53| 15|
| 1|1997/11/20 16:00:00-16:30:00| 172.52| 114.62| 1.51| 56.57| 28.50| 29.55|33.56| 15|
| 1|1997/11/20 16:30:00-17:00:00| 156.83| 105.46| 1.49| 53.29| 30.38| 21.80|32.76| 15|
| 1|1997/11/20 17:00:00-17:30:00| 129.13| 82.52| 1.56| 31.50| 24.28| 26.73|36.10| 15|
| 1|1997/11/20 17:30:00-18:00:00| 134.80| 81.76| 1.65| 35.80| 30.20| 15.77|39.35| 15|
| 1|1997/11/20 18:00:00-18:30:00| 96.91| 60.49| 1.60| 27.80| 15.38| 17.31|37.58| 15|
| 1|1997/11/20 18:30:00-19:00:00| 124.25| 73.62| 1.69| 22.37| 30.93| 20.33|40.75| 15|
| 1|1997/11/20 19:00:00-19:30:00| 75.50| 41.14| 1.83| 18.03| 14.88| 8.24|45.50| 15|
| 1|1997/11/20 19:30:00-20:00:00| 40.58| 23.56| 1.72| 12.50| 5.72| 5.33|41.95| 15|
| 1|1997/11/20 20:00:00-20:30:00| 51.14| 29.81| 1.72| 13.26| 10.37| 6.19|41.71| 15|
| 1|1997/11/20 20:30:00-21:00:00| 102.45| 55.26| 1.85| 16.36| 18.49| 20.41|46.07| 15|
| 1|1997/11/20 21:00:00-21:30:00| 108.48| 74.86| 1.45| 28.32| 17.26| 29.27|30.99| 15|
| 1|1997/11/20 21:30:00-22:00:00| 109.92| 68.50| 1.60| 26.53| 19.22| 22.75|37.68| 15|
| 1|1997/11/20 22:00:00-22:30:00| 86.58| 59.36| 1.46| 26.09| 15.11| 18.15|31.45| 15|
| 1|1997/11/20 22:30:00-23:00:00| 94.96| 63.48| 1.50| 27.73| 20.85| 14.90|33.15| 15|
| 1|1997/11/20 23:00:00-23:30:00| 28.07| 20.76| 1.35| 9.06| 8.14| 3.55|26.04| 15|
| |Totals for BTS 1 | 3690.90| 2280.64| 1.62| 980.80| 655.61| 644.22|38.21| 15|
Nortel Operational Capacity Considerations
BSC-BSM MTX BTS
Ch. Card ACC
TFU1
GPSR
BSM
CDSU
CDSU
SBS
Vocoders
Selectors
CDSU
CDSU
CDSU
CDSU
CDSU
CM SLM
LPP LPP ENET
DTCs
DMS-BUS
Txcvr
A
Txcvr
B
Txcvr
C
RFFE
A
RFFE
B
RFFE
C
TFU
GPSR
GPS
GPS
IOC
PSTN
CDSU DISCO CDSU
DISCO 1
DISCO 2
Sufficient vocoders/selectors
required in BSC SBS, one per
simultaneous call on the system.
8 Vocoders per SBS card, 12
cards per shelf, 4 shelves per
SBS cabinet.
One T-1 can carry all
traffic originated by a
one-carrier BTS; special
consideration required if
daisy-chaining
Forward RF Capacity:
links use available
BTS TX power
Sufficient channel
elements required for
traffic of all sectors:
one CE per link; 20
CE per Channel Card
64 Walsh Codes/sector
DISCO has
192 ports
max. Each
BTS uses 1,
SBS shelf 1,
LPP CIU 1,
Link 2, Ctrl. 2,
BSM 4.
Typical CM processor
capacity considerations
PSTN trunk groups must
be dimensioned to
support erlang load.
DTC & ENET:
One port per
Vocoder plus
one port per
outgoing trunk.
CDMA LPP:
One pair
CIUs and
One pair
CAUs per
approx. 600
erlangs
Reverse RF Capacity:
links cause noise floor
rise, use mobile power
1-2001 Current Product Capabilities:
Each BSC can have up to 4 DISCO shelves
About 240 sites, roughly 6000 erlangs capacity
Each MTX can have up to 2 BSCs
Section 7C
Reradiators
Reradiators
Wireless Reradiators
Cell RR
Q Reradiators (also called boosters,
repeaters, cell enhancers) are amplifying
devices intended to add coverage to a cell site
Q Reradiators are transparent to the host
Wireless system
A reradiator amplifies RF signals in both
directions, uplink and downlink
The system does not control reradiators and
has no knowledge of anything they do to the
signals they amplify, on either uplink or
downlink
Q Careful attention is required when using
reradiators to solve coverage problems
to achieve the desired coverage
improvement
to avoid creating interference
to ensure the active search window is large
enough to accommodate both donor signal
and reradiator signal as seen by mobiles
Reradiators are a
crutch with
definite application
restrictions. Many
operators prefer not
to use re-radiators at
all. However,
reradiators are a
cost-effective
solution for some
problems.
Q Two types of Reradiators commonly are
applied to solve two types of situations:
filling in holes within the
coverage area of a cell site -- valleys
and other obstructed locations,
convention centers, etc.
Low-Power broadband
reradiators are used for this
purpose (AMPS, TDMA, GSM,
CDMA)
expanding the service area of a
cell to large areas beyond its natural
coverage area
High-Power, channelized
frequency-translating reradiators
are used for this purpose
Only used in AMPS, TDMA; not
currently feasible for CDMA
Cell
RR
Cell RR
Propagation Path Loss Considerations
Q To solve a coverage problem using a reradiator, path loss and link
budget must be considered
how much reradiator gain is required?
how much reradiator output power is required?
what type of antennas would be best?
how much antenna isolation is needed?
how big will the reradiator footprint be?
how far can the reradiator be from the cell?
will the reradiator interfere with the cell in other areas?
What is the propagation delay through the reradiator, in chips?
Will search windows need to be adjusted for compensation?
Cell
RR
ERP
Gain
Path Loss
Path Loss (free space??)
Gain
RR
Gain
Line Loss
Signal Level
in target area
(free space
usually applies)
Search Window Considerations
Q A reradiator introduces additional PN delay
typically 5 to 30 chips
the energy seen by the mobile and by the base station is
spread out over a wider range of delays
DONT FORGET THE WINDOWS!
Search Windows must be widened by
approximately 2 x reradiator delay to
ensure capture of both donor and rerad
energy by mobile and base station.
Srch_Win_A, Srch_Win_R, Srch_Win_N
Base station Acquisition & Demodulation
search windows
Reference PN
Donor Energy Reradiator Energy
Donor
Cell
RR
Reradiator
Signal
Direct Signal from
Donor Cell
Delay = ? chips
Passive Wireless Reradiators
Typical Link Budget
Q In a few special cases, it is possible to
reradiate useful Wireless coverage without
any amplifiers involved!
Q Link budget is marginal
donor cell must be nearby
high-gain antenna required toward
donor cell
distance from RR to user must be
small
100 feet feasible w/omni
antenna
500 feet w/directional antenna
Donor cell EIRP
Path Loss Donor<>RR
RR Donor Ant. Gain
Signal Level into Line
RR Line Loss
RR Serving Ant. Gain
Path Loss RR<>User
Signal Level @ User
+52
-102
+22
-28
-6
+12
-69
-91
dBm
dB
dBi
dBm
dB
dBi
dB
dBm
Passive Reradiator
Link Budget Example
Donor
Cell
ERP
Path Loss
Path Loss
(250 ft., free space)
(2.1 miles,
free space)
Basement Auditorium, etc.
Line Loss
-6 db
Broadband Low-Power Wireless Reradiators
Q Used mainly for filling
small holes in coverage
area of a cell
Q Input and output on same
frequency
usable gain: must be
less than isolation
between antennas, or
oscillation occurs
this gain restriction
seriously limits
available coverage
Typically achievable
isolations: 70-95 dB
Good point: every
channel in donor cell is
re-radiated
BPF:
Uplink
BPF:
Downlink
Wireless Spectrum
Frequency
Cell
Broadband
Reradiator
Unavoidable
Coupling
C
o
m
b
i
n
e
r
C
o
m
b
i
n
e
r
Broadband Low-Power Wireless Reradiators
Typical Link Budget
Donor cell EIRP
Path Loss Donor<>RR
RR Donor Ant. Gain
RR Line Loss
Signal Level into RR
RR Gain
RR Power Output
RR Line Loss
RR Serving Ant. Gain
Path Loss RR<>User
Signal Level @ User
+52
-111
+12
-3
-50
+50
+0
-3
+12
-89.4
-80.4
dBm
dB
dBi
dB
dBm
dB
dBm
dB
dBi
dB
dBm
Broadband Reradiator
Link Budget Example
Q Broadband low-power reradiators can
deliver useful signal levels over
footprints up to roughly 1 mile using
nearby donor cells
Q Link budget is usually very tight
paths cant be seriously obstructed
antenna isolation must be at least
10 db more than desired RR gain
cant overdrive reradiator 3rd.
order IM
Donor
Cell
RR
ERP
Gain
Path Loss
Path Loss
(1/2 mile,
free space)
Gain
RR
Gain
Line Loss
Signal Level
in target area
(6 miles,
free space)
Other Reradiator Issues
Q Amplification of Undesired Signals
The reradiator is a broadband device capable of amplifying
other signals near the intended CDMA carrier, both on uplink
and downlink. Will these signals capture unwanted traffic,
cause unwanted interference, or overdrive CDMA handsets or
the base station?
Q Linearity
CDMA reradiators must be carefully adjusted to ensure they
are not overdriven. Overdriving would produce clipping or
other nonlinearities, resulting in code interference
Q Traffic Capacity
Re-radiators may introduce enough new traffic to create
overloads in the donor cell
Q Alarms
Separate arrangements must be made for integrating alarms
and surveillance reports from reradiators into the system
Chapter 8 Section I
Introduction to CDMA
Introduction to CDMA
April, 2004 102.8 - 1 Course 102 v1.5 (c) 2004 Scott Baxter
CDMA: Using A New Dimension
CDMA
All CDMA users occupy the same frequency
at the same time! Frequency and time are
not used as discriminators
CDMA operates by using CODING to
discriminate between users
CDMA interference comes mainly from
nearby users
Each user is a small voice in a roaring
crowd -- but with a uniquely recoverable
code
Figure of Merit: C/I
(carrier/interference ratio)
AMPS: +17 dB
TDMA: +14 to +17 dB
GSM: +7 to 9 dB.
CDMA: -10 to -17 dB.
CDMA: E
b
/N
o
~+6 dB.
CDMA: E
c
/I
o
>-14 dB.
We watch Ec/Io because it is available use it for deciding handoff partners
Our end-result Traffic Channel bit power vs noise
Raw RF of one channel vs all the energy
DSSS Spreading: Time-Domain View
At Originating Site:
Input A: Users Data @
19,200 bits/second
Input B: Walsh Code #23
@ 1.2288 Mcps
Output: Spread
spectrum signal
At Destination Site:
Input A: Received
spread spectrum signal
Input B: Walsh Code #23
@ 1.2288 Mcps
Output: Users Data @
19,200 bits/second just
as originally sent
Drawn to actual scale and time alignment
via air interface
XOR
Exclusive-OR
Gate
1
1
Input A: Received Signal
Input B: Spreading Code
Output: Users Original Data
Input A: Users Data
Input B: Spreading Code
Spread Spectrum Signal
XOR
Exclusive-OR
Gate
Originating Site
Destination Site
Spreading from a Frequency-Domain View
Spread Spectrum Payoff:
Processing Gain
Spread Spectrum
TRADITIONAL COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM
Slow
Information
Sent
TX
Slow
Information
Recovered
RX
Narrowband
Signal
SPREAD-SPECTRUM SYSTEM
Fast
Spreading
Sequence
Slow
Information
Sent
TX
Slow
Information
Recovered
RX
Fast
Spreading
Sequence
Wideband
Signal
Traditional technologies try
to squeeze signal into
minimum required
bandwidth
CDMA uses larger
bandwidth but uses
resulting processing gain to
increase capacity
The CDMA Spread Spectrum Benefit:
Get it all in one big payment, or Reinvest It?
CDMA Spreading Gain
Consider a user with a 9600
bps vocoder talking on a
CDMA signal 1,228,800 hz
wide. The processing gain is
1,228,800/9600 = 128, which
is 21 db. What happens if
additional users are added?
Shannon's research says that a certain
bit rate of information deserves a
certain bandwidth
If one CDMA user is carried alone by a
CDMA signal, the processing gain is
large - roughly 21 db for an 8k vocoder.
Each doubling of the number of
users consumes 3 db of the
processing gain
Somewhere above 32 users, the
signal-to-noise ratio becomes
undesirable and the ultimate
capacity of the sector is reached
Practical CDMA systems restrict the
number of users per sector to ensure
processing gain remains at usable
levels
# Users Processing Gain
1 21 db
2 18 db
4 15 db
8 12 db
16 9 db
32 6 db
64?!...maybe 32 is the right
time to leave the casino
CDMA Uses Code Channels
Building a
Building a
CDMA Signal
CDMA Signal
Bits
from Users Vocoder
Symbols
Chips
Forward Error
Correction
Coding and
Spreading
A CDMA signal uses many chips to convey just
one bit of information
Each user has a unique chip pattern, in effect a
code channel
To recover a bit, integrate a large number of
chips interpreted by the users known code
pattern
Other users code patterns appear random and
integrate in a random self-canceling fashion,
dont disturb the bit decoding decision being
made with the proper code pattern
CDMA In Action: Multiple Users on a Sector

if 1 =
if 0 =
1
Analog
Summing
Users
QPSK RF
Demodulated
Received
CDMA Signal
Despreading Sequence
(Locally Generated, =0)
matches
opposite
Decision:
Matches!
( = 0 )
Time
Integration
1
Opposite
( =1)
+10
-26
Received energy:
Correlation
-16
BTS
This figure illustrates the basic technique of
CDMA signal generation and recovery.
The actual coding process used in IS-95 CDMA includes
a few additional layers, as well see in following slides.
Spreading: What we do, we can undo
ORIGINATING SITE DESTINATION
Spreading
Sequence
Spreading
Sequence
Input
Data
Recovered
Data
Spread Data Stream
Sender combines data with a fast spreading sequence, transmits
spread data stream
Receiver intercepts the stream, uses same spreading sequence
to extract original data
Shipping and Receiving via CDMA
F
e
d
E
x
Data
Mailer
F
e
d
E
x
Data
Mailer
Shipping Receiving
Whether in shipping and receiving, or in CDMA, packaging is
extremely important!
Cargo is placed inside nested containers for protection and to
allow addressing
The shipper packs in a certain order, and the receiver unpacks in
the reverse order
CDMA containers are spreading codes
CDMAs Nested Spreading Sequences
Spreading
Sequence
A
Spreading
Sequence
B
Spreading
Sequence
C
Spreading
Sequence
C
Spreading
Sequence
B
Spreading
Sequence
A
Input
Data
X
Recovered
Data
X
X+A X+A+B X+A+B+C X+A+B X+A
Spread-Spectrum Chip Streams
ORIGINATING SITE DESTINATION
CDMA combines three different spreading sequences to create
unique, robust channels
The sequences are easy to generate on both sending and receiving
ends of each link
What we do, we can undo
The Walsh Codes
64 Magic Sequences, each 64 chips long
Each Walsh Code is precisely Orthogonal
with respect to all other Walsh Codes
its simple to generate the codes, or
theyre small enough to use from ROM
WALSH CODES
# ---------------------------------- 64-Chip Sequence ------------------------------------------
0 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
1 0101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101
2 0011001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110011
3 0110011001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110
4 0000111100001111000011110000111100001111000011110000111100001111
5 0101101001011010010110100101101001011010010110100101101001011010
6 0011110000111100001111000011110000111100001111000011110000111100
7 0110100101101001011010010110100101101001011010010110100101101001
8 0000000011111111000000001111111100000000111111110000000011111111
9 0101010110101010010101011010101001010101101010100101010110101010
10 0011001111001100001100111100110000110011110011000011001111001100
11 0110011010011001011001101001100101100110100110010110011010011001
12 0000111111110000000011111111000000001111111100000000111111110000
13 0101101010100101010110101010010101011010101001010101101010100101
14 0011110011000011001111001100001100111100110000110011110011000011
15 0110100110010110011010011001011001101001100101100110100110010110
16 0000000000000000111111111111111100000000000000001111111111111111
17 0101010101010101101010101010101001010101010101011010101010101010
18 0011001100110011110011001100110000110011001100111100110011001100
19 0110011001100110100110011001100101100110011001101001100110011001
20 0000111100001111111100001111000000001111000011111111000011110000
21 0101101001011010101001011010010101011010010110101010010110100101
22 0011110000111100110000111100001100111100001111001100001111000011
23 0110100101101001100101101001011001101001011010011001011010010110
24 0000000011111111111111110000000000000000111111111111111100000000
25 0101010110101010101010100101010101010101101010101010101001010101
26 0011001111001100110011000011001100110011110011001100110000110011
27 0110011010011001100110010110011001100110100110011001100101100110
28 0000111111110000111100000000111100001111111100001111000000001111
29 0101101010100101101001010101101001011010101001011010010101011010
30 0011110011000011110000110011110000111100110000111100001100111100
31 0110100110010110100101100110100101101001100101101001011001101001
32 0000000000000000000000000000000011111111111111111111111111111111
33 0101010101010101010101010101010110101010101010101010101010101010
34 0011001100110011001100110011001111001100110011001100110011001100
35 0110011001100110011001100110011010011001100110011001100110011001
36 0000111100001111000011110000111111110000111100001111000011110000
37 0101101001011010010110100101101010100101101001011010010110100101
38 0011110000111100001111000011110011000011110000111100001111000011
39 0110100101101001011010010110100110010110100101101001011010010110
40 0000000011111111000000001111111111111111000000001111111100000000
41 0101010110101010010101011010101010101010010101011010101001010101
42 0011001111001100001100111100110011001100001100111100110000110011
43 0110011010011001011001101001100110011001011001101001100101100110
44 0000111111110000000011111111000011110000000011111111000000001111
45 0101101010100101010110101010010110100101010110101010010101011010
46 0011110011000011001111001100001111000011001111001100001100111100
47 0110100110010110011010011001011010010110011010011001011001101001
48 0000000000000000111111111111111111111111111111110000000000000000
49 0101010101010101101010101010101010101010101010100101010101010101
50 0011001100110011110011001100110011001100110011000011001100110011
51 0110011001100110100110011001100110011001100110010110011001100110
52 0000111100001111111100001111000011110000111100000000111100001111
53 0101101001011010101001011010010110100101101001010101101001011010
54 0011110000111100110000111100001111000011110000110011110000111100
55 0110100101101001100101101001011010010110100101100110100101101001
56 0000000011111111111111110000000011111111000000000000000011111111
57 0101010110101010101010100101010110101010010101010101010110101010
58 0011001111001100110011000011001111001100001100110011001111001100
59 0110011010011001100110010110011010011001011001100110011010011001
60 0000111111110000111100000000111111110000000011110000111111110000
61 0101101010100101101001010101101010100101010110100101101010100101
62 0011110011000011110000110011110011000011001111000011110011000011
63 0110100110010110100101100110100110010110011010010110100110010110
EXAMPLE:
Correlation of Walsh Code #23 with Walsh Code #59
#23 0110100101101001100101101001011001101001011010011001011010010110
#59 0110011010011001100110010110011010011001011001100110011010011001
Sum 0000111111110000000011111111000011110000000011111111000000001111
Correlation Results: 32 1s, 32 0s: Orthogonal!!
Unique Properties:
Mutual Orthogonality
In CDMA2000, user data comes at various speeds, and different lengths of walsh codes can exist.
See Course 332 for more details on CDMA2000 1xRTT fast data channels and additional Walsh codes.
How the PN Codes Are Made, Why They Work
An Ordinary Shift Register
Sequence repeats every N chips,
where N is number of cells in register
The CDMA PN (pseudo-random)
codes are generated in small shift
registers that dont require much
circuitry or much battery power
Tapped shift register generates a wild,
self-mutating sequence 2
N
-1 chips
long (N=register length)
Such sequences match if
compared in step (no-brainer, any
sequence matches itself)
Such sequences appear
approximately orthogonal if
compared with themselves not
exactly matched in time
false correlation typically <2%
The Short PN code is used to make
sectors different from each other
The Long PN code is used to make
each mobiles signal different from
other mobiles
A Tapped, Summing Shift Register
Sequence repeats every 2
N
-1 chips,
where N is number of cells in register
A Special Characteristic of Sequences
Generated in Tapped Shift Registers
Compared In-Step: Matches Itself
Complete Correlation: All 0s Sum:
Self, in sync:
Sequence:
Compared Shifted: Little Correlation
Practically Orthogonal: Half 1s, Half 0s Sum:
Self, Shifted:
Sequence:
The Short PN Code makes Sectors Different
Original IS-95 CDMA PN Scrambling
Short PN
Scrambling
RF: cos t
RF: sin t
users
symbols
QPSK-
modulated
RF
Output
Same
information
duplicated
on I and Q
Walsh
I-sequence
Q-sequence
I
Q
32,768 chips long
26-2/3 ms.
(75 repetitions in 2 sec.)
The short PN code consists of
two PN Sequences, I and Q, each
32,768 chips long
Generated in similar but
differently-tapped 15-bit shift
registers
the two sequences scramble
the information on the I and Q
phase channels
Figures to the right show how one
users channel is built at the bTS
New CDMA2000 1x Complex Scrambling
I-sequence
Q-sequence
RF:
cos t
sin t
RF
users
symbols
Q
P
S
K

O
u
t
p
u
t
Walsh
S
e
r
i
a
l

t
o
P
a
r
a
l
l
e
l

+
Different
Information
on I and Q
Complex Scrambling
-
+
+
The Long PN Code Makes Mobiles Different
LONG CODE STATE REGISTER dynamic contents, zero timing shift
MASK REGISTER unique steady contents cause unique timing shift
SUMMER holds dynamic modulo-2 sum of LC State and Mask registers
Each clock cycle, all the Summer bits are
added into a single-bit modulo-2 sum
The shifted Long Code emerges, chip by chip!
clock
Every phone and every BTS channel element has a Long Code generator
Long Code State Register makes long code at system reference timing
A Mask Register holds a user-specific unique pattern of bits
Each clock pulse drives the Long Code State Register to its next state
State register and Mask register contents are added in the Summer
Summer contents are modulo-2 added to produce just a single bit output
The output bits are the Long Code, but shifted to the users unique offset
Different Masks Produce
Different Long PN Offsets
fixed AC# PC# BASE_ID PILOT PN
LONG CODE STATE REGISTER
SUMMING REGISTER
SUMMING REGISTER
fixed
PERMUTED ESN
SUMMING REGISTER
calculated PRIVATE LONG CODE MASK
ACCESS CHANNEL (IDLE MODE)
USING THE ACCESS CHANNEL LONG CODE MASK
TRAFFIC CHANNEL NORMAL
USING THE PUBLIC LONG CODE MASK
TRAFFIC CHANNEL PRIVATE
USING THE PRIVATE LONG CODE MASK
Ordinary mobiles use their ESNs and
the Public Long Code Mask to
produce their unique Long Code PN
offsets
main ingredient: mobile ESN
Mobiles needing greater privacy use
the Private Long Code Mask
instead of 32-bit ESN, the mask
value is produced from SSD
Word B in a calculation similar to
authentication
Each BTS sector has an Access
Channel where mobiles transmit for
registration and call setup
the Access Channel Long Code
Mask includes Access Channel
#, Paging Channel #, BTS ID,
and Pilot PN
The BTS transmits all of these
parameters on the Paging
Channel
IS-95 CDMA Forward and
Reverse Channels
IS-95 CDMA Forward and
Reverse Channels
The Channels of 2G IS-95 CDMA
FORWARD CHANNELS REVERSE CHANNELS
Existing IS-95A/JStd-008 CDMA offers one radio configuration
using just the channels shown above
IS-2000 CDMA is backward-compatible with this IS-95, but offers
additional radio configurations with additional channels
These additional modes are called Radio Configurations
IS-95 Rate Set 1 and 2 are IS-2000 Radio Configurations 1 & 2
BTS
Walsh 0: PILOT
Walsh 32: SYNC
Walsh 1: PAGING
Walsh n: TRAFFIC
S
e
c
t
o
r

h
a
s

a

S
h
o
r
t

P
N

O
f
f
s
e
t
ACCESS
A Long PN Offset
TRAFFIC
A Long PN Offset
How CDMA Codes Create the IS-95 Channels
THE IS-95 FORWARD LINK
each channel is a separate walsh code
the short code PN offset makes the sectors
signal unique
each channel is data scrambled with its
users decimated long code
THE IS-95 REVERSE LINK
each mobile has its own unique PN long
code offset
each mobile uses a walsh code stream to
convey its information
each mobile uses the Short PN code at 0
offset for QPSK modulation
FORWARD CHANNELS
User+msg
My tfc+msg
User+msg
User+msg
00000000000
Msg
Msgs
User+msg
One IS-95
Sector
W0
W32
W1
W2
PIlot
Sync
Paging
anothers traffic channel
W63 anothers traffic channel
S
H
O
R
T

P
N

C
O
D
E
A
T

U
N
I
Q
U
E

P
N

O
F
F
S
E
T
W15
W23
W24
My traffic channel
BTS
+LC
+LC
+LC
+LC
+LC
+LC
+LC
Long code
data
scrambling
The number of forward channels possible depends the number:
of available walsh codes, available BTS transmitter power,
and number of available physical channel elements.
REVERSE CHANNELS
Access
CH msg
Information carried
as walsh symbols
W00 W51 W07 W11
LONG CODE
@ACCESS CH
PN OFFSET
SHORT
PN
CODE
@ ZERO
OFFSET
My TFC
+ msgs
Information carried
as walsh symbols
W19 W51 W32 W61
LONG CODE
@ my phones
PN OFFSET
SHORT
PN
CODE
@ ZERO
OFFSET
IS-95 mobile
answers page
IS-95 mobile
during call
Each mobile uses its ESN to determine its own unique Long PN
offset. There are at least 2^32 offsets possible, plus additional
optional private long code offsets. The limit really depends on S/N.
3G Channels: CDMA2000 Phase I
CDMA2000 1xRTT has several
kinds of traffic channels for voice
and fast data
There are also optional
additional control channels for
more effective operation
Includes Power
Control Subchannel
Enhanced
Access Channel
Common
Control Channel
Dedicated
Control Channel
Reverse Fundamental
Channel (IS95B comp.)
Reverse
Supplemental Channel
Access Channel
(IS-95B compatible)
R-TRAFFIC
REVERSE CHANNELS
R-Pilot
R-CCCH
R-DCCH
R-FCH
R-SCH
R-EACH
1
1
0 or 1
0 or 1
0 to 2
R-ACH or
1
BTS
Dedicated
Control Channel
Same coding as IS-95B,
Backward compatible
Backward compatible
Backward compatible
Broadcast Channel
Quick Paging Channel
Common
Power Control Channel
Common
Assignment Channel
Common
Control Channels
Forward
Traffic Channels
Fundamental Channel
Supplemental
Channels IS-95B only
Supplemental
Channels RC3,4,5
F-TRAFFIC
FORWARD CHANNELS
F-Pilot
F-Sync
PAGING
F-BCH
F-QPCH
F-CPCCH
F-CACH
F-CCCH
F-DCCH
1
1
1 to 7
0 to 8
0 to 3
0 to 4
0 to 7
0 to 7
0 or 1
F-FCH
F-SCH
F-SCH
1
0 to 7
0 to 2
IS-95B only
Users: Users:
0 to many 0 to many
How many
Possible:
See Course 332 for more details.
The Code Makeup of CDMA2000 Channels
THE 1xRTT FORWARD LINK
independent I and Q information content
different length walsh codes carry channels
of different speeds
the short code PN offset makes the sectors
signal unique
each channel is data scrambled with its
users decimated long code
THE 1xRTT REVERSE LINK
Independent I and Q information content
each mobile has its own unique PN long
code offset
each mobile uses separate steady walsh
codes for various reverse channels
each mobile uses the Short PN code at 0
offset for QPSK modulation
FORWARD CHANNELS
a users
fast data
User+msg
User+msg
User+msg
00000000000
Msg
Msgs
User+msg
1xRTT
Sector
S
H
O
R
T

P
N

C
O
D
E
A
T

U
N
I
Q
U
E

P
N

O
F
F
S
E
T
BTS
+LC
+LC
+LC
+LC
+LC
Long code
data
scrambling
W0
W32
W1
W17
W25
W41
W3
PIlot
Sync
Paging
a fundamental channel
My Fundamental Channel
a fundamental channel
(used on demand for
fast data bursts toward
individual data users)
W53 a fundamental channel
+LC
+LC
The number of forward channels possible depends the number:
of available walsh codes, available BTS transmitter power,
and number of available physical channel elements.
REVERSE CHANNELS
Pilot+PC
pri+msgs
stdby ctrl
fast data
Information carried
as walsh symbols
Access
CH msg
W00 W51 W07 W11
LONG CODE
@ACCESS CH
PN OFFSET
SHORT
PN
CODE
@ ZERO
OFFSET
any mobile
originating
My TFC
+ msgs
Information carried
as walsh symbols
W19 W51 W32 W61
LONG CODE
@ my phones
PN OFFSET
SHORT
PN
CODE
@ ZERO
OFFSET
IS-95 mobile
in call
LONG
CODE
@ my
phones
PN
OFFSET
SHORT
PN
CODE
@ ZERO
OFFSET
W0
W4
W1, 2
W6,8 Access, DCCH
Fund. CH
Pilot+PwrCtrl
Suppl. CH
1xRTT mobile
in call
The number of usable revese channels depends mainly on S/N.
Basic CDMA Network Architecture
Access Manager
or (C)BSC
Switch BTS
Ch. Card ACC
TFU1
GPSR
BSM
CDSU
CDSU
SBS
Vocoders
Selectors
CDSU
CDSU
CDSU
CDSU
CDSU
CM SLM
LPP LPP ENET
DTCs
DMS-BUS
Txcvr
A
Txcvr
B
Txcvr
C
RFFE
A
RFFE
B
RFFE
C
TFU
GPSR
GPS
GPS
IOC
PSTN
CDSU DISCO CDSU
DISCO 1
DISCO 2
DS0 in T1
Packets
Chips
RF
Channel
Element
Vocoder
Some Other Internal Processes
Vocoding, Multiplexing, Power Control
Some Other Internal Processes
Vocoding, Multiplexing, Power Control
Variable Rate Vocoding & Multiplexing
DSP QCELP VOCODER
Codebook
Pitch
Filter
Formant
Filter
Coded Result
Feed-
back
20ms Sample
Vocoders compress speech, reduce bit
rate, greatly increasing capacity
CDMA uses a superior Variable Rate
Vocoder
full rate during speech
low rates in speech pauses
more natural sound
increased capacity!!
Voice, signaling, and user secondary
data may be mixed in CDMA frames
Frame Sizes bits
24/36
48/72
96/144
192/288
Full Rate Frame
1/2 Rate Frame
1/4 Rt.
1/8
Frame Contents: can be a mixture of
Primary
Traffic
(Voice or
data)
Signaling
(System
Messaging)
Secondary
(On-Air
activation, etc)
How Power Control Works
800 Power Control Bits per second!
TX RF Digital
BTS BSC
Eb/No
Setpoint
Bad FER?
Raise Setpoint
Stronger than
setpoint?
Open
Loop
Closed
Loop
Reverse Link
REVERSE LINK POWER ADJUSTMENT
RX RF Digital
IS-95, 1xRTT
ALL SAME METHOD
TXPO = -(RX
dbm
) -C + TXGA
MOBILE
FEI Bits Mark Bad Frames Received
BSC
Sync
Pilot
Paging
Short PN
Trans-
mitter,
Sector X
I Q User 1
User 2
User 3
Voc-
oder
BTS (1 sector)
Forward Link
FORWARD LINK POWER ADJUSTMENT
Selec-
tor
MOBILE
Eb/No
Setpoint
FEI Bits
Bad Frame
Counter
PMRM POWER MEAS. REPORT MSG 2 bad in last 4, Help!!
POWER CONTROL BITSTREAM RIDING ON MOBILE PILOT
DGU
IS-95 RS1
Method
IS-95 RS2
Method
1xRTT
Method
CDMA Network Structure
CDMA Network Structure
Structure of a Typical CDMA System
BASE STATION
CONTROLLER
CUSTOMER
SERVICE
BASE STATIONS
Mobile Telephone
Switching Office
PSTN
Local Carriers
Long Distance
Carriers
ATM Link
to other CDMA
Networks
(Future)
Voice Mail System
SWITCH
HLR Home Location Register
(subscriber database)
Voice Call Path through the CDMA Network
BSC-BSM MTX BTS
Ch. Card ACC
TFU1
GPSR
BSM
CDSU
CDSU
SBS
Vocoders
Selectors
CDSU
CDSU
CDSU
CDSU
CDSU
CM SLM
LPP LPP ENET
DTCs
DMS-BUS
Txcvr
A
Txcvr
B
Txcvr
C
RFFE
A
RFFE
B
RFFE
C
TFU
GPSR
GPS
GPS
IOC
PSTN
CDSU DISCO CDSU
DISCO 1
DISCO 2
DS0 in T1
Packets
Chips
RF
Channel
Element
Vocoder,
Selector
1x Data Call Path through the CDMA Network
BSC-BSM MTX BTS
Ch. Card ACC
TFU1
GPSR
BSM
CDSU
CDSU
SBS
Vocoders
Selectors
CDSU
CDSU
CDSU
CDSU
CDSU
CM SLM
LPP LPP ENET
DTCs
DMS-BUS
Txcvr
A
Txcvr
B
Txcvr
C
RFFE
A
RFFE
B
RFFE
C
TFU
GPSR
GPS
GPS
IOC
PSTN
CDSU DISCO CDSU
DISCO 1
DISCO 2
Packets
Chips
RF
Channel
Elements
(FCH, SCH)
Selector
PDSN
Internet
VPNs
R-P
Interface
Chapter 8 Section 2
cdma2000 Phase One:
1xRTT
cdma2000 Phase One:
1xRTT
The Qualcomm CDMA Family
CDMAone CDMA2000/IS-2000
Technology
Generation
Signal
Bandwidth,
#Users
Features:
Incremental
Progress
1G
AMPS
Data
Capabilities
30 kHz.
1
First
System,
Capacity
&
Handoffs
None,
2.4K by
modem
2G
IS-95A/J-Std008
1250 kHz.
20-35
First CDMA,
Capacity,
Quality
14.4K
2G
IS-95B
1250 kHz.
25-40
Improved
Access
Smarter
Handoffs
64K
2.5G or 3?
IS-2000:
1xRTT
1250 kHz.
50-80 voice
and data
Enhanced
Access
Channel
Structure
153K
307K
230K
3G
1xEV:DO,DV
HDR or
1Xtreme
1250 kHz.
Many packet
users
Faster data
rates on
dedicated
1x RF data
carrier
2.4 Mb/s
(HDR)
5 Mb/s
(1Xtreme)
3G
IS-2000:
3xRTT
F: 3x 1250k
R: 3687k
120-210 per
3 carriers
Faster data
rates on
shared 3-
carrier
bundle
1.0 Mb/s
CDMA2000
The RF Side of 3G Networks
The RF Side of 3G Networks
A CDMA Sector is Like a Hotel
A sector on an IS-95 CDMA BTS
runs like a discount hotel today
There's a Sign outside, a
covered entranceway, Lobby
Only Two kinds of rooms:
one king bed or two doubles
There are no meeting rooms
or ballrooms
New 1xRTT CDMA BTS sectors
are like a convention resort!
Twice as big in square feet
Sign, Entranceway, Lobby
Restaurants, Bars, Nightclub
Guest rooms: one king bed
or two doubles, maybe suites
Meeting Rooms with
adjustable walls -- for use as
Classrooms, Auditorium,
Ballrooms, Banquets,
Parties, Meetings
BTS
PILOT
SYNC
PAGING
TRAFFIC
ACCESS
TRAFFIC
F-TRAFFIC
BTS
F-Pilot
F-Sync
PAGING
F-BCH
F-QPCH
F-CPCCH
F-CACH
F-CCCH
F-DCCH
F-FCH
F-SCH
F-SCH
R-TRAFFIC
R-Pilot
R-CCCH
R-DCCH
R-FCH
R-SCH
R-EACH
R-ACH or
Mobile Improvements in 1xRTT
BTS
W0
W32
W1
W17
W25
W41
W3
PIlot
Sync
Paging
Others Fundamental Channel
My Fundamental Channel
Others Fundamental Channel
Supplemental Channel (shared)
(sometimes others, sometimes mine)
BASE STATION
W53 Fundamental Channel
IS-95 MOBILE
uses Walsh Codes as symbols of its information
since it only transmits one kind of channel at a time
W14 W23 W51 W07 W11 W16 W00 W63 W47 W13 W23
W0
W4
W1, 2
W6,8
Pilot and Power Control
Fundamental Channel
Access, DCCH, others
1xRTT MOBILE
Uses steady Walsh codes as channels
much like a base station does
since it may transmit multiple
channels simultaneously
Reverse Link Pilot transmitted by mobile in advanced modes
synchronous demodulation improves reverse link budget
1x Mobile transmits continuous waveform, no blind rate detection
Not like today's mobile and its TX data burst randomizing
Other 1xRTT Improvements and Capabilities
Improved convolutional encoding for
more robust channels
Much better protection against FER
Faster power control on forward link
Finally the mobile can say what it
wants 800x per second
Forward Link Orthogonal Transmit
Diversity (OTD)
Complex, but can give diversity gain
Quick-paging channel improves slotted-
mode paging, increases battery life
Quick Paging Channel indicator bits
wake up mobiles to receive pages
Auxiliary pilots support beam-forming and
smart antennas
Expect advanced smart antenna
products in 3-5 years
RC3 RC4
W25
W0
Pilot and
Power Control
BTS
I
Q
I
Q
Orthogonal Transmit Diversity
11 12 14 14 15 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 2047 16
QUICK PAGING CHANNEL SLOT
PAGING CHANNEL SLOT
80 ms
80 ms
1.28 s
GENERAL
PAGE MESSAGE
PAGE
INDICATORS
100 ms
20
ms
QPCH
PCH
Auxiliary Pilot
BTS
Fundam
ental C
hannel
A
uxiliary P
ilot C
hannel
Aux PCH allows mobile to adjust FCH steering
CDMA 2000 Radio Configurations
Radio
Configuration
RC1
RC2
RC3
RC4
RC5
RC6
RC7
RC8
RC9
Spreading
Rate
SR1
1xRTT
1 carrier
1.2288
MCPS
SR3
3xRTT
Fwd:
3 carriers
1.2288
MCPS
Rev:
3.6864
MCPS
Forward Link
Required. IS-95B Compatible
No CDMA2000 coding features
Compatible with IS-95B RS2
Quarter-rate convolutional or
Turbo Coding, base rate 9600
Half-rate convolutional or
Quarter-rate convolutional or
1/6 rate convolutional
or Turbo coding, base rate 9600
Required. 1/3 rate convolutional
or 1/3 rate convolutional or
Turbo coding, base rate 14400
or 1/3 rate convolutional or
Turbo encoder, base rate 14400
Data
Rates
9600
14400
9600
153600
9600
307200
14400
230400
9600
307200
9600
614400
14400
460800
14400
1036800
Quarter rate convolutional or
Turbo coding; Half rate
convolutional or Turbo coding;
base rate 9600
Quarter rate convolutional or
Required. or 1/3 convolutional
or convolutional or Turbo
encoding, base rate 14400
Required. IS-95B Compatible
Compatible with IS-95B RS2
RC1
RC2
RC3
RC4
RC5
RC6
9600
14400
9600
153600
307200
14400
230400
9600
307200
614400
14400
460800
1036800
Reverse Link
Data
Rates
Radio
Configuration
Physical Layer
IS-2000 CDMA Code Channels
IS-2000 CDMA Code Channels
CDMA2000 SR1 CDMA Channels
Not all of these channels will be
implemented immediately, and
some may not be supported in
commercial use any time soon.
All are defined in the Standard
and have useful purposes and
advantages
Includes Power
Control Subchannel
Enhanced
Access Channel
Common
Control Channel
Dedicated
Control Channel
Reverse Fundamental
Reverse
Access Channel
(IS-95B compatible)
R-TRAFFIC
REVERSE CHANNELS
R-Pilot
R-CCCH
R-DCCH
R-FCH
R-SCH
R-EACH
1
1
0 or 1
0 or 1
0 to 2
R-ACH or
1
Dedicated
Control Channel
Backward compatible
Backward compatible
Backward compatible
Broadcast Channel
Common
Common
Assignment Channel
Common
Control Channels
Forward
Traffic Channels
Fundamental Channel
Supplemental
Supplemental
Channels RC3,4,5
F-TRAFFIC
FORWARD CHANNELS
F-Pilot
F-Sync
PAGING
F-BCH
F-QPCH
F-CPCCH
F-CACH
F-CCCH
F-DCCH
1
1
1 to 7
0 to 8
0 to 3
0 to 4
0 to 7
0 to 7
0 or 1
F-FCH
F-SCH
F-SCH
Users: Users:
0 to many 0 to many
1
0 to 7
0 to 2
IS-95B only
How many
Possible:
BTS
The Channels at Phase One 1xRTT Launch
At initial 1xRTT launch, many IS-
95 mobiles will still exist
IS-95 mobiles still get config.
info. on the existing channel
F-BCH, F-CPCCH, F-CACH, F-
CCCH and F-DCCH will be
implemented later on carriers for
1xRTT mobiles only
Includes Power
Control Subchannel
Enhanced
Access Channel
Common
Control Channel
Dedicated
Control Channel
Reverse Fundamental
Reverse
Access Channel
(IS-95B compatible)
R-TRAFFIC
REVERSE CHANNELS
R-Pilot
R-CCCH
R-DCCH
R-FCH
R-SCH
R-EACH
1
1
0 or 1
0 or 1
0 to 2
R-ACH or
1
BTS
Dedicated
Control Channel
Backward compatible
Backward compatible
Backward compatible
Broadcast Channel
Common
Common
Assignment Channel
Common
Control Channels
Forward
Traffic Channels
Fundamental Channel
Supplemental
Supplemental
Channels RC3,4,5
F-TRAFFIC
FORWARD CHANNELS
F-Pilot
F-Sync
PAGING
F-BCH
F-QPCH
F-CPCCH
F-CACH
F-CCCH
F-DCCH
1
1
1 to 7
0 to 8
0 to 3
0 to 4
0 to 7
0 to 7
0 or 1
F-FCH
F-SCH
F-SCH
1
0 to 7
0 to 2
IS-95B only
Users: Users:
0 to many 0 to many
How many
Possible:
F-QPCH: The Quick Paging Channel
11 12 14 14 15 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 2047 16
PAGING CHANNEL SLOT
80 ms
80 ms
1.28 s
GENERAL
PAGE MESSAGE
100 ms
20
ms
Mobile hashes using IMSI to recognize
indicator bits it should monitor. If the
bits are on, the mobile wakes up and
listen to the next PCH slot somebody
watching those bits will be paged.
QUICK PAGING CHANNEL SLOT
Mobile listens for first General Page
Message, beginning in this slot.
There will be a page for some mobile
watching those indicator bits.
The Quick Paging Channel indicator bits tell 1xRTT mobiles whether they
need to wake up during the next Paging Channel slot
Each sector can have up to three F-QPCH walsh codes assigned
Walsh Code 80 (128-bit) (if there is only one, this must be it)
Walsh Code 48 (128-bit) (this must be second, if used)
Walsh Code 112 (128-bit) (this must be third, if used)
QPCH and PCH slots are 80 ms long; QPCH slots begin 100 ms before
the corresponding PCH slot
1xRTT Access Procedures
IS-2000 adds two new Access methods, for three ways to access:
Basic Access Mode:
(Existing Aloha Method from IS-95)
no closed-loop power control
Mobiles may suffer collisions
Mobile Power control is by successive trial and error, which is not very
efficient
Power Controlled Aloha Mode
The mobiles R-ACH is power controlled by the new F-CPCCH
Better power control, but still subject to collisions
Power Controlled Reservation Mode
The mobiles R-CCCH channel is Power Controlled
Access to system on R-CCCH is Reservation-based (no collisions)
This Maximizes feasible occupancy level of access channels
MS
Probing
Success!
Power Controlled Reservation Access Mode
R-EACH
R-CCCH
F-CACH
BTS
Enhanced Access Probe
Early Acknowledgment
Channel Assignment Message
Acknowledgment
F-CPCCH
EACH HEADER EACH PREAMBLE
MESSAGE CAPSULE CACH PREAMBLE
Enhanced Access Data
CCCH HEADER CCCH PREAMBLE
Power Control Bits
F-CCCH
Reservation Access Mode procedures:
On R-EACH, mobile asks permission to transmit
The associated F-CACH gives permission
Mobile transmits on R-CCCH during scheduled slot
F-CPCCH gives power control during R-CCCH transmission
F-CCCH gives acknowledgment and TCH assignment, if needed
1xRTT
How the 1xRTT Forward
Channels are Generated
How the 1xRTT Forward
Channels are Generated
SR1, RC1 9,600 bps F-FCH (same as IS-95!)
S
a
m
e

s
y
m
b
o
l
s

g
o

o
n

b
o
t
h

I

a
n
d

Q
!
Power
Control
Puncturing
Data Bits
8.6 kbps
+CRC &
Tail bits
9.6 kbps
1/2 rate
Conv Encoder
Interleaver
User Long
Code Mask
Long Code
Generator
Long Code
Decimator
Power Ctrl
Decimator
PC
Punc
Pwr Ctrl
Bits
Gain
Gain
19.2 ksps
I
Short Code
Q
Short Code
FIR
LPF
FIR
LPF
I
I
Q
Q
Orthogonal
Spreading
1228.8 kbps /W
800 bps
800 bps
19.2 ksps
1228.8 kcps
1228.8 kcps
Symbol
Repetition
BTS
Walsh 64
Generator
1228.8 kcps
SR1, RC2 14,400 bps F-FCH (same as IS-95!)
S
a
m
e

s
y
m
b
o
l
s

g
o

o
n

b
o
t
h

I

a
n
d

Q
!
Power
Control
Puncturing
Data Bits
13.35 kbps
+CRC &
Tail bits
14.4 kbps
1/2 rate
Conv Encoder
Interleaver
User Long
Code Mask
Long Code
Generator
Long Code
Decimator
Power Ctrl
Decimator
PC
Punc
Pwr Ctrl
Bits
Gain
Gain
19.2 ksps
I
Short Code
Q
Short Code
FIR
LPF
FIR
LPF
I
I
Q
Q
Orthogonal
Spreading
1228.8 kbps /W
800 bps
800 bps
19.2 ksps
1228.8 kcps
1228.8 kcps
Symbol
Repetition
Symbol
Puncturing
28.8 ksps
2 of 6
BTS
Walsh 64
Generator
1228.8 kcps
SR1, RC3 F-FCH (9,600 bps)
The
stream of
symbols
is divided
into two
parts:
one on
logical I
and
one on
logical Q
Complex scrambling
ensures that the
physical I and Q phase
planes contain equal
amplitudes at all times.
This minimizes the
peak-to-average power
levels in the signal.
Power
Control
Puncturing
Full Rate
Data Bits
8.6 kbps
+CRC &
Tail bits
9.6 kbps
1/4 rate
Conv Encoder
Interleaver
User Long
Code Mask
Long Code
Generator
Long Code
Decimator
Power Ctrl
Decimator
PC
Punc
Pwr Ctrl
Bits
Gain
Gain
Serial to
Parallel
Walsh 64
Generator
I
Q
38.4 ksps
I
Short Code
Q
Short Code
FIR
LPF
FIR
LPF
I
I
I
Q
Q
Q
Orthogonal
Spreading
Complex
Scrambling
+
-
+
+
Power control information
may be carried as shown
or on the F-DCCH
1228.8 kbps /W/2
800 bps
800 bps
19.2 ksps
19.2 ksps
1228.8 kcps
1228.8 kcps
1228.8 kcps
1228.8 kcps
1228.8 kcps
1228.8 kcps
38.4 ksps
BTS
SR1, RC4 F-FCH (9,600 bps)
Complex scrambling
ensures that the
This minimizes the
The
stream of
symbols
is divided
into two
parts:
one on
logical I
and
one on
logical Q
Power
Control
Puncturing
Full Rate
Data Bits
8.6 kbps
+CRC &
Tail bits
9.6 kbps
1/2 rate
Conv Encoder
Interleaver
User Long
Code Mask
Long Code
Generator
Long Code
Decimator
Power Ctrl
Decimator
PC
Punc
Pwr Ctrl
Bits
Gain
Gain
Serial to
Parallel
Walsh 128
Generator
I
Q
19.2 ksps
I
Short Code
Q
Short Code
FIR
LPF
FIR
LPF
I
I
I
Q
Q
Q
Orthogonal
Spreading
Complex
Scrambling
+
-
+
+
or on the F-DCCH
1228.8 kbps /W/2
800 bps
800 bps
9.6 ksps
9.6 ksps
1228.8 kcps
1228.8 kcps
1228.8 kcps
1228.8 kcps
1228.8 kcps
1228.8 kcps
19.2 ksps
BTS
SR1, RC5 F-FCH (14.4 kbps)
The
stream of
symbols
is divided
into two
parts:
one on
logical I
and
one on
logical Q
Complex scrambling
ensures that the
This minimizes the
Power
Control
Puncturing
Full Rate
Data Bits
13.35 kbps
+CRC &
Tail bits
14.4 kbps
1/4 rate
Conv Encoder
Interleaver
User Long
Code Mask
Long Code
Generator
Long Code
Decimator
Power Ctrl
Decimator
PC
Punc
Pwr Ctrl
Bits
Gain
Gain
Serial to
Parallel
Walsh 64
Generator
I
Q
I
Short Code
Q
Short Code
FIR
LPF
FIR
LPF
I
I
I
Q
Q
Q
Orthogonal
Spreading
Complex
Scrambling
+
-
+
+
or on the F-DCCH
1228.8 kbps /W/2
800 bps
800 bps
19.2 ksps
19.2 ksps
1228.8 kcps
1228.8 kcps
1228.8 kcps
1228.8 kcps
1228.8 kcps
1228.8 kcps
38.4 ksps
Puncture
4/12
38.4 ksps
BTS
57.6
ksps
SR1, RC3 F-SCH (153,600 bps)
Complex scrambling
ensures that the
This minimizes the
The
stream of
symbols
is divided
into two
parts:
one on
logical I
and
one on
logical Q
Payload
Data Bits
152.4 kbps
+CRC &
Tail bits
153.6 kbps
1/4 rate
Conv Encoder
Interleaver
User Long
Code Mask
Long Code
Generator
Long Code
Decimator
Gain
Serial to
Parallel
Walsh 4
Generator
I
Q
614.4 ksps
I
Short Code
Q
Short Code
FIR
LPF
FIR
LPF
I
I
I
Q
Q
Q
Orthogonal
Spreading
Complex
Scrambling
+
-
+
+
1228.8 kbps /W/2
307.2 ksps
307.2 ksps
1228.8 kcps
1228.8 kcps
1228.8 kcps
1228.8 kcps
1228.8 kcps
1228.8 kcps
614.4 ksps
614.4 ksps
BTS
SR1, RC4 F-SCH (307,200 bps)
Complex scrambling
ensures that the
This minimizes the
The
stream of
symbols
is divided
into two
parts:
one on
logical I
and
one on
logical Q
Payload
Data Bits
304.8 kbps
+CRC &
Tail bits
307.2 kbps
1/2 rate
Conv Encoder
Interleaver
User Long
Code Mask
Long Code
Generator
Long Code
Decimator
Gain
Serial to
Parallel
Walsh 4
Generator
I
Q
614.4 ksps
I
Short Code
Q
Short Code
FIR
LPF
FIR
LPF
I
I
I
Q
Q
Q
Orthogonal
Spreading
Complex
Scrambling
+
-
+
+
1228.8 kbps /W/2
307.2 ksps
307.2 ksps
1228.8 kcps
1228.8 kcps
1228.8 kcps
1228.8 kcps
1228.8 kcps
1228.8 kcps
614.4 ksps
614.4 ksps
BTS
Data Protection: Convolutional vs. Turbo Coding
In CDMA, bits are protected against transmission errors using channel
coding, turning them into symbols before transmission. After reception,
the decoding process to recover the bits is highly tolerant of bad symbols.
The correct bits can be recovered despite symbol errors
Many different channel coding methods are available to convert bits into
symbols. CDMA voice applications have always used Convolutional
encoders; CDMA2000 also introduces Turbo coding
Voice is a real-time streaming application and lost frames cant be
retransmitted, there is only one chance to pass the voice frames through.
We adjust the power of voice channels trying to achieve an FER of about
1% or 2%; anything higher produces bad-sounding speech.
Data applications are more forgiving of lost frames. The main objective is
throughput: a few bad frames can be retransmitted to fix errors, and
throughput remains nearly as good as before.
Turbo coders are a class of coders that work better for larger groups of
symbols, such as our large frames high CDMA2000 data rates
Their design is experimental; optimal algorithms are not yet known
CDMA2000 gets its best results using a mixed selection of coding types:
Adjust voice channel powers to achieve target 1-2% FER; use
Convolutional coders
Adjust data channel powers at approx. 5% FER with Turbo coding,
using packet retransmission to correct lost frames
Different Length Walsh Codes
Different Length Walsh Codes
Walsh Codes in 1xRTT
Data Rates are different, but
Chip Rates must stay the same!
2G VOICE AND DATA
One Symbol of Information
64 chips of Walsh Code
1,228,800 walsh chips/second
19,200 symbols/second
DATA
SYMBOLS
WALSH
CODE
3G 153.6 kb/s DATA
One Symbol of Fast Data
4 Chips of Walsh Code 1,228,800 walsh chips/second
307,200 symbols/second
DATA
SYMBOLS
WALSH
CODE
General Development of the Walsh Codes
All Walsh codes can be built to any size from a
single zero by replicating and inverting
All Walsh matrixes are square -- same number
of codes and number of chips per code
WALSH CODES
# ---------------------------------- 64-Chip Sequence ------------------------------------------
0 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
1 0101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101
2 0011001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110011
3 0110011001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110
4 0000111100001111000011110000111100001111000011110000111100001111
5 0101101001011010010110100101101001011010010110100101101001011010
6 0011110000111100001111000011110000111100001111000011110000111100
7 0110100101101001011010010110100101101001011010010110100101101001
8 0000000011111111000000001111111100000000111111110000000011111111
9 0101010110101010010101011010101001010101101010100101010110101010
10 0011001111001100001100111100110000110011110011000011001111001100
11 0110011010011001011001101001100101100110100110010110011010011001
12 0000111111110000000011111111000000001111111100000000111111110000
13 0101101010100101010110101010010101011010101001010101101010100101
14 0011110011000011001111001100001100111100110000110011110011000011
15 0110100110010110011010011001011001101001100101100110100110010110
16 0000000000000000111111111111111100000000000000001111111111111111
17 0101010101010101101010101010101001010101010101011010101010101010
18 0011001100110011110011001100110000110011001100111100110011001100
19 0110011001100110100110011001100101100110011001101001100110011001
20 0000111100001111111100001111000000001111000011111111000011110000
21 0101101001011010101001011010010101011010010110101010010110100101
22 0011110000111100110000111100001100111100001111001100001111000011
23 0110100101101001100101101001011001101001011010011001011010010110
24 0000000011111111111111110000000000000000111111111111111100000000
25 0101010110101010101010100101010101010101101010101010101001010101
26 0011001111001100110011000011001100110011110011001100110000110011
27 0110011010011001100110010110011001100110100110011001100101100110
28 0000111111110000111100000000111100001111111100001111000000001111
29 0101101010100101101001010101101001011010101001011010010101011010
30 0011110011000011110000110011110000111100110000111100001100111100
31 0110100110010110100101100110100101101001100101101001011001101001
32 0000000000000000000000000000000011111111111111111111111111111111
33 0101010101010101010101010101010110101010101010101010101010101010
34 0011001100110011001100110011001111001100110011001100110011001100
35 0110011001100110011001100110011010011001100110011001100110011001
36 0000111100001111000011110000111111110000111100001111000011110000
37 0101101001011010010110100101101010100101101001011010010110100101
38 0011110000111100001111000011110011000011110000111100001111000011
39 0110100101101001011010010110100110010110100101101001011010010110
40 0000000011111111000000001111111111111111000000001111111100000000
41 0101010110101010010101011010101010101010010101011010101001010101
42 0011001111001100001100111100110011001100001100111100110000110011
43 0110011010011001011001101001100110011001011001101001100101100110
44 0000111111110000000011111111000011110000000011111111000000001111
45 0101101010100101010110101010010110100101010110101010010101011010
46 0011110011000011001111001100001111000011001111001100001100111100
47 0110100110010110011010011001011010010110011010011001011001101001
48 0000000000000000111111111111111111111111111111110000000000000000
49 0101010101010101101010101010101010101010101010100101010101010101
50 0011001100110011110011001100110011001100110011000011001100110011
51 0110011001100110100110011001100110011001100110010110011001100110
52 0000111100001111111100001111000011110000111100000000111100001111
53 0101101001011010101001011010010110100101101001010101101001011010
54 0011110000111100110000111100001111000011110000110011110000111100
55 0110100101101001100101101001011010010110100101100110100101101001
56 0000000011111111111111110000000011111111000000000000000011111111
57 0101010110101010101010100101010110101010010101010101010110101010
58 0011001111001100110011000011001111001100001100110011001111001100
59 0110011010011001100110010110011010011001011001100110011010011001
60 0000111111110000111100000000111111110000000011110000111111110000
61 0101101010100101101001010101101010100101010110100101101010100101
62 0011110011000011110000110011110011000011001111000011110011000011
63 0110100110010110100101100110100110010110011010010110100110010110
WALSH CODES
# ----------- 32-Chip Sequence -------------
0 00000000000000000000000000000000
1 01010101010101010101010101010101
2 00110011001100110011001100110011
3 01100110011001100110011001100110
4 00001111000011110000111100001111
5 01011010010110100101101001011010
6 00111100001111000011110000111100
7 01101001011010010110100101101001
8 00000000111111110000000011111111
9 01010101101010100101010110101010
10 00110011110011000011001111001100
11 01100110100110010110011010011001
12 00001111111100000000111111110000
13 01011010101001010101101010100101
14 00111100110000110011110011000011
15 01101001100101100110100110010110
16 00000000000000001111111111111111
17 01010101010101011010101010101010
18 00110011001100111100110011001100
19 01100110011001101001100110011001
20 00001111000011111111000011110000
21 01011010010110101010010110100101
22 00111100001111001100001111000011
23 01101001011010011001011010010110
24 00000000111111111111111100000000
25 01010101101010101010101001010101
26 00110011110011001100110000110011
27 01100110100110011001100101100110
28 00001111111100001111000000001111
29 01011010101001011010010101011010
30 00111100110000111100001100111100
31 01101001100101101001011001101001
WALSH
# ---- 16-Chips -------
0 0000000000000000
1 0101010101010101
2 0011001100110011
3 0110011001100110
4 0000111100001111
5 0101101001011010
6 0011110000111100
7 0110100101101001
8 0000000011111111
9 0101010110101010
10 0011001111001100
11 0110011010011001
12 0000111111110000
13 0101101010100101
14 0011110011000011
15 0110100110010110
WALSH
# 8-Chips
0 00000000
1 01010101
2 00110011
3 01100110
4 00001111
5 01011010
6 00111100
7 01101001
WALSH
# 4-Chips
0 0000
1 0101
2 0011
3 0110
WALSH
# 2-Chips
0 00
1 01
WALSH
# 1-Chip
0 0
64x64
32x32
16x16
8x8
4x4
2x2
Walsh Level Mapping
The Walsh Codes shown here are in logical
state values 0 and 1.
Walsh Codes also can exist as physical
bipolar signals. Logical zero is the signal
value +1 and Logical 1 is the signal value -1.
Mapping: Logical 0,1 > +1, -1 Physical
Walsh Code Names
W12
32
= Walsh Code #12, 32 chips long.
Walsh Code Trees and Interdependencies
0110
1001
0110
0110
0110
0110 0110 0110 0110
0110 0110 1001 1001
1001 0110 1001 0110
1001 0110 1001 0110
1001 0110 1001 0110 1001 0110 1001 0110
1001 0110 1001 0110 1001 0110 1001 0110
1001 0110 1001 0110
1001 0110 1001 0110
1001 0110 1001 0110
1001 0110 1001 0110
0110 0110 1001 1001
0110 0110 1001 1001 0110 0110 1001 1001
0110 0110 1001 1001
0110 0110 0110 0110 0110 0110 0110 0110
0110 0110 0110 0110 1001 1001 1001 1001
W3
4
W3
8
W7
8
W7
16
W11
16
W3
16
W15
16
W7
32
W23
32
W15
32
W31
32
W27
32
W11
32
W19
32
W3
32
W3
64
W35
64
W19
64
W51
64
W11
64
W43
64
W27
64
W59
64
W7
64
W39
64
W23
64
W55
64
W15
64
W47
64
W31
64
W63
64
Entire Walsh matrices can be built by replicating and inverting -- Individual
Walsh codes can also be expanded in the same way.
CDMA adds each symbol of information to one complete Walsh code
Faster symbol rates therefore require shorter Walsh codes
If a short Walsh code is chosen to carry a fast data channel, that walsh
code and all its replicative descendants are compromised and cannot be
reused to carry other signals
Therefore, the supply of available Walsh codes on a sector diminishes
greatly while a fast data channel is being transmitted!
CDMA2000 Base stations can dip into a supply of quasi-orthogonal codes
if needed to permit additional channels during times of heavy loading
Walsh Code Families and Exclusions
Consider a forward link supplemental
channel being transmitted with a data
rate of 307,200 symbols/second
Each symbol will occupy 4 chips at
the 1x rate of 1,228,800 c/s.
A 4-chip walsh code will be used for
this channel
If Walsh Code #3 (4 chips) is chosen for
this channel:
Use of W3
4
will preclude other usage
of the following 64-chip walsh codes:
3, 35, 19, 51, 11, 43, 27, 59, 7, 39,
23, 55, 15, 47, 31, 63 -- all forbidden!
16 codes are tied up since the data is
being sent at 16 times the rate of
conventional 64-chip walsh codes
The BTS controller managing this sector
must track the precluded walsh codes
and ensure they arent assigned
WALSH CODES
# ---------------------------------- 64-Chip Sequence ------------------------------------------
0 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
1 0101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101
2 0011001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110011
3 0110011001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110
4 0000111100001111000011110000111100001111000011110000111100001111
5 0101101001011010010110100101101001011010010110100101101001011010
6 0011110000111100001111000011110000111100001111000011110000111100
7 0110100101101001011010010110100101101001011010010110100101101001
8 0000000011111111000000001111111100000000111111110000000011111111
9 0101010110101010010101011010101001010101101010100101010110101010
10 0011001111001100001100111100110000110011110011000011001111001100
11 0110011010011001011001101001100101100110100110010110011010011001
12 0000111111110000000011111111000000001111111100000000111111110000
13 0101101010100101010110101010010101011010101001010101101010100101
14 0011110011000011001111001100001100111100110000110011110011000011
15 0110100110010110011010011001011001101001100101100110100110010110
16 0000000000000000111111111111111100000000000000001111111111111111
17 0101010101010101101010101010101001010101010101011010101010101010
18 0011001100110011110011001100110000110011001100111100110011001100
19 0110011001100110100110011001100101100110011001101001100110011001
20 0000111100001111111100001111000000001111000011111111000011110000
21 0101101001011010101001011010010101011010010110101010010110100101
22 0011110000111100110000111100001100111100001111001100001111000011
23 0110100101101001100101101001011001101001011010011001011010010110
24 0000000011111111111111110000000000000000111111111111111100000000
25 0101010110101010101010100101010101010101101010101010101001010101
26 0011001111001100110011000011001100110011110011001100110000110011
27 0110011010011001100110010110011001100110100110011001100101100110
28 0000111111110000111100000000111100001111111100001111000000001111
29 0101101010100101101001010101101001011010101001011010010101011010
30 0011110011000011110000110011110000111100110000111100001100111100
31 0110100110010110100101100110100101101001100101101001011001101001
32 0000000000000000000000000000000011111111111111111111111111111111
33 0101010101010101010101010101010110101010101010101010101010101010
34 0011001100110011001100110011001111001100110011001100110011001100
35 0110011001100110011001100110011010011001100110011001100110011001
36 0000111100001111000011110000111111110000111100001111000011110000
37 0101101001011010010110100101101010100101101001011010010110100101
38 0011110000111100001111000011110011000011110000111100001111000011
39 0110100101101001011010010110100110010110100101101001011010010110
40 0000000011111111000000001111111111111111000000001111111100000000
41 0101010110101010010101011010101010101010010101011010101001010101
42 0011001111001100001100111100110011001100001100111100110000110011
43 0110011010011001011001101001100110011001011001101001100101100110
44 0000111111110000000011111111000011110000000011111111000000001111
45 0101101010100101010110101010010110100101010110101010010101011010
46 0011110011000011001111001100001111000011001111001100001100111100
47 0110100110010110011010011001011010010110011010011001011001101001
48 0000000000000000111111111111111111111111111111110000000000000000
49 0101010101010101101010101010101010101010101010100101010101010101
50 0011001100110011110011001100110011001100110011000011001100110011
51 0110011001100110100110011001100110011001100110010110011001100110
52 0000111100001111111100001111000011110000111100000000111100001111
53 0101101001011010101001011010010110100101101001010101101001011010
54 0011110000111100110000111100001111000011110000110011110000111100
55 0110100101101001100101101001011010010110100101100110100101101001
56 0000000011111111111111110000000011111111000000000000000011111111
57 0101010110101010101010100101010110101010010101010101010110101010
58 0011001111001100110011000011001111001100001100110011001111001100
59 0110011010011001100110010110011010011001011001100110011010011001
60 0000111111110000111100000000111111110000000011110000111111110000
61 0101101010100101101001010101101010100101010110100101101010100101
62 0011110011000011110000110011110011000011001111000011110011000011
63 0110100110010110100101100110100110010110011010010110100110010110
0110
W3
4
Which Walsh Codes get tied up by another?
Wxx
yy
ties up every YYth Walsh Code starting with #XX.
Forward Link Walsh Codes in 1xRTT
This way of arranging Walsh codes is called bit reversal order. It shows each
Walsh codes parents and children. Remember, we cannot use any Walsh code if
9,600
4,800
2,400
sps
307200
sps
153,600
sps
76,800
sps
38,400
sps
19,200
sps
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
1
2
8

c
h
i
p
s
4

c
h
i
p
s
8

c
h
i
p
s
1
6

c
h
i
p
s
3
2

c
h
i
p
s
6
4

c
h
i
p
s
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
7 3 5 1 6 2 4 0
3 1 2 0
15 7 11 3 13 5 9 1 14 6 10 2 12 4 8 0
31 15 23 7 27 11 19 3 29 13 21 5 25 9 17 1 30 14 22 6 26 10 18 2 28 12 20 4 24 8 16 0
5
4
1
2
7
6
3
9
5
3
1
1
1
1
4
7
7
9
1
5
1
1
9
5
5
8
7
2
3
1
0
3
3
9
7
1 7
1
2
3
5
9
9
1
2
7
1
0
7
4
3
7
5
1
1
1
1
5
5
1
8
3
1
9
9
9
3
5
6
7 3
1
2
5
6
1
9
3
2
9
1
0
9
4
5
7
7
1
3
1
1
7
5
3
8
5
2
1
1
0
1
3
7
6
9 5
1
2
1
5
7
8
9
2
5
1
0
5
4
1
7
3 9
1
1
3
4
9
8
1
1
8
9
7
3
3
6
5 1
1
2
6
6
2
9
4
3
0
1
1
0
4
6
7
8
1
4
1
1
8
8
6
2
2
1
0
2
3
8
7
0 6
1
2
2
5
8
9
0
2
6
1
0
6
4
2
7
4
1
0
1
1
4
5
0
8
2
1
8
9
8
3
4
6
6 2
1
2
4
6
0
9
2
2
8
1
0
8
4
4
7
6
1
2
1
1
6
5
2
8
4
2
0
1
0
0
3
6
6
8 4
1
2
0
5
6
8
8
2
4
1
0
4
4
0
7
2 8
1
1
2
4
8
8
0
1
6
9
6
3
2
6
4 0
0
3
2
1
6
4
8 8
4
0
2
4
5
6 4
3
6
2
0
5
2
1
2
4
4
2
8
6
0 2
3
4
1
8
5
0
1
0
4
2
2
6
5
8 6
3
8
2
2
5
4
1
4
4
6
3
0
6
2 1
3
3
1
7
4
9 9
4
1
2
5
5
7 5
3
7
2
1
5
3
1
3
4
5
2
9
6
1 3
3
5
1
9
5
1
1
1
4
3
2
7
5
9 7
3
9
2
3
5
5
1
5
4
7
3
1
6
3
Q
P
C
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Q
P
C
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8
.
4
k
3
8
.
4
k
3
8
.
4
k
3
8
.
4
k
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
307.2 ksps
F-SCH
307.2 ksps
3
8
.
4
k
3
8
.
4
k
3
8
.
4
k
3
8
.
4
k
3
8
.
4
k
3
8
.
4
k
3
8
.
4
k
3
8
.
4
k
3
8
.
4
k
3
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.
4
k
3
8
.
4
k
3
8
.
4
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3
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.
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3
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3
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3
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3
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2
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1
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2
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1
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1
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1
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76.8
ksps
another Walsh code directly above it or below it is in use.
IS-95 Busy Sector
Snapshot of Walsh Usage
IS-95 Today Typical Usage:
Pilot, Paging Sync, up to 61 Voice Users
But if the users are highly mobile, forward power may exhaust at typically 30-40 users.
In fixed-wireless or stadium type applications, all walsh codes may be usable.
9,600
4,800
2,400
sps
307200
sps
153,600
sps
76,800
sps
38,400
sps
19,200
sps
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
1
2
8

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p
s
4

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8

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Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
7 3 5 1 6 2 4 0
3 1 2 0
15 7 11 3 13 5 9 1 14 6 10 2 12 4 8 0
31 15 23 7 27 11 19 3 29 13 21 5 25 9 17 1 30 14 22 6 26 10 18 2 28 12 20 4 24 8 16 0
5
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76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
307.2 ksps
F-SCH
307.2 ksps
3
8
.
4
k
3
8
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4
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3
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2
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1
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2
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2
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1
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2
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1
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2
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1
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2
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??? ? ? ? ?
Traffic Channels
Voice or Data
9.6k/14.4k
76.8
ksps
3
8
.
4
k
Mixed IS-95 / 1xRTT RC3 Voice Typical Usage:
FCHs of 1xRTT RC3 users consume less power, so more total users are possible than in
IS-95. The BTS will probably have enough forward power to carry calls on all 61 walsh codes!
9,600
4,800
2,400
sps
307200
sps
153,600
sps
76,800
sps
38,400
sps
19,200
sps
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
1
2
8

c
h
i
p
s
4

c
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s
8

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1
6

c
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3
2

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6
4

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Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
7 3 5 1 6 2 4 0
3 1 2 0
15 7 11 3 13 5 9 1 14 6 10 2 12 4 8 0
31 15 23 7 27 11 19 3 29 13 21 5 25 9 17 1 30 14 22 6 26 10 18 2 28 12 20 4 24 8 16 0
5
4
1
2
7
6
3
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5
3
1
1
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76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
307.2 ksps
F-SCH
307.2 ksps
3
8
.
4
k
3
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.
4
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3
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4
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3
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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2
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1
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1
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2
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1
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1
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1
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2
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1
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1
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2
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1
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.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
k
1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
k
1
9
.
2
k
1
9
.
2
k
1
9
.
2
k
1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
k
F-FCHs mixed
RC1,2,3 Voice
76.8
ksps
? ?
A Possible 1xRTT RC3 BTS Dynamic State:
1 F-SCH, 27 Voice IS-95/1xRTT RC3 Users, 16 Active Data Users
The data users can rapidly share the one F-SCH for 153 kb/s peak, ~9Kb/s avg. user rates.
But so many active data users F-FCHs consume a lot of capacity, reduce number of voice users!
9,600
4,800
2,400
sps
307200
sps
153,600
sps
76,800
sps
38,400
sps
19,200
sps
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
1
2
8

c
h
i
p
s
4

c
h
i
p
s
8

c
h
i
p
s
1
6

c
h
i
p
s
3
2

c
h
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p
s
6
4

c
h
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p
s
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
7 3 5 1 6 2 4 0
3 1 2 0
15 7 11 3 13 5 9 1 14 6 10 2 12 4 8 0
31 15 23 7 27 11 19 3 29 13 21 5 25 9 17 1 30 14 22 6 26 10 18 2 28 12 20 4 24 8 16 0
5
4
1
2
7
6
3
9
5
3
1
1
1
1
4
7
7
9
1
5
1
1
9
5
5
8
7
2
3
1
0
3
3
9
7
1 7
1
2
3
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9
9
1
2
7
1
0
7
4
3
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5
1
1
1
1
5
5
1
8
3
1
9
9
9
3
5
6
7 3
1
2
5
6
1
9
3
2
9
1
0
9
4
5
7
7
1
3
1
1
7
5
3
8
5
2
1
1
0
1
3
7
6
9 5
1
2
1
5
7
8
9
2
5
1
0
5
4
1
7
3 9
1
1
3
4
9
8
1
1
8
9
7
3
3
6
5 1
1
2
6
6
2
9
4
3
0
1
1
0
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76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
307.2 ksps
F-SCH
307.2 ksps
3
8
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3
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3
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1
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1
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2
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1
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2
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1
9
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2
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1
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2
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1
9
.
2
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F-SCH 153K RC3
F-FCHs 9.6k
RC3 Data
F-FCHs 9.6k
RC3 Voice
F-FCHs 9.6k
RC3 Voice
76.8
ksps
A Possible 1xRTT RC3 BTS Dynamic State:
1 F-SCH, 39 IS-95/1xRTT RC3 Voice Users, 4 Active+12 Dormant Data Users
But it takes seconds to move various data users from Dormant to Active!
Data users will get 153 kb/s peak, ~9 kb/s average, but latency will be high.
9,600
4,800
2,400
sps
307200
sps
153,600
sps
76,800
sps
38,400
sps
19,200
sps
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
1
2
8

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Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
7 3 5 1 6 2 4 0
3 1 2 0
15 7 11 3 13 5 9 1 14 6 10 2 12 4 8 0
31 15 23 7 27 11 19 3 29 13 21 5 25 9 17 1 30 14 22 6 26 10 18 2 28 12 20 4 24 8 16 0
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3
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3
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3
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76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
307.2 ksps
F-SCH
307.2 ksps
3
8
.
4
k
3
8
.
4
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3
8
.
4
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3
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4
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3
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3
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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2
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1
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2
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1
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2
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1
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2
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1
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1
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1
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2
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1
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1
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2
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1
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2
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1
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.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
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.
2
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1
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.
2
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1
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.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
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.
2
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1
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.
2
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1
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.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
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.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
k
F-FCHs 9.6k
RC3 Voice
F-FCHs 9.6k
RC3 Voice
F-FCHs 9.6k
RC3 Voice
F
-
F
C
H
s
D
a
t
a
F-SCH 153K RC3
76.8
ksps
Slightly Improved 1xRTT RC3 BTS Dynamic State:
1 F-SCH, 37 IS-95/1xRTT RC3 Voice Users, 4 Active+12 Control-Hold Data Users
Instead of sending 16 data users to Dormant State, let them time-share 2 F-DCCH for
Control Hold state. Data users will get 153 kb/s peak, ~9 kb/s average, good latency.
Not yet available or implemented.
9,600
4,800
2,400
sps
307200
sps
153,600
sps
76,800
sps
38,400
sps
19,200
sps
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
1
2
8

c
h
i
p
s
4

c
h
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p
s
8

c
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1
6

c
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3
2

c
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6
4

c
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Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
7 3 5 1 6 2 4 0
3 1 2 0
15 7 11 3 13 5 9 1 14 6 10 2 12 4 8 0
31 15 23 7 27 11 19 3 29 13 21 5 25 9 17 1 30 14 22 6 26 10 18 2 28 12 20 4 24 8 16 0
5
4
1
2
7
6
3
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5
3
1
1
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1
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1
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1
1
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3
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1
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1
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1
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76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
307.2 ksps
F-SCH
307.2 ksps
3
8
.
4
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3
8
.
4
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3
8
.
4
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3
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3
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1
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1
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1
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1
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2
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1
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1
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1
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2
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1
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2
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1
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2
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1
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2
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1
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2
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1
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2
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1
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1
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1
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2
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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2
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1
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2
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1
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.
2
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1
9
.
2
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F-FCHs 9.6k
RC3 Voice
F-FCHs 9.6k
RC3 Voice
F-FCHs 9.6k
RC3 Voice
F
-
F
C
H
s
D
a
t
a
F-SCH 153K RC3
F
-
D
C
C
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s
76.8
ksps
Heavy Data 1xRTT RC3 BTS Dynamic State:
2 F-SCH, 21 IS-95/1xRTT RC3 Voice Users, 4 Active+12 Control-Hold Data Users
16 data users time-share 2 F-DCCH for Control Hold state. Data users get 38.4, 76.4,
or 153.6 kb/s peak, ~19 kb/s average, good latency. But only 21 voice users!
9,600
4,800
2,400
sps
307200
sps
153,600
sps
76,800
sps
38,400
sps
19,200
sps
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
1
2
8

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Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
7 3 5 1 6 2 4 0
3 1 2 0
15 7 11 3 13 5 9 1 14 6 10 2 12 4 8 0
31 15 23 7 27 11 19 3 29 13 21 5 25 9 17 1 30 14 22 6 26 10 18 2 28 12 20 4 24 8 16 0
5
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1
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3
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5
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3
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76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
307.2 ksps
F-SCH
307.2 ksps
3
8
.
4
k
3
8
.
4
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3
8
.
4
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3
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.
4
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3
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1
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1
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1
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1
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2
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1
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1
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1
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2
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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2
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1
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1
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1
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2
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1
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.
2
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1
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2
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1
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2
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1
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2
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1
9
.
2
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1
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2
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1
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1
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2
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1
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2
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1
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2
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1
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.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
k
F-FCHs 9.6k
RC3 Voice
F-FCHs 9.6k
RC3 Voice
F
-
F
C
H
s
D
a
t
a
F-SCH 153K RC3
F
-
D
C
C
H
s
F-SCH 153K RC3
76.8
ksps
1xRTT Busy Sector
Walsh Code Usage
1xRTT RC3 BTS with Different User Data Rates:
3 F-SCH, 37 IS-95/1xRTT RC3 Voice Users, 4 Active+12 Control-Hold RC3 Data Users
16 data users time-share 2 F-DCCH for Control Hold state.
Data users get 38.4, 76.4, or 153.6 kb/s peak, ~9 kb/s average, good latency.
9,600
4,800
2,400
sps
307200
sps
153,600
sps
76,800
sps
38,400
sps
19,200
sps
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
1
2
8

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h
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p
s
4

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8

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3
2

c
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6
4

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Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
7 3 5 1 6 2 4 0
3 1 2 0
15 7 11 3 13 5 9 1 14 6 10 2 12 4 8 0
31 15 23 7 27 11 19 3 29 13 21 5 25 9 17 1 30 14 22 6 26 10 18 2 28 12 20 4 24 8 16 0
5
4
1
2
7
6
3
9
5
3
1
1
1
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4
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76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
307.2 ksps
F-SCH
307.2 ksps
3
8
.
4
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3
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.
4
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3
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4
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3
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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2
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1
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2
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1
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2
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1
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2
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1
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1
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2
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1
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2
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1
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2
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1
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.
2
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1
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2
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1
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.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
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.
2
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1
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.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
k
F-FCHs 9.6k
RC3 Voice
F-FCHs 9.6k
RC3 Voice
F-FCHs 9.6k
RC3 Voice
F
-
F
C
H
s
D
a
t
a
F-SCH
76K RC3
F
-
D
C
C
H
s
F
-
S
C
H
3
8
K
F
-
S
C
H
3
8
K 76.8
ksps
1xRTT RC4 Voice Only:
Wow! 118 users! But RC4 users F-FCHs consume as much power as old IS-95 calls.
BTS may run out of forward power before the all walsh codes are used.
9,600
4,800
2,400
sps
307200
sps
153,600
sps
76,800
sps
38,400
sps
19,200
sps
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
1
2
8

c
h
i
p
s
4

c
h
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p
s
8

c
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s
1
6

c
h
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p
s
3
2

c
h
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p
s
6
4

c
h
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p
s
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
7 3 5 1 6 2 4 0
3 1 2 0
15 7 11 3 13 5 9 1 14 6 10 2 12 4 8 0
31 15 23 7 27 11 19 3 29 13 21 5 25 9 17 1 30 14 22 6 26 10 18 2 28 12 20 4 24 8 16 0
5
4
1
2
7
6
3
9
5
3
1
1
1
1
4
7
7
9
1
5
1
1
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5
5
8
7
2
3
1
0
3
3
9
7
1 7
1
2
3
5
9
9
1
2
7
1
0
7
4
3
7
5
1
1
1
1
5
5
1
8
3
1
9
9
9
3
5
6
7 3
1
2
5
6
1
9
3
2
9
1
0
9
4
5
7
7
1
3
1
1
7
5
3
8
5
2
1
1
0
1
3
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6
9 5
1
2
1
5
7
8
9
2
5
1
0
5
4
1
7
3 9
1
1
3
4
9
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1
1
8
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3
3
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1
2
6
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2
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1
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7
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1
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1
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6
2
2
1
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2
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1
2
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1
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2
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1
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1
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3
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1
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5
0
1
0
4
2
2
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8 6
3
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2
2
5
4
1
4
4
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3
0
6
2 1
3
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1
7
4
9 9
4
1
2
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5
7 5
3
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2
1
5
3
1
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4
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6
1 3
3
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1
9
5
1
1
1
4
3
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5
9 7
3
9
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5
1
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3
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1
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1
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P
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3
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3
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3
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3
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4
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76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
307.2 ksps
F-SCH
307.2 ksps
3
8
.
4
k
3
8
.
4
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3
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.
4
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3
8
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3
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3
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3
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3
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3
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3
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3
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3
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3
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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2
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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2
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1
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2
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1
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2
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1
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2
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1
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2
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1
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1
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2
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1
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2
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1
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2
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1
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2
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1
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2
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1
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2
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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2
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1
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1
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2
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1
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2
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1
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2
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1
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2
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1
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2
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1
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1
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2
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1
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1
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2
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1
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2
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1
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.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
k
F-FCHs 9.6k
RC4 Voice
F-FCHs 9.6k
RC4 Voice
F-FCHs 9.6k
RC4 Voice
F-FCHs 9.6k
RC4 Voice
??? ? ? ? ?
76.8
ksps
1xRTT RC4 Voice and Data:
1 F-SCH, 80 1xRTT RC4 Voice Users, 4 Active+12 Control-Hold RC4 Data Users
16 data users time-share 2 F-DCCH for Control Hold state. Data users will get 38.4,
76.4, 153.6 or 307.2 kb/s peak, ~19 kb/s average, good latency. But fwd power may exhaust!
9,600
4,800
2,400
sps
307200
sps
153,600
sps
76,800
sps
38,400
sps
19,200
sps
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
1
2
8

c
h
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p
s
4

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h
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s
8

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1
6

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3
2

c
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4

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Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
7 3 5 1 6 2 4 0
3 1 2 0
15 7 11 3 13 5 9 1 14 6 10 2 12 4 8 0
31 15 23 7 27 11 19 3 29 13 21 5 25 9 17 1 30 14 22 6 26 10 18 2 28 12 20 4 24 8 16 0
5
4
1
2
7
6
3
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5
3
1
1
1
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5
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3
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1
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3
1
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9
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3
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7 3
1
2
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6
1
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3
2
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1
0
9
4
5
7
7
1
3
1
1
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3
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2
1
1
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1
3
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9 5
1
2
1
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7
8
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2
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1
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1
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3 9
1
1
3
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8
1
1
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3
3
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1
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2
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1
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2
1
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3
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4
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2
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2
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3
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1
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1
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2
2
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3
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2
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1
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4
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3
0
6
2 1
3
3
1
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4
9 9
4
1
2
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3
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2
1
5
3
1
3
4
5
2
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6
1 3
3
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1
9
5
1
1
1
4
3
2
7
5
9 7
3
9
2
3
5
5
1
5
4
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3
1
6
3
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Q
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D
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P
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1
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1
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2
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1
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2
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1
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2
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P
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1
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2
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1
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.
2
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1
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2
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S
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P
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3
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.
4
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3
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.
4
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3
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.
4
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3
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.
4
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76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
307.2 ksps
F-SCH
307.2 ksps
3
8
.
4
k
3
8
.
4
k
3
8
.
4
k
3
8
.
4
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3
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.
4
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3
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.
4
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3
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4
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3
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3
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4
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3
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3
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4
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3
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4
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3
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4
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3
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4
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3
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4
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3
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3
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4
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3
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4
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3
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4
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3
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4
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3
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3
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4
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3
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4
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3
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4
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3
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1
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.
2
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1
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2
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1
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.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
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.
2
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1
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2
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1
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.
2
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1
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2
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1
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.
2
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1
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2
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1
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.
2
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1
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.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
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.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
k
1
9
.
2
k
1
9
.
2
k
1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
k
1
9
.
2
k
1
9
.
2
k
1
9
.
2
k
1
9
.
2
k
1
9
.
2
k
1
9
.
2
k
1
9
.
2
k
1
9
.
2
k
1
9
.
2
k
1
9
.
2
k
1
9
.
2
k
1
9
.
2
k
1
9
.
2
k
1
9
.
2
k
1
9
.
2
k
1
9
.
2
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1
9
.
2
k
1
9
.
2
k
1
9
.
2
k
1
9
.
2
k
F-SCH 307K RC4
F-FCHs 9.6k
RC4 Voice
F-FCHs 9.6k
RC4 Voice
F-FCHs 9.6k
RC4 Voice
?? ? ?
F
-
F
C
H
s
F
-
D
C
C
H
s
76.8
ksps
Mature 1xRTT Mixed-Mode Voice and Data:
1 RC3/RC4 Shared F-SCH, 20 RC3 Voice Users, 38 RC4 Voice Users,
4 Active+12 Control-Hold RC3 and RC4 Data Users
16 data users time-share 2 F-DCCH for Control Hold state. Data users will get
38.4, 76.4, 153.6 or 307.2 kb/s peak, ~9 or 19 kb/s average, good latency. Fwd power tight!
9,600
4,800
2,400
sps
307200
sps
153,600
sps
76,800
sps
38,400
sps
19,200
sps
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
1
2
8

c
h
i
p
s
4

c
h
i
p
s
8

c
h
i
p
s
1
6

c
h
i
p
s
3
2

c
h
i
p
s
6
4

c
h
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p
s
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
7 3 5 1 6 2 4 0
3 1 2 0
15 7 11 3 13 5 9 1 14 6 10 2 12 4 8 0
31 15 23 7 27 11 19 3 29 13 21 5 25 9 17 1 30 14 22 6 26 10 18 2 28 12 20 4 24 8 16 0
5
4
1
2
7
6
3
9
5
3
1
1
1
1
4
7
7
9
1
5
1
1
9
5
5
8
7
2
3
1
0
3
3
9
7
1 7
1
2
3
5
9
9
1
2
7
1
0
7
4
3
7
5
1
1
1
1
5
5
1
8
3
1
9
9
9
3
5
6
7 3
1
2
5
6
1
9
3
2
9
1
0
9
4
5
7
7
1
3
1
1
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5
3
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5
2
1
1
0
1
3
7
6
9 5
1
2
1
5
7
8
9
2
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1
0
5
4
1
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3 9
1
1
3
4
9
8
1
1
8
9
7
3
3
6
5 1
1
2
6
6
2
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4
3
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1
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1
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1
1
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6
2
2
1
0
2
3
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1
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1
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6
4
2
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5
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2
1
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3
4
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6 2
1
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2
2
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4
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6
1
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1
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2
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1
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6
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1
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1
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8
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1
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9
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3
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0
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2
1
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4
8 8
4
0
2
4
5
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3
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2
0
5
2
1
2
4
4
2
8
6
0 2
3
4
1
8
5
0
1
0
4
2
2
6
5
8 6
3
8
2
2
5
4
1
4
4
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3
0
6
2 1
3
3
1
7
4
9 9
4
1
2
5
5
7 5
3
7
2
1
5
3
1
3
4
5
2
9
6
1 3
3
5
1
9
5
1
1
1
4
3
2
7
5
9 7
3
9
2
3
5
5
1
5
4
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3
1
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3
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P
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Q
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D
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P
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1
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2
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1
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1
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2
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1
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2
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P
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1
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2
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1
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2
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1
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2
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1
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2
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1
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2
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S
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3
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3
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4
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3
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4
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3
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4
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76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
76.8
ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
153.6 ksps
F-SCH
307.2 ksps
F-SCH
307.2 ksps
3
8
.
4
k
3
8
.
4
k
3
8
.
4
k
3
8
.
4
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3
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4
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3
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4
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3
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3
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4
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3
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3
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3
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3
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3
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3
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k
F-SCH 153K RC3
or
F-SCH 307K RC4
F-FCHs 9.6k
RC4 Voice
F-FCHs 9.6k
RC4 Voice
F-FCHs 9.6k
RC4 Voice
F-FCHs 9.6k
RC3 Voice
F-FCHs 9.6k
RC3 Voice
F-FCHs 9.6k
RC3 Voice
F
-
F
C
H
s
F
-
D
C
C
H
s
O
r

C
o
m
b
i
n
a
t
i
o
n
s
?? ? ?
76.8
ksps
What if we run out of Walsh Codes?
Quasi-Orthogonal Functions
1xRTT has 128 Walsh codes available
but so many new types of channels, and
variable length codes, can cause Walsh
code shortages on some sectors!
When no more Walsh codes are available,
Quasi-Orthogonal Functions can be used
QOFs are generated by multiplying Walsh
Codes with a quasi-orthogonal mask
Following Walsh Spreading, the I and Q
channels are rotated 90 degrees gated by
another Walsh Code
Each set of QOFs is self-orthogonal among its
members
there is slight non-orthogonality between
different QOF sets including the original
walsh codes, but not at troublesome levels
Short PN imperfections are just as bad,
and they arent troublesome
Manufacturers didnt implement QOFs in their
initial CDMA2000 products, but all are
expected eventually to support QOFs
The Original Walsh Codes
Set 0
Quasi-Orthogonal
Functions
QOF Set 1
Quasi-Orthogonal
Functions
QOF Set 2
Quasi-Orthogonal
Functions
QOF Set 3
1xRTT Reverse Channels
1xRTT Reverse Channels
CDMA2000 SR1 CDMA Reverse Channels
IS-95 mobiles never transmit
more than one kind of channel
at a time
A 1xRTT mobile can transmit
up to five different channels
simultaneously, all within its
own signal using one long
code offset
An IS-95 mobile transmits the
content of its single channel in
the form of a string of walsh
codes which are symbols of
the information being sent
A 1xRTT mobile uses steady
walsh codes as individual
channels of information, the
same way a base station does
on the forward link
Includes Power
Control Subchannel
Enhanced
Access Channel
Common
Control Channel
Dedicated
Control Channel
Reverse Fundamental
Reverse
Access Channel
(IS-95B compatible)
R-TRAFFIC
REVERSE CHANNELS
R-Pilot
R-CCCH
R-DCCH
R-FCH
R-SCH
R-EACH
1
1
0 or 1
0 or 1
0 to 2
R-ACH or
1
Reverse Link Walsh Codes in 1xRTT
614400
sps
307200
sps
153600
sps
76800
sps
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
2

c
h
i
p
s
4

c
h
i
p
s
8

c
h
i
p
s
1
6

c
h
i
p
s
Code#
Code#
Code#
Code#
7 3 5 1 6 2 4 0
3 1 2 0
15 7 11 3 13 5 9 1 14 6 10 2 12 4 8 0
available
FCH
R-SCH 2
speed
R-SCH 1 (1/2 speed) R-SCH 2 (max speed)
DCCH
if
used
1 0
R-SCH 1 (max speed)
If a Walsh Code is used, the other walsh
codes directly under it cannot be used.
Pilot
& Pwr
Ctrl
A 1xRTT mobile may transmit several channels at the same time for
example, R-FCH and Pilot and R-SCH.
the mobile uses steady walsh codes as channels much like a BTS
All mobiles use the same Walsh codes for the same functions
notice the two possible speeds of R-SCH 1 and R-SCH 2
SR1 Reverse Channel Complex Spreading
W2
2
I-channel
Short Code
Q-channel
Short Code
Q
Complex
Scrambling
+
-
+
+
1228.8 kcps
W4
16
1228.2 kcps
R-FCH
Gain
Scale
W1
2
or W1
4
or W2
8
or W6
8
1228.2 kcps
R-SCH-1
or
R-EACH
or
R-CCCH
Gain
Scale
W8
16
1228.2 kcps
R-DCCH
Gain
Scale
W2
4
or W6
8
1228.2 kcps
R-SCH 2
Gain
Scale
User Long
Code Mask
Long Code
Generator
1-chip
Delay
Decimate
By 2
R-Pilot +
Power
Control
I
1228.8 kcps
1228.8 kcps
1228.8 kcps
1228.8 kcps
W4
16
means Walsh Code #4 at 16-chip length
The Data Side of 3G Networks
The Data Side of 3G Networks
Network-Side Improvements in CDMA2000
We've just seen how new CDMA2000 RF improvements create a
whole new type of channel which can carry fast data
The RF link is no longer the bottleneck for mobile data!
Many wireless operators' business plans expect data usage to
rapidly expand, reaching bit volumes roughly equal to voice calls
within just a year or so after CDMA2000 commercial launch
And voice traffic is still growing in the meanwhile!
All this new fast data has to go through some kind of equipment
The traditional voice circuit-switched plant can't handle it
It handles only circuit-switched 64 kb/s DS-0s, which would
be a big bottleneck for high speed data
A whole new back-side packet data network is needed to
bypass mobile data around the switch, into internet or VPNs
Fortunately, existing LAN-style data technologies are up to the job,
and much more hardware-efficient than traditional switching
Original 2nd Generation CDMA Voice Networks
t1 t1
CIRCUIT-SWITCHED VOICE TRAFFIC
v
CE
SEL
rf
t1
Handset
BTS
(C)BSC or
Access Manager
Switch
PSTN
POINT-TO-POINT PACKETS
14400 bps max
2nd Generation CDMA Networks were designed primarily to handle voice
The CDMA voice conversations 20-ms frames are carried as packets
between mobile and the Selector
The selector assembles frames being sent to the mobile and
disassembles frames coming from the mobile
Frame contents normally include voice and occasional signaling; may
also include data if additional equipment is included (not shown)
The vocoders in the BSC and the mobile convert the packet stream into
continuous DS-0 audio for the end-users
The MSC makes a circuit-switched connection for call
How Data flowed on a 2G CDMA Network
t1 t1
v
CE
SEL
t1
Gateway
Server
Internet
VPNs
PSTN
IWF
rf
BTS
(C)BSC or
Access Manager
Switch
Backbone
Network
Handset
PROPRIETARY SLOW IP TRAFFIC
DIAL-UP ACCESS
14400 bps max
Additional hardware is needed to carry data on a 2G network
Data to/from the user connects near the selector in the BSC
Passed through the switch as 56kb/s data links in 64kb/s DS-0s
Data connection to outside world handled by IWF Interworking Function
Includes modems to convert data stream into DS-0 for dial-up uses
Can contain data routers to access IP or PPP networks
May include capability for FAX and other communications modes
3G Data Capabilities: 1xRTT CDMA Network
t1 t1
v
CE
SEL
rf
t1
R-P Interface
fiber - ATM
PDSN
Foreign Agent
PDSN
Home Agent
Backbone
Network
Internet
VPNs
PSTN
T T SECURE TUNNELS
Authentication
Authorization
Accounting
AAA
BTS
(C)BSC/Access Manager
Switch
Wireless
Mobile Device
FAST IP PACKET TRAFFIC
Fast!
For full-featured data access over a 3G network, a true IP connection must be
established to outside Packet Data Networks
This requires a Packet Data Serving Node
ISP and operator-provided services are provided by external Home
Network and Home Agent servers
Authentication, Authorization, and Accounting provided by external server
The IWF (not shown above) is still maintained to allow old mobiles to use dial-
up and WAP/wireless web keypad access
3G-1x Mobility Modes
Simple IP Service
Dynamically Assigned IP Addresses
CHAP Authentication
Local Mobility (dynamic IP address valid within PDSN
coverage area)
Uses Standard (MS-Windows) dial-up protocols in mobile /
laptop
Optional Private Network Access via L2TP
Mobile IP Service
Static (public or private) or Dynamically Assigned IP Addresses
MIP / AAA Authentication
Full Mobility Without Application Impact (even across MSCs)
Private Network Access via Corporate HAs
Secure Reverse Tunnels between FA and HA
Simple IP Architecture
t1 t1
v
CE
SEL
t1
R-P Interface
PDSN
PSTN
T
Authentication
Authorization
Accounting
AAA
BTS
(C)BSC/Access Manager
Switch
Wireless
Mobile Device
FAST IP PACKET TRAFFIC
Simple IP
IP Based
transport to
data networks
Dynamic/static
connection
from local
PDSN
No mobility
beyond serving
PDSN
Internet
VPNs
rf
Fast!
In a Simple IP network, the mobile is able to connect to the external
packet networks directly through the PDSN attached to the local BSC
The IP address for the internet connection is assigned by the local
PDSN from the pool of addresses available to it
If the mobile moves into a different network, the data session ends
The mobile can establish an entirely new connection through the
new network, if desired
CDMA2000 Multi-Market Voice/Data Network
PSTN PSTN PSTN
Regional
Data
Center
Internet
Private IP
Networks
Operator's Private Network
PDSN
FA
Switch
BSC
PDSN
FA
Switch
Access
Mgr.
PDSN/FA
Switch
CBSC
PCF
RP Interface
RP
RP
Voice Voice Voice
IP Data IP Data IP Data
Home
Agent
Home
Agent
Nortel System Lucent System Motorola System
AAA
Server
Mobile IP and Secure Tunneling: Mail Analogy
Mobile IP is a packet-
forwarding
arrangement that
allows the mobile user
to send and receive
packets just as if they
were physically present
at their home agent
location.
158766
158767
158768
158769
158770
158771
158772
158773
158774
158775
158776
158778
158779
158780
158781
158782
158783
158784
158785
158786
158787
158788
158789
158790
158791
158792
158793
158794
158795
158796
158797
F
e
d
E
x
F
e
d
E
x
Secure Tunneling
Forward and Reverse
Encapsulation
Home
Agent
Foreign
Agent
Mobile
User
This box is the
mobile user's
Postal address
Just like
Home!
Early CDMA2000 1xRTT Deployment
1xRTT was launched in US markets in 2002
Verizon was first to market, launching 1xRTT
in seven regions in 1Q2002
IS-95 and 1xRTT RC3 voice services
1xRTT RC3 data: Express Network
Verizon Lucent and Nortel markets have
launched; Motorola markets will follow
around year-end 2002
Leap Wireless Cricket deployed RC3 in
selected markets 1Q2002
motivated solely by voice capacity gains,
not planning to offer data
Sprint PCS launched 1xRTT nationwide in
August 2002
IS-95 and 1xRTT RC3 voice services
1xRTT data services
Picture phone devices in early 2003
Verizon
Sprint PCS
Chapter 2
Call Processing
and Layer 3 Messages
Call Processing
and Layer 3 Messages
CDMA Troubleshooting is like Air Accident Investigation
Control & Parameters Messaging
BTS
11500 11500
114.50
118.25
130.75
Aeronautical
Investigations
CDMA
Investigations
Flight Data Recorder Cockpit Voice Recorder
Temporal Analyzer Data Layer 3 Message Files
Physical Layer
Data Link Layer
MAC
LAC
Message
Application
1
2
3
4
Wireless Protocol Stack
L
a
y
e
r
s
Air accidents are big news and reporters follow the investigations closely
Everybodys familiar with the two main information sources at the crash
Cockpit voice recorder: record of conversation and sounds in the
cockpit during the last 30 minutes up to the crash
Flight data recorder: record of major control settings, mechanical,
electrical, and hydraulic systems status for the last 30 minutes
In CDMA, the same sorts of tools are available for problem investigation:
Layer-3 message files contain user and system command/control details
Temporal analyzer data shows the RF environment up to the problem
Troubleshooting Call Processing
CDMA call processing is complex!
Calls are a relationship between mobile and system
the events driven by messaging
the channels carried by RF transmission
Multiple codes and channels available for use
Multiple possible problems - physical, configuration, software
Multiple concurrent processes in the mobile and the system
Troubleshooting focuses on the desired call events
What is the desired sequence of events?
Compare the actual sequence of events.
Whats missing or wrong? Why did it happen?
Messaging is a major blow-by-blow troubleshooting tool
RF indications reveal the transmission risks and the channel
configurations
Bottom Line: To troubleshoot effectively, youve got to know call
processing steps and details AND the RF basis of the transmission
Messages in CDMA
In CDMA, most call processing events are driven by messages
Some CDMA channels exist for the sole purpose of carrying
messages; they never carry users voice traffic
Sync Channel (a forward channel)
Paging Channel (a forward channel)
Access Channel (a reverse channel)
Forward or Reverse Dedicated Control Channels
On these channels, there are only messages, not voice or data
Some CDMA channels exist just to carry user traffic
Forward Fundamental and Supplemental Channels
Reverse Fundamental and Supplemental Channels
On these channels, most of the time is filled with traffic and
messages are sent only when there is something to do
All CDMA messages have very similar structure, regardless of the
channel on which they are sent
Taking Apart a CDMA Layer-3 Message
MSG_TYPE (00000110)
ACK_SEQ
MSG_SEQ
ACK_REQ
ENCRYPTION
ERRORS_DETECTED
POWER_MEAS_FRAMES
LAST_HDM_SEQ
NUM_PILOTS
PILOT_STRENGTH
RESERVED (0s)
8
3
3
1
2
5
10
2
4
6
0-7
NUM_PILOTS occurrences of this field:
Field
Length
(in bits)
EXAMPLE:
A POWER MEASUREMENT
REPORT MESSAGE
CDMA messages on both forward
and reverse traffic channels are
normally sent via dim-and-burst
Messages include many fields of
binary data
The first byte of each message
identifies message type: this allows
the recipient to parse the contents
To ensure no messages are
missed, all CDMA messages bear
serial numbers and important
messages contain a bit requesting
acknowledgment
Messages not promptly
acknowledged are retransmitted
several times. If not acknowledged,
the sender may release the call
Field data processing tools capture
and display the messages for study
t
Message Vocabulary: Acquisition & Idle States
Sync Channel
Sync Channel Msg
Pilot Channel
No Messages
Paging Channel
Access Parameters Msg
System Parameters Msg
CDMA Channel List Msg
Extended System
Parameters Msg
Extended Neighbor
List Msg
Global Service
Redirection Msg
Order Msg
Base Station Acknowledgment
Lock until Power-Cycled
Maintenance required
many others..
Authentication
Challenge Msg
Status Request Msg
Feature Notification Msg
TMSI Assignment Msg
Channel Assignment
Msg
SSD Update Msg
Service Redirection Msg
General Page Msg
Null Msg Data Burst Msg
Access Channel
Registration Msg
Order Msg
Mobile Station Acknowldgment
Long Code Transition Request
SSD Update Confirmation
many others..
Origination Msg
Page Response Msg
Authentication Challenge
Response Msg
Status Response Msg
TMSI Assignment
Completion Message
Data Burst Msg
BTS
Message Vocabulary: Conversation State
Reverse Traffic Channel
Order Message
Mobile Sta. Acknowledgment
Long Code Transition
Request
SSD Update Confirmation
Connect
Authentication Challenge
Response Msg
Flash With
Information Msg
Data Burst Message
Pilot Strength
Measurement Msg
Power Measurement
Report Msg
Send Burst DTMF Msg
Origination
Continuation Msg
Handoff Completion Msg
Parameters Response
Message
Service Request Msg
Service Response Msg
Service Connect
Completion Message
Service Option Control
Message
Status Response Msg
TMSI Assignment
Completion Message
Forward Traffic Channel
Order Msg
Base Station Acknowledgment
Base Station Challenge
Confirmation
Message Encryption Mode
Authentication
Challenge Msg
Alert With
Information Msg
Data Burst Msg
Analog Handoff
Direction Msg
In-Traffic System
Parameters Msg
Neighbor List
Update Msg
Send Burst DTMF Msg
Power Control
Parameters Msg.
Retrieve Parameters Msg
Set Parameters Msg
SSD Update Msg
Flash With
Information Msg
Mobile Station
Registered Msg
Status Request Msg
Extended Handoff
Direction Msg
Service Request Msg
Service Response Msg
Service Connect Msg
Service Option
Control Msg
TMSI Assignment Msg
A Streamlined Visual Tour
Of CDMA Call Processing
A Streamlined Visual Tour
Of CDMA Call Processing
Whats In a Handset? How does it work?
Receiver
RF Section
IF, Detector
Transmitter
RF Section
Vocoder
Digital
Rake Receiver
Traffic Correlator
PN xxx Walsh xx
Traffic Correlator
PN xxx Walsh xx
Traffic Correlator
PN xxx Walsh xx
Pilot Searcher
PN xxx Walsh 0
Viterbi Decoder,
Convl. Decoder,
Demultiplexer
CPU
Duplexer
Transmitter
Digital Section
Long Code Gen.
O
p
e
n

L
o
o
p
Transmit Gain Adjust
Messages
Messages
Audio
Audio
Packets
Symbols
Symbols
Chips
RF
RF
AGC
t
i
m
e
-
a
l
i
g
n
e
d

s
u
m
m
i
n
g
p
o
w
e
r
Traffic Correlator
PN xxx Walsh xx
t
c
o
n
t
r
o
l
b
i
t
s
Let's Acquire The System!
Let's Acquire The System!
The SDA In Action:
Find a Frequency with a CDMA RF Signal
Forward Link Frequencies
(Base Station Transmit)
A D B E F C
unlic.
data
unlic.
voice
A D B E F C
1850MHz. 1910MHz. 1990 MHz. 1930MHz.
1900 MHz. PCS Spectrum
824 MHz. 835 845 870 880 894
869
849
846.5
825
890
891.5
Paging, ESMR, etc.
A B A B
800 MHz. Cellular Spectrum
Reverse Link Frequencies
(Mobile Transmit)
Mobile scans forward link frequencies:
(Cellular or PCS, depending on model)
History List
Preferred Roaming List
until a CDMA signal is found.
NO CDMA?! Go to AMPS,
or to a power-saving standby mode
HISTORY
LIST/MRU
Last-used:
Freq
Freq
Freq
Freq
Freq
etc.
FREQUENCY LISTS:
PREFERRED
ROAMING
LIST/PRL
System1
System2
System3
System4
System5
etc.
1. Find the Strongest Pilot!
Rake Receiver
BTS
W0 PILOT
PN 168
#1 unassigned
#2 unassigned
#3 unassigned
#4 unassigned
Pilot Searcher
F
i
n
d

S
t
r
o
n
g
e
s
t
SCAN
TIME
The pilot searcher of the phone spends about 3.4 seconds measuring the
pilot strength at every possible PN delay, in miniscule 1/8 chip delay steps,
to see how much energy is being received from every nearby sector
The sector with the strongest pilot is chosen
E
c
/
I
o
0
0
32K
512
Chips
PN
Pilot Searcher Scans the Entire Range of PNs
0
-20
2. Read the Sync Channel Message
S
t
a
y

L
o
c
k
e
d
!
R
e
a
d

S
y
n
c

C
h
.

M
s
g
Rake Receiver
Great! We found a signal. Now we know:
The strongest pilot available
The exact timing of this pilot
We do NOT yet know
This pilots PN offset
20 msec frame timing of channels
Long Code State
The SYNC channel is a special channel timed
exactly in step with the short PN sequence
It tells us all these unknown quantities
BTS
W32
W0
SYNC
PILOT
SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYNSYN SYN SYN
PN 168
#1 PN168+0 W32
#2 PN168+2 W32
#3 PN168+9 W32
#4 PN168+5 W32
Pilot Searcher
TIME
The Sync Channel is a
Sesame Street for mobiles!
MSG_LENGTH, 28, 28 octets
MSG_TYPE, 1, Sync Channel Message
P_REV, 6, IS-2000 Revision 0
MIN_P_REV, 1, J-STD-008
SID 995,
NID 3,
PILOT_PN 240
LC_STATE, 0x00 25 93 12 7C FA,
SYS_TIME, 0x02 20 34 B7 53,
10/23/2001 11:02:54
LP_SEC, 13,
LTM_OFF, 54, -660 minutes
DAYLT, 1, Yes
PRAT, 1, 4800 bps
CDMA_FREQ, 274 (IS-95)
EXT_CDMA_FREQ, 274 (1xRTT)
SR1_BCCH_SUPPORTED, 0
SR3_INCL, 0, No
RESERVED, 0,
SYNC CHANNEL MESSAGE
3. The Timing Shift: Adjust all Internal Clocks
Rake Receiver
T
h
e
T
i
m
i
n
g
C
h
a
n
g
e
BTS
W32
W0
SYNC
PILOT
SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYNSYN SYN SYN
+320 ms
-PN
168
PN 168
Ref Time
#1 unassigned
#2 unassigned
#3 unassigned
#4 unassigned
Pilot Searcher
TIME
S
t
a
y

L
o
c
k
e
d
!
End of SCH
SuperFrame
This timeline shows each step as the mobile acquires the system
First search all PNs to find the strongest pilot
Read the Sync Channel Message to learn times and LC state
The times and state refer to a future moment 320 ms after the end of the
Sync Channel superframe, minus the BTS PN offset. This waiting period
is called the Timing Change.
Finding the Right System:
The System Determination Algorithm
Finding the Right System:
4. Is This the Right System to Use?
Scan the PRL for Anything Better
Its not enough just to find a
CDMA signal
We want the CDMA
signal of our own system
or a favorite roaming
partner
Phones look in the PRL to
see if there is a more
preferred signal than
whatever they find first
They check frequencies
in the Acquisition Table
until they find the best
system, or look down the
list level by level
ROAMING LIST
Roaming List Type: IS-683A
Preferred Only: FALSE
Default Roaming Indicator: 0
Preferred List ID: 10018
ACQUISITION TABLE
INDEX ACQ TYPE CH1 CH2 CH3 CH4 CH5 CH6 CH7 CH8 CH9
0 6 500 425 825 575 850 325 625
1 6 575 625 500 425
2 6 50 100 75 475 825 850 175 250
3 6 25 200 350 375 725 50 475 175 250
4 1 Both
5 6 450 500 350 575 650
6 6 675 500 600 575 475
7 6 250 50 175
8 6 550 375 425 625
9 6 75 50 175 250
10 6 200 250 175 50
11 6 425 500 575 25 325 650
12 6 500 575 475 25 675
13 6 500 625 350 50 375 775 575 725 425
14 6 650 500 675 25 75 425 50 575
15 6 25 50 375 350 250 175
16 6 425 550 225 725 750 775
17 6 200 50 175 375 250
18 6 825 850 925
19 6 350 325 375 675 25 1175 725 600 100
20 6 750 725 775
21 6 325 725 350 750 375 775 425 575 625
22 6 1150 1175
23 6 350 875 325 375 1175
24 6 25 1175 825 200 75 175 250
25 6 50 200 25 100 250 75
26 6 500 1075 850 825
27 1 A
28 1 B
29 5 A
30 5 B
31 5 C
32 5 D
33 5 E
34 5 F
35 4 A
36 4 B
37 4 Both
38 6 350 825
39 6 25 100
40 6 675 600 750 850 1175 775
41 6 850
42 6 650
43 6 450 475
44 6 325 350 375 1025 1050 1075
45 6 150 475 625 675
46 6 1025 1050 1075
SYSTEM TABLE
INDEX SID NID
NEG/
PREF GEO PRI
ACQ
INDEX
ROAM
IND
296 4144 65535 Pref NEW SAME 13 1
297 4812 65535 Pref SAME MORE 21 1
298 205 65535 Pref SAME SAME 4 0
299 208 65535 Pref SAME MORE 37 0
300 208 65535 Pref SAME SAME 4 0
301 342 65535 Pref SAME MORE 37 0
302 342 65535 Pref SAME SAME 4 0
303 478 65535 Pref SAME SAME 4 0
304 1038 65535 Pref SAME SAME 4 0
305 1050 65535 Pref SAME SAME 4 0
306 1058 65535 Pref SAME SAME 4 0
307 1375 65535 Pref SAME SAME 4 0
308 1385 65535 Pref SAME MORE 4 0
309 143 65535 Pref SAME MORE 37 0
310 143 65535 Pref SAME MORE 4 0
311 4103 65535 Pref NEW SAME 3 1
312 4157 65535 Pref SAME MORE 2 1
313 312 65535 Pref SAME SAME 4 0
314 444 65535 Pref SAME MORE 37 0
315 444 65535 Pref SAME SAME 4 0
316 1008 65535 Pref SAME SAME 4 0
317 1012 65535 Pref SAME SAME 4 0
318 1014 65535 Pref SAME SAME 4 0
319 1688 65535 Pref SAME MORE 4 0
320 113 65535 Pref SAME MORE 37 0
321 113 65535 Pref SAME SAME 4 0
322 179 65535 Pref SAME MORE 37 0
323 179 65535 Pref SAME SAME 4 0
324 465 65535 Pref SAME SAME 4 0
325 2119 65535 Pref SAME MORE 4 0
326 2094 65535 Pref SAME MORE 4 0
327 1005 65535 Pref SAME SAME 4 0
328 1013 65535 Pref SAME SAME 4 0
a

G
E
O

G
R
O
U
P
a

G
E
O

G
R
O
U
P
C
l
i
m
b
!
PRL: Preferred Roaming List
Programmed into each phone by the system
operator; can be updated over the air.
At turnon, Idle mobiles use proprietary System Determination Algorithms
(SDA) to find the initial CDMA carrier intended for them to use
The mobile finally acquires a CDMA signal and reads the Sync channel
Find the SID & NID in the PRL (Preferred Roaming List)
Check: is there a more-preferred system in the PRL? What Freq(s)?
Go look for the better system
Go to last
frequency
from MRU
Strongest
PN, read
Sync
Is SID
permitted?
No Signal
Preferred
Only Bit
0
Denied SID
Read
Paging
Channel
Is better
SID
available?
PRL MRU Acq Idx
Yes
No
Steps from
the CDMA
standards
Steps from
proprietary
SDAs
Proprietary
SDA
databases
Start
Legend
Typical Mobile
System Determination Algorithm
Best System Found!
Begin Normal Paging Channel Operation
Last Resort:
GEO escape
Or Analog
5. Collect the Configuration Messages!
Rake Receiver
Collect all the Configuration Messages
Absorb and store all their parameters.
BTS
W1
W32
W0
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
SYN SYN SYN
ACK
SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN SYNSYN SYN
ChASN ACK GPAG ChASN ACK
SYN
SYS CHN XSYS NBR GSRM APM
PN 168
Ref Time
#1 PN168+0 W1
#2 PN168+2 W1
#3 PN168+9 W1
#4 PN168+5 W1
Pilot Searcher
S
y
s
t
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m
P
a
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a
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r
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M
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*
*

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l
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t

M
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N
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*
*

L
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s
s
a
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G
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S
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*
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R
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s
s
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e
TIME
S
t
a
y

L
o
c
k
e
d
!
(all config.messages are repeated every 1.28 sec)
The Configuration Messages tell the mobile everything it needs to know to
successfully operate on the system
Access Parameters Message (how to behave on the access channel)
System Parameters Message (registration, handoff, window settings)
Extended System Parameters Message (how to identify; packet details)
Channel List Message (list of all carrier frequencies on this sector)
Neighbor List Message (list of nearby sectors to watch out for)
Global Service Redirection Message (dont stay here - go over there)
Reading the Configuration Messages
Rake Fingers
O
O
O
Reference PN
Active Pilot
E
c
/
I
o
0
0
32K
512
Chips
PN
All PN Offsets
0
-20
Keep Rake finger(s) on strongest
available PN, monitor Walsh 1,
the Paging Channel
Read the
Configuration Messages
Access Parameters Msg
System Parameters Msg
CDMA Channel List Msg
Extended System
Parameters Msg (*opt.)
(Extended*) Neighbor
List Msg
Global Service
Redirection Msg (*opt.)
Now were ready to operate!!
Handset
Rake Receiver
RF
x

LO
Srch PN??? W0
F1 PN168 W01
F2 PN168 W01
F3 PN168 W01
The Access Parameters Message
BTS
Any Access Msg
MS
Probing
The Access Procedure
a Probe Sequence
an Access Attempt
Success!
an Access Probe
98/05/24 23:14:10.427 [PCH]
MSG_LENGTH = 184 bits
MSG_TYPE = Access Parameters Message
PILOT_PN = 168 Offset Index
ACC_MSG_SEQ = 27
ACC_CHAN = 1 channel
NOM_PWR = 0 dB INIT_PWR = 0 dB PWR_STEP = 4 dB
NUM_STEP = 5 Access Probes Maximum
MAX_CAP_SZ = 4 Access Channel Frames Maximum
PAM_SZ = 3 Access Channel Frames
Persist Val for Acc Overload Classes 0-9 = 0
Persist Val for Acc Overload Class 10 = 0
Persistance Modifier for Msg Tx = 1
Persistance Modifier for Reg = 1
Probe Randomization = 15 PN chips
Acknowledgement Timeout = 320 ms
Probe Backoff Range = 4 Slots Maximum
Probe Sequence Backoff Range = 4 Slots Max.
Max # Probe Seq for Requests = 2 Sequences
Max # Probe Seq for Responses = 2 Sequences
Authentication Mode = 1
Random Challenge Value = Field Omitted
Reserved Bits = 99
ACCESS PARAMETERS MESSAGE
The Access Parameters message
controls all the steps mobiles must
perform when they transmit on the
Access Channel
Mobiles perform a trial-and-error
process called Probing to get their
messages through
Phone Operation on the Access Channel
A sectors Paging Channel announces 1
(typ) to 32 (max) Access Channels: PN
Long Code offsets for mobiles to use if
accessing the system.
For mobiles sending Registration,
Origination, Page Responses
Base Station always listening!
On the access channel, phones are not
yet under BTS closed-loop power control!
Phones access the BTS by probing at
power levels determined by receive power
and an open loop formula
If probe not acknowledged by BTS
within ACC_TMO (~400 mS.), phone
will wait a random time (~200 mS)
then probe again, stronger by PI db.
There can be 15 max. (typ. 5) probes
in a sequence and 15 max. (typ. 2)
sequences in an access attempt
most attempts succeed on first probe!
The Access Parameters message on the
paging channel announces values of all
related parameters
ACCESS
RV TFC
BTS
Channel Assnmt. Msg.
Origination Msg
Base Sta. Acknlgmt. Order
TFC frames of 000s
TFC preamble of 000s
Mobile Sta. Ackngmt. Order
Service Connect Msg.
Svc. Connect Complete Msg
Call is Established!
MS
Probing
PAGING
FW TFC
PAGING
RV TFC
FW FC
RV TFC
FW TFC
FW TFC
A Successful Access Attempt
a Probe Sequence
an Access Attempt
Success!
an Access Probe
The System Parameters Message
SYSTEM PARAMETERS MESSAGE
98/05/24 23:14:11.126 [PCH] MSG_LENGTH = 264 bits
MSG_TYPE = System Parameters Message
CONFIG_MSG_SEQ = 0
SID = 179 NID = 0
REG_ZONE = 0 TOTAL_ZONES = 0 ZONE_TIMER = 60 min
MULT_SIDS = 0 MULT_NID = 0 BASE_ID = 8710
BASE_CLASS = Public Macrocellular
PAGE_CHAN = 1 channel
MAX_SLOT_CYCLE_INDEX = 0
HOME_REG = 0 FOR_SID_REG = 0 FOR_NID_REG = 1
POWER_UP_REG = 0 POWER_DOWN_REG = 0
PARAMETER_REG = 1 REG_PRD = 0.08 sec
BASE_LAT = 00D00'00.00N BASE_LONG = 000D00'00.00E
REG_DIST = 0
SRCH_WIN_A = 40 PN chips
SRCH_WIN_N = 80 PN chips
SRCH_WIN_R = 4 PN chips
NGHBR_MAX_AGE = 0
PWR_REP_THRESH = 2 frames
PWR_REP_FRAMES = 56 frames
PWR_THRESH_ENABLE = 1
PWR_PERIOD_ENABLE = 0
PWR_REP_DELAY = 20 frames
RESCAN = 0
T_ADD = -13.0 Db T_DROP = -15.0 dB T_COMP = 2.5 dB
T_TDROP = 4 sec
EXT_SYS_PARAMETER = 1
RESERVED = 0
GLOBAL_REDIRECT = 0
Who Registers?
Why & When?
Search Window
Widths
How mobile can complain
If traffic channel is too weak
Handoff Thresholds
# Paging Channels, Slotted Mode period
The Extended System Parameters Message
The main job of this message is
to tell mobiles how to report
their identities when they
transmit on the Access Channel
IMSI - International Mobile
Subscriber Identity
The world phone
number of the mobile
ESN - Electronic Serial
Number
Different Networks may request
different identification modes;
the phones simply comply
IMSI and ESN
IMSI only
ESN only
98/05/24 23:14:10.946 [PCH]
Extended System Parameters Message
MSG_TYPE = Extended System Parameters Message
CONFIG_MSG_SEQ = 0 RESERVED = 0
PREF_MSID_TYPE = IMSI and ESN
MCC = 000 IMSI_11_12 = 00
RESERVED_LEN = 8 bits
RESERVED_OCTETS = 0x00
BCAST_INDEX = 0
RESERVED = 0
EXTENDED SYSTEM PARAMETERS
The Neighbor List Message
The Neighbor List Message gives the
mobile up to 20 PN offsets of sectors it
may soon need in handoff
This enables the mobile to search
smarter and faster
On the paging channel, Enhanced or
Extended neighbor lists may also include
neighbors on different frequencies
Slotted mode mobiles can jump to
other frequencies in their sleep
time to check pilots
This is useful at system boundaries
During a call, a mobile first uses the
neighbor list remembered from idle mode
After each handoff, a new Neighbor
List Update message is sent to the
mobile on the Forward Traffic
Channel
Each neighbor list received by the mobile
overwrites and replaces the previous
neighbor list
98/05/24 23:14:11.486 [PCH] Neighbor List Message
MSG_TYPE = Neighbor List Message
CONFIG_MSG_SEQ = 0
PILOT_INC = 4 Offset Index
NGHBR_CONFIG = 0 NGHBR_PN = 220 Offset Index
RESERVED = 0
NEIGHBOR LIST
The CDMA Channel List Message
If a mobile sees a CDMA
Channel List Message, it
notices the list of channels
included in the message
There may be one, two,
three, or more channels
listed
The mobile immediately uses
a random selection process
called hashing to select one
of the listed channels
The outcome of hashing
depends only on the
mobiles IMSI
Both the system and the
mobile know which carrier
the mobile will choose
98/05/24 23:14:10.786 [PCH] CDMA Channel List
Message
MSG_TYPE = CDMA Channel List Message
CONFIG_MSG_SEQ = 0
CDMA_FREQ = 283
RESERVED = Field Omitted
CDMA CHANNEL LIST MESSAGE
CDMA Ch
List Message
HASH using
IMSI
F1
F2
F3
F
now
How Hashing Works
If a mobile sees a CDMA Channel List Message, it notices the list
of channels included in the message
There may be one, two, three, or more channels listed
Whenever a phone encounters multiple announced resources, it
uses its number (IMSI, International Mobile Subscriber Identity)
and a randomized process called hashing to determine which
resource it should use. This is how mobiles select:
Carrier Frequencies in idle mode
Preferred Paging Channel
Preferred Access Channel
Paging Time Slot in Slotted Mode
Optimization personnel may wish to carry a phone for each carrier
frequency, or use the multiple NAM capability of some handsets to
operate on different numbers so as to prefer different frequencies
Hashing Examples
Try your own phone in the spreadsheet Hashing.xls (in utilities folder)
Hashing Examples Time between active slots, seconds:
v2. 1-28-2000
1.28 2.56 5.12 10.24 20.48 40.96 81.92 163.84
Number of Slots in Mobile's Cycle:
16 32 64 128 256 512 1024 2048
Key in red-shaded
How Many
Frequencies?
How Many Paging
Channels? Slot Cycle Index:
values
2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
10 Digit IMSI Use Freq. # Use PCH # Slot# Slot# Slot# Slot# Slot# Slot# Slot# Slot#
6153000124
1 1 15 31 63 127 127 383 895 895
6153000125
1 1 11 27 27 27 27 27 539 1563
6153000126
1 1 5 5 5 69 69 69 69 69
6153000127
1 1 3 3 3 67 195 451 451 1475
6153000128
2 1 8 24 24 24 152 152 152 1176
6153000129
2 1 9 25 25 25 25 25 25 25
6153000130
1 1 11 27 27 27 27 27 539 1563
6153000131
2 1 1 1 33 97 225 225 737 737
6153000132
1 1 8 8 40 40 40 40 552 552
6153000133
1 1 3 19 51 115 243 243 755 755
6. Welcome! Just Monitor the Paging Channel
Rake Receiver
Now monitor the
Paging Channel
for any
incoming calls
or messages
BTS
W1
W32
W0
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
SYN SYN SYN
ACK
SYN
PN 168
Ref Time
Pilot Searcher
#1 PN168+0 W1
#2 PN168+2 W1
#3 PN168+9 W1
#4 PN168+5 W1
TIME
Listen to see if you get any incoming calls or short messages!
Review: All The Steps Thus Far
Now monitor the
Paging Channel
for any
incoming calls
or messages
Rake Receiver
Absorb and store all their parameters.
BTS
W1
W32
W0
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
SYN SYN SYN
ACK
SYN
PN 168
Ref Time
#1 PN168+0 W1
#2 PN168+2 W1
#3 PN168+9 W1
#4 PN168+5 W1
Pilot Searcher
S
y
s
t
e
m
P
a
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a
m
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M
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a
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*
*

C
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M
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a
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P
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a
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N
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h
b
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*
*

L
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s
s
a
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G
l
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S
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*
*

R
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M
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A
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a
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TIME
S
t
a
y

L
o
c
k
e
d
!
(all config.messages are repeated every 1.28 sec)
T
h
e
T
i
m
i
n
g
C
h
a
n
g
e
SYN SYN SYN SYN
+320 ms
-PN
168
Ref Time
S
t
a
y

L
o
c
k
e
d
!
End of SCH
SuperFrame
This timeline shows each step as the mobile acquires the system
First search all PNs to find the strongest pilot
Read the Sync Channel Message to learn times and LC state
The times and state refer to a future moment 320 ms after the end of the
Sync Channel superframe, minus the BTS PN offset. This waiting period
is called the Timing Change.
Listen to the paging channel and collect all the configuration messages
Now the mobile can begin normal page monitoring operation
Registration: Mobile, Sign In Please
BTS
W1
W32
W0
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
ACCESS CHANNEL
S
KS
R
20 sec.
20 seconds after system acquisition, the mobile
sends a Registration Message on the access
channel.
The BTS sends an ACK
on the Paging Channel.
The mobile is now
Registered and can begin
slotted mode paging.
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
AKX N C G KP K KSAKX NKP P C G P K KSAKX NKP P C G P K KSAKX NKP P C G P K SAKX N P GKSAKX NK P GKSAKX G P SA
TIME
After acquiring the system, the mobile must register
This allows the current system to update the HLR with the mobiles
location, so incoming calls can be delivered here
It also allows the mobile to tell the system if it wants to do slotted
mode paging, and if so, what Slot Cycle Index.
A holdoff timer delays initial registration 20 seconds after acquisition
This avoids needless registration by mobiles just being turned on to
check who is the owner, or other short power-on/off uses
Registration has many different controlling parameters, all declared by the
system on the paging channel in the System Parameters Message
Example 3
Lets Register!
Lets Register!
Stretch Your Battery! IS-95 Slotted Mode Paging
W1
W32
W0
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
S
1 Slot Cycle
1 Slot 80 ms
N C G KG K KSAKX NKP P C G P K KSAKX NKP P C G P K KSGKX NKP P C G P K SAKX N P GKSAKX NK P GKSAKX G P SA
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 0 1 2 3 4
G K KSAK
5
1 Slot Cycle
Slotted Mode Paging is a battery-saving trick
After registering with the system, the mobile
goes into sleep mode with low battery drain
It wakes on a schedule to listen for pages
Page slots are 80 ms. Long
Slot cycles can be set to many lengths
Longer cycles give better battery life, but introduce
longer possible delays in call delivery
Each mobile uses Hashing with its IMSI and SCI
to determine which slot it should always monitor
Battery
Drain
Each mobile has a preferred SCI
programmed by the vendor. The system
also declares a maximumslot cycle
index, which mobiles may not exceed.
Rake Receiver
#1 PN168+0 W1
#2 PN168+2 W1
#3 PN168+9 W1
#4 PN168+5 W1
Pilot Searcher
S
L
E
E
P
TIME
Mobile listens during its slot, every cycle
BTS
Slot Cycle
Index (SCI)
Number Slots
in Cycle
Length of
Cycle, sec.
0 16 1.28 sec.
1 32 2.56 sec.
2 64 5.12 sec.
3 128 10.24 sec.
4 256 20.48 sec.
5 512 40.96 sec.
6 1024 81.92 sec.
7 2048 163.84 sec.
Even Better: CDMA2000 Slotted Mode Paging
Using the Quick Paging Channel (QPCH)
Mobile listens to PCH only when QPCH requires
BTS
W48
W32
W0
QPCH
SYNC
PILOT
S
Paging Channel Slots
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 0 1 2 3 4 5
Paging Channel Slots
Battery
Drain
Rake Receiver
#1 PN168+0 W1
#2 PN168+2 W1
#3 PN168+9 W1
#4 PN168+5 W1
Pilot Searcher
D
e
e
p
e
r
S
L
E
E
P
TIME
PAGING N C G KG K KSAKX NKP P C G P K KSAKX NKP P C G P K KSGKX NKP P C G P K SAKX N P GKSAKX NK P GKSAKX G P SA G K KSAK W1
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 0 1 2 3 4 6 5 1
QPCH Slots QPCH Slots
IS-95 mobiles must monitor their PCH
slots during every slot cycle
Must wake up 1000s of times per
hour and run high-drain message
parsers, even if they are not paged
The Quick Paging Channel (QPCH) is a
simpler bitstream which notifies a 1xRTT
mobile to monitor the PCH, only when a
page is coming for its IMSI group
There are at least xx IMSI groups. A
mobile knows its group by hashing.
Mobile hashes using its IMSI to
recognize which indicator bits it should
monitor. If the bits are on, the mobile
wakes up and listen to the next PCH
slot somebody watching those bits
will be paged.
20
ms
80 ms
100 ms
QPCH SLOT
GenPG
PCH SLOT
80 ms
Idle Mode Handoff
An idle mobile always uses the best available signal
In idle mode, it isnt possible to do soft handoff and listen to multiple
sectors or base stations at the same time -- the paging channel
information stream is different on each sector, not synchronous -- just
like ABC, NBC, CBS, and CNN TV news programs arent in word-sync
for simultaneous viewing
Since a mobile cant combine signals, the mobile must switch quickly,
always enjoying the best available signal
The mobiles pilot searcher is constantly checking neighbor pilots
A Mobile might change pilots for either of two reasons:
It notices another pilot at least 3 db stronger than the current active
pilot, and it stays this good continuously for at least five seconds:
mobile switches at end of the next superframe
Mobile loses the current paging channel. If another signal is better
than the old active sector, change immediately to the new one.
On the new paging channel, if the mobile learns that registration is
required, it re-registers on the new sector
Idle Mode on the Paging Channel:
Meet the Neighbors, track the Strongest Pilot
E
c
/
I
o
All PN Offsets
0
0
32K
512
Chips
PN
0
-20
Neighbor Set
The phones pilot searcher constantly checks
the pilots listed in the Neighbor List Message
Rake Fingers O
O
O
Reference PN
Active Pilot
SRCH_WIN_A
SRCH_WIN_N
Mobile Rake RX
Srch PN??? W0
F1 PN168 W01
F2 PN168 W01
F3 PN168 W01
If the searcher ever notices a neighbor pilot substantially stronger than
the current reference pilot, it becomes the new reference pilot
and the phone switches over to its paging channel on the next superframe.
This is called an idle mode handoff.
MultiCarrier Operation:
Big-Picture View of Frequency Changes
MultiCarrier Operation:
Big-Picture View of Frequency Changes
Multi-Carrier Operation:
Mobiles Change Frequencies. When/Why/How?
f5
f4
f3
f2
f1
System
Acquisition
Idle Mode
Reselection
Call Start:
Ch. Assignment
In Call:
Hard Handoff
MRU
SDA
PRL-AI
Hashing
GSRM
Multi-
Freq
Nbrs
Proprietary
Network
Algorithms
Nortel: MCTA
Lucent:
Motorola:
Auxiliary
Handoff Triggers
Beacons
Ec/Io, RTD
Proprietary
Processes
Remember: Different Mechanisms Apply at Different Stages
Many Network/Carrier Configurations are Possible!
f1
f2
f3
f4
Basic Multi-Carrier
Operation
IS-95
IS-95
IS-95
IS-95
f1
f2
f3
f4
Non-originating carriers
can carry more traffic!
IS-95
IS-95
IS-95
IS-95
f1
f2
f3
f4
Some Carriers may
support 1xRTT
1xRTT
IS-95
IS-95
IS-95
w
3
2
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Receiving An Incoming Call
Receiving An Incoming Call
Incoming Call Termination Voice
PSTN
switch
HLR VLR
SS7
BSC BTS A MSC
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W23
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
ACCESS
TRAFFIC
S SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
N G ACK KS CHasn C P K NKP P C G P K KSGKX NKP P C G P K SAKX N P GKSAKX NK P GKSAKX G P SA G K KS
PgResp
GenPag P C P G K K GSAKX N P GKSAK
SSSSSSSSSSSS
TIME
Scotts mobile,
are you there?
You have a call.
Im here! What
should I do?
I hear you.
Just a moment.
Rake Receiver
#1 PN168+0 W01
#2 PN168+2 W01
#3 PN168+9 W01
#4 PN168+5 W01
Pilot Searcher
An Actual Page and Page Response
98/05/24 23:14:46.425 [ACH] Page Response Message
MSG_TYPE = Page Response Message
ACK_SEQ = 1 MSG_SEQ = 2 ACK_REQ = 1
VALID_ACK = 1 ACK_TYPE = 2
MSID_TYPE = IMSI and ESN MSID_LEN = 9 octets
ESN = 0xD30E415C IMSI_CLASS = 0
IMSI_CLASS_0_TYPE = 0 RESERVED = 0
IMSI_S = 6153300644
AUTH_MODE = 1
AUTHR = 0x307B5 RANDC = 0xC6 COUNT = 0
MOB_TERM = 1 SLOT_CYCLE_INDEX = 0
MOB_P_REV = 3 SCM = 106
REQUEST_MODE = Either Wide Analog or CDMA Only
SERVICE_OPTION = 32768 PM = 0
NAR_AN_CAP = 0 RESERVED = 0
PAGE RESPONSE MESSAGE
98/05/24 23:14:46.127 [PCH] General Page Message
MSG_TYPE = General Page Message
CONFIG_MSG_SEQ = 1 ACC_MSG_SEQ = 20
CLASS_0_DONE = 1
CLASS_1_DONE = 1 RESERVED = 0
BROADCAST_DONE = 1 RESERVED = 0
ADD_LENGTH = 0 bits ADD_PFIELD = Field Omitted
PAGE_CLASS = 0 PAGE_SUBCLASS = 0
MSG_SEQ = 1
IMSI_S = 6153300644
SPECIAL_SERVICE = 1
SERVICE_OPTION = 32768
RESERVED = Field Omitted
GENERAL PAGE MESSAGE
98/05/24 23:14:46.768 [PCH] Order Message
MSG_TYPE = Order Message
VALID_ACK = 1
ADDR_TYPE = IMSI ADDR_LEN = 40 bits
IMSI_CLASS = 0 IMSI_CLASS_0_TYPE = 0 RESERVED = 0
IMSI_S = 6153300644
ORDER = Base Station Acknowledgement Order
ADD_RECORD_LEN = 0 bits
Order-Specific Fields = Field Omitted RESERVED = 0
BASE STATION ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The system pages the mobile,
615-330-0644.
The base station confirms that the mobiles
page response was received. Now the
mobile is waiting for channel assignment,
expecting a response within 12 seconds.
The mobile responds to the page.
PSTN
switch
HLR VLR
SS7
BSC BTS A MSC
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W23
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
ACCESS
TRAFFIC
PgResp
SSSSSSSSSSSS
TIME
Scotts mobile,
are you there?
You have a call.
Im here! What
should I do?
I hear you.
Just a moment.
Your channel
Is ready!
Walsh 23
Rake Receiver
#1 PN168+0 W01
#2 PN168+2 W01
#3 PN168+9 W01
#4 PN168+5 W01
Pilot Searcher
Channel Assignment and
Traffic Channel Confirmation
18:14:47.598 Reverse Traffic Channel: Order
ACK_SEQ: 0 MSG_SEQ: 0 ACK_REQ: 0
ENCRYPTION: 0
Mobile Station Acknowledgement Order
MOBILE STATION ACKNOWLEDGMENT
18:14:47.027 Paging Channel: Channel Assignment
ACK_SEQ: 2 MSG_SEQ: 1 ACK_REQ: 0 VALID_ACK: 1
MSID_TYPE: 2 IMSI: (Class: 0, Class_0_type: 0)
[0x 01 f8 39 6a 15] 615-330-0644
ASSIGN_MODE: Traffic Channel Assignment
ADD_RECORD_LEN: 5 FREQ_INCL: 1 GRANTED_MODE: 2
CODE_CHAN: 43 FRAME_OFFSET: 2
ENCRYPT_MODE: Encryption disabled
BAND_CLASS: 800 MHz cellular band
CDMA_FREQ: 283
CHANNEL ASSIGNMENT MESSAGE
18:14:47.581 Forward Traffic Channel: Order
ENCRYPTION: 0 USE_TIME: 0 ACTION_TIME: 0
Base Station Acknowledgement Order
Only about 400 ms. after the base station
acknowledgment order, the mobile receives
the channel assignment message.
The base station is already
sending blank frames on
the forward channel,using
the assigned Walsh code.
The mobile sees at least two
good blank frames in a row on
the forward channel, and
concludes this is the right traffic
channel. It sends a preamble
of two blank frames of its own
on the reverse traffic channel.
The base station acknowledges
receiving the mobiles preamble.
The mobile station acknowledges the
base stations acknowledgment.
Everybody is ready!
PSTN
switch
HLR VLR
SS7
BSC BTS A MSC
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W23
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
ACCESS
TRAFFIC
PgResp
SSSSSSSSSSSS
TIME
Scotts mobile,
are you there?
You have a call.
Im here! What
should I do?
I hear you.
Just a moment.
Rake Receiver
#1 PN168+0 W23
#2 PN168+2 W23
#3 PN168+9 W23
#4 PN168+5 W23
Pilot Searcher
Your channel
Is ready!
Walsh 23
I see
frames!
Channel Assignment and
ENCRYPTION: 0
MSID_TYPE: 2 IMSI: (Class: 0, Class_0_type: 0)
[0x 01 f8 39 6a 15] 615-330-0644
ASSIGN_MODE: Traffic Channel Assignment
BAND_CLASS: 800 MHz cellular band
CDMA_FREQ: 283
Only about 400 ms. after the base station
acknowledgment order, the mobile receives
the channel assignment message.
Everybody is ready!
PSTN
switch
HLR VLR
SS7
BSC BTS A MSC
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W23
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
ACCESS
TRAFFIC
PgResp
ACK
ACK
SVCcon
SSSSSSSSSSSS
TIME
Scotts mobile,
are you there?
You have a call.
Im here! What
should I do?
I hear you.
Just a moment.
Your channel
Is ready!
Walsh 23
I see
frames!
I see
frames!
I see you!
I see you,
too!
Then lets use
Service Option
X, for voice
with 8k EVRC
Rake Receiver
#1 PN168+0 W23
#2 PN168+2 W23
#3 PN168+9 W23
#4 PN168+5 W23
Pilot Searcher
Service Negotiation and Mobile Alert
18:14:47.835 Reverse Traffic Channel:
Service Connect Completion
ENCRYPTION: 0 SERV_CON_SEQ: 0
SERVICE CONNECT COMPLETE MSG.
18:14:47.760 Forward Traffic Channel: Service Connect
ACK_SEQ: 0 MSG_SEQ: 1 ACK_REQ: 0 ENCRYPTION: 0
USE_TIME: 0 ACTION_TIME: 0 SERV_CON_SEQ: 0
Service Configuration: supported Transmission:
Forward Traffic Channel Rate (Set 2): 14400, 7200, 3600, 1800 bps
Reverse Traffic Channel Rate (Set 2): 14400, 7200, 3600, 1800 bps
Service option: (6) Voice (13k) (0x8000)
Forward Traffic Channel: Primary Traffic
Reverse Traffic Channel: Primary Traffic
SERVICE CONNECT MESSAGE
Now that both sides have arrived on the
traffic channel, the base station
proposes that the requested call
actually begin.
The mobile agrees and
says its ready to play.
18:14:47.961 Forward Traffic Channel:
Alert With Information
SIGNAL_TYPE = IS-54B Alerting
ALERT_PITCH = Medium Pitch (Standard Alert)
SIGNAL = Long RESERVED = 0
RECORD_TYPE = Calling Party Number
RECORD_LEN = 96 bits
NUMBER_TYPE = National Number
NUMBER_PLAN = ISDN/Telephony Numbering Plan
PI = Presentation Allowed SI = Network Provided
CHARi = 6153000124 RESERVED = 0 RESERVED = 0
ALERT WITH INFORMATION MESSAGE
The base station orders the mobile to ring, and
gives it the calling partys number to display.
ENCRYPTION: 0
The mobile says its ringing.
SERVICE CONNECT COMPLETE is a
major milestone in call processing. Up
until now, this was an access attempt.
Now it is officially a call.
PSTN
switch
HLR VLR
SS7
BSC BTS A MSC
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W23
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
ACCESS
TRAFFIC
PgResp
V
ACK
ACK
SVCcon
SVCncmp
GenPag P C P G K K
Alert/Inf
ACK Con
ACK V
GSAKX N P GKSAK
SSSSSSSSSSSS
TIME
Scotts mobile,
are you there?
You have a call.
Im here! What
should I do?
I hear you.
Just a moment.
Your channel
Is ready!
Walsh 23
I see
frames!
I see
frames!
I see you!
I see you,
too!
Then lets use
Service Option
X, for voice
with 8k EVRC
I accept.
OK! Then start
ringing and
show this:
615-300-0124
I am.
My owner answered!
Connect the audio.
OK.
SEND
Rake Receiver
#1 PN168+0 W23
#2 PN168+2 W23
#3 PN168+9 W23
#4 PN168+5 W23
Pilot Searcher
The Human Answers! Connect Order
The mobile has been ringing for several
seconds. The human user finally
comes over and presses the send
button to answer the call.
ENCRYPTION: 0
Connect Order
CONNECT ORDER
Now the switch completes the audio circuit and
the two callers can talk!
Making an Outgoing Call!
Making an Outgoing Call!
Outgoing Call Origination IS-95 Voice
PSTN
switch
HLR VLR
SS7
BSC BTS A MSC
G ACK KS C P G K KS P C P G K K G C P G
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W23
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
ACCESS
TRAFFIC
N
CHasn
K NKP P C G P K KSGKX NKP P C G P K SAKX N P GKSAKX NK P GKSAKX G P SA
Origination
GSAKX N P GKSAK
SSSSSSSSSSSS
TIME
Hey system! I am
615-300-0124,
ESN 2E5FC31. Let me
call 615-555-1234
using EVRC voice.
SEND
6 1 5 5 5 5 1 2 3 4
Rake Receiver
#1 PN168+0 W01
#2 PN168+2 W01
#3 PN168+9 W01
#4 PN168+5 W01
Pilot Searcher
Origination
17:48:53.144 Access Channel: Origination
VALID_ACK: 0 ACK_TYPE: 0 MSID_TYPE: 3
ESN: [0x 00 06 98 24] MFR 0 Reserved 1
Serial Number 170020
IMSI: (Class: 0, Class_0_type: 0)
[0x 03 5d b8 97 c2] 972-849-5073
AUTH_MODE: 0 MOB_TERM: 1
SLOT_CYCLE_INDEX: 2 MOB_P_REV: 1 EXT_SCM: 1
DualMode: 0 SLOTTED_MODE: 1 PowerClass: 0
REQUEST_MODE: CDMA only SPECIAL_SERVICE: 1
Service option: (6) Voice (13k) (0x8000) PM: 0
DIGIT_MODE: 0 MORE_FIELDS: 0 NUM_FIELDS: 11
Chari: 18008900829
NAR_AN_CAP: 0
ORIGINATION MESSAGE
17:48:53.487 Paging Channel: Order
MSID_TYPE: 2
[0x 03 5d b8 97 c2] 972-849-5073
Base Station Acknowledgment Order
The mobile sends an
origination message
on the access
channel.
The base station confirms
that the origination message
was received.
MSID_TYPE: 2
[0x 03 5d b8 97 c2] 972-849-5073
ASSIGN_MODE: Traffic Channel Assignment,
BAND_CLASS: 1.8 to 2.0 GHz PCS band
CDMA_FREQ: 425
The base station sends a
Channel Assignment
Message and the mobile
goes to the traffic channel.
ENCRYPTION: 0
Mobile Station Acknowledgment Order
USE_TIME: 0 ACTION_TIME: 0
Everybody is ready!
PSTN
switch
HLR VLR
SS7
BSC BTS A MSC
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W23
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
ACCESS
TRAFFIC
N
CHasn
Origination
GSAKX N P GKSAK
SSSSSSSSSSSS
TIME
Hey system! I am
615-300-0124,
ESN 2E5FC31. Let me
call 615-555-1234
using EVRC voice.
I hear you.
Just a moment.
SEND
6 1 5 5 5 5 1 2 3 4
Rake Receiver
#1 PN168+0 W01
#2 PN168+2 W01
#3 PN168+9 W01
#4 PN168+5 W01
Pilot Searcher
Your channel
Is ready!
Walsh 23
ENCRYPTION: 0
Mobile Station Acknowledgment Order
Everybody is ready!
Service Negotiation and Connect Complete
17:48:55.137 Reverse Traffic Channel: Service Connect
Completion ACK_SEQ: 1, MSG_SEQ: 0, ACK_REQ: 1,
ENCRYPTION: 0, SERV_CON_SEQ: 0
Service Configuration Supported Transmission:
Now that the traffic channel is working
in both directions, the base station
actually begin.
The base station agrees.
PSTN
switch
HLR VLR
SS7
BSC BTS A MSC
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W23
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
ACCESS
TRAFFIC
N
CHasn
Origination
GSAKX N P GKSAK
SSSSSSSSSSSS
TIME
Hey system! I am
615-300-0124,
ESN 2E5FC31. Let me
call 615-555-1234
using EVRC voice.
I hear you.
Just a moment.
Your channel
Is ready!
Walsh 23
I see
frames!
SEND
6 1 5 5 5 5 1 2 3 4
Rake Receiver
#1 PN168+0 W23
#2 PN168+2 W23
#3 PN168+9 W23
#4 PN168+5 W23
Pilot Searcher
Service Negotiation and Mobile Alert
18:14:47.835 Reverse Traffic Channel:
Service Connect Completion
ENCRYPTION: 0 SERV_CON_SEQ: 0
Service Configuration: supported Transmission:
Now that both sides have arrived on the
traffic channel, the base station
actually begin.
18:14:47.961 Forward Traffic Channel:
Alert With Information
SIGNAL_TYPE = IS-54B Alerting
ALERT_PITCH = Medium Pitch (Standard Alert)
SIGNAL = Long RESERVED = 0
RECORD_TYPE = Calling Party Number
RECORD_LEN = 96 bits
NUMBER_TYPE = National Number
NUMBER_PLAN = ISDN/Telephony Numbering Plan
PI = Presentation Allowed SI = Network Provided
CHARi = 6153000124 RESERVED = 0 RESERVED = 0
ALERT WITH INFORMATION MESSAGE
The base station orders the mobile to ring, and
gives it the calling partys number to display.
ENCRYPTION: 0
The mobile says its ringing.
The Human Answers! Connect Order
The mobile has been ringing for several
seconds. The human user finally
comes over and presses the send
button to answer the call.
ENCRYPTION: 0
Connect Order
CONNECT ORDER
PSTN
switch
HLR VLR
SS7
BSC BTS A MSC
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W23
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
ACCESS
TRAFFIC
N
CHasn
Origination
Voice conversation
ACK
ACK
SVCcon
SVCncmp
ACK Voice conversation
GSAKX N P GKSAK
SSSSSSSSSSSS
TIME
Hey system! I am
615-300-0124,
ESN 2E5FC31. Let me
call 615-555-1234
using EVRC voice.
I hear you.
Just a moment.
Your channel
Is ready!
Walsh 23
I see
frames!
I see
frames!
I see you!
I see you,
too!
Then lets use
Service Option
X, for voice
with 8k EVRC
I accept.
OK!
SEND
6 1 5 5 5 5 1 2 3 4
Rake Receiver
#1 PN168+0 W23
#2 PN168+2 W23
#3 PN168+9 W23
#4 PN168+5 W23
Pilot Searcher
Power-Controlled
Reservation Access Mode
Power-Controlled
Reservation Access Mode
Power Controlled Reservation Access Mode
R-EACH
R-CCCH
F-CACH
BTS
Enhanced Access Probe
Early Acknowledgment
Channel Assignment Message
Acknowledgment
F-CPCCH
EACH HEADER EACH PREAMBLE
MESSAGE CAPSULE CACH PREAMBLE
Enhanced Access Data
CCCH HEADER CCCH PREAMBLE
Power Control Bits
F-CCCH
Reservation Access Mode procedures:
On R-EACH, mobile asks permission to transmit
The associated F-CACH gives permission
Mobile transmits on R-CCCH during scheduled slot
F-CPCCH gives power control during R-CCCH transmission
F-CCCH gives acknowledgment and TCH assignment, if needed
Downloading Data on a
Forward Link Supplemental Channel
Downloading Data on a
Forward Link Supplemental Channel
Forward Supplemental Channel Assignment
BTS
W1
W32
W0
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
W23 F-FCH ESCAM
W2 F-SCH
Supplemental
Channel Burst
ESCAM
Supplemental
Channel Burst
Mobile: Watch
Walsh Code 2
Starting in 320 ms
For 1000 ms.
Mobile: Watch
Walsh Code 2
Starting in 320 ms
For 1000 ms.
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
G K KS P C G P K KSA G K KSAK N NKG K S G P SA G K KS P C G P K KSA G K KSAK N NKG K S G P SA G K KS P C P K G K KSAK N NKG K S G P SA
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
PN 168
TIME
ACCESS CHANNEL
R-FCH
Uploading Data on a
Reverse Link Supplemental Channel
Uploading Data on a
Reverse Link Supplemental Channel
Reverse Supplemental Channel Assignment
BTS
W1
W32
W0
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
W23 F-FCH
ACCESS CHANNEL
R-FCH
G K KS P C G P K KSA G K KSAK
Mobile: Send
Walsh Code 1
Starting in 320 ms
For 1000 ms.
Mobile: Send
Walsh Code 1
Starting in 320 ms
For 1000 ms.
ESCAM ESCAM
N NKG K S G P SA G K KS P C G P K KSA G K KSAK N NKG K S G P SA G K KS P C P K G K KSAK N NKG K S G P SA
PN 168
TIME
R-SCH
Supplemental
Channel Burst
Supplemental
Channel Burst
SCRM SCRM
System: I need to
Send you the
Following blocks:
System: I need to
Send you the
Following blocks:
Ending A Call
Ending A Call
Normal End of Call
When a call ends normally, it is because the caller on one side of the
conversation decided to hang up
The side ending the call sends a Release Normal order
The other side sends a Release No reason order
It may send an acknowledgment first, if it cannot give the release
order immediately
After the system receives a release order from the mobile, it releases the
resources it used for the call
After the mobile receives a release order from the base station, it stops
listening to the traffic channel and freshly reacquires the system
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W23
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
ACCESS CHANNEL
Voice
TRAFFIC CHANNEL
RELnorm
Voice RELnoRsn
N NKG K S G P SA
SYN SYN SYN
ACK
SYN SYN SYN SYN SYN
ChASN
SYN
SYS CHN XSYS NBR
Ref Time Ref Time
MOBILE REACQUIRES SYSTEM NORMALLY
SCAN
TIME
Abnormal End of Call Forward Link Failure
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W23
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
ACCESS CHANNEL
TRAFFIC CHANNEL
Voice
Voice
N NKG K S G P SA
SYN SYN SYN
ACK
SYN SYN SYN SYN
ChASN
SYN
SYS CHN XSYS
Ref Time Ref Time
MOBILE REACQUIRES SYSTEM, if available
SCAN
Mute! No pc
All bad frames
5s timer
5s timer
TIME
The mobile is always counting and tracking the bad frames it
receives on the forward link
Forward Link Fade Timer: If the mobile does not receive any good
frames during a 5-second period, it aborts the call
If a mobile receives 10 consecutive bad frames, it mutes its
transmitter until at least 2 consecutive good frames are heard
If the mobile stays muted 5 seconds, the BTS will release too
After a call ends for any reason, the mobile tries to reacquire the
system, making an independent cold start
Abnormal End of Call Reverse Link Failure
BTS
S W1
W32
W0
W23
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
ACCESS CHANNEL
TRAFFIC CHANNEL
Voice
Voice
N NKG K S G P SA
All bad frames
5s timer
SYN SYN SYN
ACK
SYN SYN SYN SYN
ChASN
SYN
SYS CHN XSYS
Ref Time Ref Time
MOBILE REACQUIRES SYSTEM, if available
SCAN
RELnoRsn
A
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
KS N K G P SA
TIME
The BTS is always counting and tracking the bad frames it
receives on the reverse link from the mobile
Reverse Link Fade Timer: If the BTS does not receive any good
frames during a 5-second period, it releases the call
After a call ends for any reason, the mobile tries to reacquire the
system, making an independent cold start
Feature Notification:
You Have Voicemail!
Feature Notification:
You Have Voicemail!
Feature Notification
98/06/30 21:16:44.368 [PCH] Feature Notification Message
MSG_TYPE = Feature Notification Message
ACK_SEQ = 0
MSG_SEQ = 0
ACK_REQ = 1
VALID_ACK = 0
ADDR_TYPE = IMSI
ADDR_LEN = 56 bits
IMSI_CLASS = 0
IMSI_CLASS_0_TYPE = 3
RESERVED = 0
MCC = 302
IMSI_11_12 = 00
IMSI_S = 9055170325
RELEASE = 0
RECORD_TYPE = Message Waiting
RECORD_LEN = 8 bits
MSG_COUNT = 1
RESERVED = 0
FEATURE NOTIFICATION MESSAGE
The Feature Notification Message on
the Paging Channel tells a specific
mobile it has voice messages waiting.
There are other record types to notify
the mobile of other features.
The mobile confirms it has received the
notification by sending a Mobile Station
Acknowledgment Order on the access
channel.
A Soft Handoff
A Soft Handoff
The Complete Rules of Soft Handoff
The Handset considers pilots in sets
Active: pilots of sectors actually in use
Candidates: pilots mobile requested, but
not yet set up & transmitting by system
Neighbors: pilots told to mobile by system,
as nearby sectors to check
Remaining: any pilots used by system but
not already in the other sets (div. by PILOT_INC)
Handset sends Pilot Strength Measurement
Message to the system whenever:
It notices a pilot in neighbor or remaining set
exceeds T_ADD
An active set pilot drops below T_DROP for
T_TDROP time
A candidate pilot exceeds an active by
T_COMP
The System may set up all requested handoffs,
or it may apply special manufacturer-specific
screening criteria and only authorize some
6
5
Remaining
Active
Candidate
Neighbor 20
PILOT SETS
#

R
e
q
d
`
.

B
y

S
t
d
.
T_COMP
T_ADD T_DROP
T_TDROP
HANDOFF
PARAMETERS
Exercise: How does a pilot
in one set migrate into
another set, for all cases?
Identify the trigger, and the
messages involved.
I
S
-
9
5
/
J
-
S
t
d
0
0
8
I
S
-
9
5
B
/
1
x
R
T
T
6
10
40
The Call is Already Established. What Next?
E
c
/
I
o
All PN Offsets
0
0
32K
512
Chips
PN
0
-20
Neighbor Set
The call is already in progress.
PN 168 is the only active signal,
and also is our timing reference.
Continue checking the neighbors.
T_ADD
Rake Fingers O
O
O
Reference PN
Active Pilot
10752
168
32002
500
14080
220
!
!
Mobile Rake RX
Srch PN??? W0
F1 PN168 W61
F2 PN168 W61
F3 PN168 W61
If we ever notice a neighbor with Ec/Io above T_ADD,
ask to use it! Send a Pilot Strength Measurement Message!
Basic Soft/Softer Handoff
ctrl
BTSC
BTSC
BSC
BTS A BTS B
I hear you.
Hang on
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W41
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
GKS P C G P K KSA N G K S G P SA
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W23
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
ACCESS CHANNEL
TRAFFIC CHANNEL PSMM
G K KS P C G P K KSA G K KSAK N NKG K S G P SA G K KS P C P K G K KSAK N NKG K S G P SA
ACK
PN 168
PN 344
!!
TIME
Wow! PN344
is above
T_ADD!
Rake Receiver
#1 PN168+0 W23
#2 PN168+2 W23
#3 PN168+9 W23
#4 PN168+5 W23
Pilot Searcher
Hey system! I want:
PN168 (ref), -6, keep
PN344, -11, keep
Mobile Requests the Handoff!
PILOT STRENGTH MEASUREMENT MESSAGE
98/05/24 23:14:02.205 [RTC]
Pilot Strength Measurement Message
MSG_TYPE = Pilot Strength Measurement Message
ENCRYPTION = Encryption Mode Disabled
REF_PN = 168 Offset Index (the Reference PN)
PILOT_STRENGTH = -6.0 dB
KEEP = 1
PILOT_PN_PHASE = 14080 chips (PN220+0chips)
KEEP = 1
PILOT_PN_PHASE = 32002 chips (PN500 + 2 chips)
KEEP = 1
RESERVED = 0
Just prior to this message, this particular
mobile already was in handoff with PN 168
and 220.
This pilot strength measurement message
reports PN 500 has increased above
T_Add, and the mobile wants to use it too.
98/05/24 23:14:02.386 [FTC] Order Message
MSG_TYPE = Order Message
USE_TIME = 0 ACTION_TIME = 0
ORDER = Base Station Acknowledgment Order
Order-Specific Fields = Field Omitted
RESERVED = 0
The base station acknowledges receiving
the Pilot Strength Measurement Message.
ctrl
BTSC
BTSC
BSC
BTS A BTS B
I hear you.
Hang on
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W41
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W23
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
ACCESS CHANNEL
ACK
PN 168
PN 344
!!
TIME
Wow! PN344
is above
T_ADD!
Rake Receiver
#1 PN168+0 W23
#2 PN168+2 W23
#3 PN168+9 W23
#4 PN168+5 W23
Pilot Searcher
Hey system! I want:
PN344, -11, keep
System Authorizes the Handoff!
98/05/24 23:14:02.926 [FTC] Extended Handoff Direction Message
MSG_TYPE = Extended Handoff Direction Message
USE_TIME = 0 ACTION_TIME = 0 HDM_SEQ = 0
SEARCH_INCLUDED = 1
SRCH_WIN_A = 40 PN chips
T_ADD = -13.0 dB T_DROP = -15.0 dB T_COMP = 2.5 dB
T_TDROP = 4 sec
HARD_INCLUDED = 0 FRAME_OFFSET = Field Omitted
PRIVATE_LCM = Field Omitted RESET_L2 = Field Omitted
RESET_FPC = Field Omitted RESERVED = Field Omitted
ENCRYPT_MODE = Field Omitted RESERVED = Field Omitted
NOM_PWR = Field Omitted NUM_PREAMBLE = Field Omitted
BAND_CLASS = Field Omitted CDMA_FREQ = Field Omitted
ADD_LENGTH = 0
PILOT_PN = 168 PWR_COMB_IND = 0 CODE_CHAN = 61
RESERVED = 0
HANDOFF DIRECTION MESSAGE
The base station sends a Handof
Direction Message authorizing the
mobile to begin soft handoff with all
three requested PNs. The pre-existing
link on PN 168 will continue to use
Walsh code 61, the new link on PN220
will use Walsh Code 20, and the new
link on PN500 will use Walsh code 50.
The mobile acknowledges it has received
the Handoff Direction Message.
98/05/24 23:14:02.945 [RTC] Order Message
MSG_LENGTH = 56 bits MSG_TYPE = Order Message
ORDER = Mobile Station Acknowledgment Order
Order-Specific Fields = Field Omitted RESERVED = 0
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W41
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
BTS
W1
W32
W0
W23
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT
TRAFFIC
ACCESS CHANNEL
ACK EHDM
ACK HOcomp
EHDM ACK
ACK NLum
NLum
ACK
PN 168
PN 344
TIME
Wow! PN344
is above
T_ADD!
Hey system! I want:
PN344, -11, keep
I hear you.
Hang on
OK! You can use:
PN 168 W23
PN 344 W41
OK Great! Im using
PN168 + PN344
OK
OK. Heres your new
Neighbor list:
PN164 PN172 PN340
PN420 PN084 PN132
PN434 PN504 PN016
PN028 PN508 PN372
OK
ctrl
BTSC
BTSC
BSC
BTS A BTS B
!!
Rake Receiver
#1 PN344+0 W41
#2 PN344+3 W41
#3 PN168+2 W23
#4 PN168+5 W23
Pilot Searcher
Handoff Example
E
c
/
I
o
All PN Offsets
0
0
32K
512
Chips
PN
0
-20
Neighbor Set
The call is already in progress.
PN 168 is the only active signal,
and also is our timing reference.
Continue checking the neighbors.
T_ADD
Rake Fingers O
O
O
Reference PN
Active Pilot
10752
168
32002
500
14080
220
!
!
Mobile Rake RX
Srch PN??? W0
F1 PN168 W61
F2 PN168 W61
F3 PN168 W61
If we ever notice a neighbor with Ec/Io above T_ADD,
ask to use it! Send a Pilot Strength Measurement Message!
Handoff Now In Effect, but still check Pilots!
E
c
/
I
o
All PN Offsets
0
0
32K
512
Chips
PN
0
-20
Neighbor Set
Continue checking each ACTIVE pilot. If any are less than T_DROP and remain
so for T_TDROP time, send Pilot Strength Measurement Message, DROP IT!!
Continue looking at each NEIGHBOR pilot. If any ever rises above T_ADD, send
Pilot Strength Measurement Message, ADD IT!
T_ADD
Rake Fingers O
Reference PN
Active Set
10752
168
32002
500
14080
220
O O
T_DROP
Mobile Rake RX
Srch PN??? W0
F1 PN168 W61
F2 PN500 W50
F3 PN220 W20
The Complete Picture of Handoff & Pilot Sets
T_ADD
E
c
/
I
o
All PN Offsets
0
0
32K
512
Chips
PN
0
-20
Neighbor Set
SRCH_WIN_N
Active Set
Candidate Set
T_DROP
SRCH_WIN_A
Remaining Set
T_ADD
SRCH_WIN_R
SRCH_WIN_A
O O
T_DROP
Rake Fingers O
Reference PN
Pilots of sectors
now used for
communication
Pilots requested
by mobile but not
set up by system
Pilots suggested
by system for
more checking
All other pilots divisible by PILOT_INC but not
presently in Active, Candidate, or Neighbor sets
Mobile Rake RX
Srch PN??? W0
F1 PN168 W61
F2 PN500 W50
F3 PN220 W20
Handoffs and
Pilot Set Management
Handoffs and
Pilot Set Management
Here are some example handoffs, showing the way the
handoff parameters are applied.
SYSTEM ACQUISITION
At turn-on, and after the end of every call, a mobile
makes a fresh attempt to acquire the system. It scans
all the PN offsets in tiny steps to be sure no pilot
signal is missed. After the scan is complete, the
mobile locks to the strongest pilot it has found.
-25
-20
-3
-6
-10
0
-15
E
C
/
I
O
d
b
.
Strongest
54 102 134 200 248 300 328 396 416 420 488 504
April, 2004 Course 102 v1.5 (c) 2004 Scott BaxterTechnical Introduction to Wireless -- 1997 Scott Baxter - V0.0 168
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b
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N
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h
b
o
r
IDLE MODE
The strongest pilot is now the only Active pilot.
The mobile puts its rake fingers on this PN and decodes
Walsh Code 32, the Sync channel.
The Sync channel announces the system (SID) and
network (NID); how to make the long code properly
synchronized (Long Code State); and when the 20 ms.
frames begin on the Paging and traffic channels.
Now the mobile knows how to receive the paging channel!
It begins continuously listening to the paging channel.
Soon it receives the neighbor list message.
-25
-20
-3
-6
-10
0
-15
E
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/
I
O
d
b
.
54 102 134 200 248 300 328 396 416 420 488 504
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w

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3 Db, 5 sec.
IDLE MODE
HANDOFF
In idle mode, listening to the paging channel, the mobile can have only
one active pilot at a time. Soft handoff is not possible during idle mode,
since the messages on one sectors paging channel do not match the
messages on another sectors paging channel.
The mobiles pilot searcher is continuously checking
both the active pilot (to keep the rake fingers aligned
on the best multipath signals) and the neighbor pilots.
If a neighbor pilot is noticed at least 3 db stronger than
the current active pilot, and it remains so for 5
seconds, the mobile just stops listening to the old
active and the stronger neighbor becomes the new
active pilot. If the current active pilot should fade and
the mobile loses the paging channel, it is allowed to
switch to another stronger sector immediately without
waiting 5 seconds.
(Settable parameters)
-25
-20
-3
-6
-10
0
-15
E
C
/
I
O
d
b
.
54 102 134 200 248 300 328 396 416 420 488 504
The system does not even know the mobile has done an idle mode handoff, since no
messages are exchanged. The mobile just starts listening to a different sector!
Of course, if the mobile notices that the new sector has a different SID or NID from the old
sector, it will register to let the new system know it has arrived.
N
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b
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a
b
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T
_
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a
b
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b
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b
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T_ADD
T_DROP
IN CALL
-25
-20
-13
-3
-6
-10
0
-15
When a mobile begins a call, it has only one active pilot the same
sector it was listening to in idle mode. It remembers the same neighbor
list from its idle time.
During a call, the mobiles pilot searcher is scanning alternately the
active pilot and each pilot on the neighbor list.
If the mobile notices any pilots with E
C
/I
O
above T_Add, it will
immediately send a PSMM to the system, asking for handoff with them.
E
C
/
I
O
d
b
.
PSMM: PN248, -5, keep;
PN134, -10, keep;
PN102, -11.5, keep
BTS
SEE ADDITIONAL
PILOTS >T_ADD,
SEND PSMM!!
54 102 134 200 248 300 328 396 416 420 488 504
R
e
q
u
e
s
t
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
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a
t
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R
e
q
u
e
s
t
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
IN CALL
T_ADD
T_DROP
-25
-20
-13
-3
-6
-10
0
-15
E
C
/
I
O
d
b
.
After the mobile has sent the PSMM, the newly-requested pilots are
considered Candidates. The mobile cannot begin listening to them
yet, because they do not have channel elements set up yet to simulcast
the traffic channel, and the mobile must also be told which walsh codes
have been assigned for it to listen to.
The mobile patiently waits for the Extended Handoff Direction Message.
A
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WAIT
for EHDM
54 102 134 200 248 300 328 396 416 420 488 504
A
c
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P
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T_ADD
T_DROP
-25
-20
-13
-3
-6
-10
0
-15
E
C
/
I
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d
b
.
EHDM: PN248, W14;
PN134, W08;
PN102, W52
BTS
IN CALL With approximately 500 ms after sending the PSMM, the mobile receives
the Extended Handoff Direction Message (EHDM). The base station has
authorized the handoff on all the requested sectors, and included the
walsh codes the mobile must know in order to hear the sectors.
After beginning to use the new pilots, the mobile confirms by sending a
Handoff Completion Message. Then the system sends the mobile a new
Neighbor List Update message.
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RECEIVE
EHDM
54 102 134 200 248 300 328 396 416 420 488 504
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T_ADD
T_DROP
IN CALL
-25
-20
-13
-3
-6
-10
0
-15
One of the active pilots, PN134, has faded below T_Drop.
The mobile puts PN134 on a probation watch waiting to see if it
remains below T_Drop for T_TDrop seconds .
E
C
/
I
O
d
b
.
AN ACTIVE PILOT
FALLS BELOW
T_DROP
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P
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!
T_TDrop
54 102 134 200 248 300 328 396 416 420 488 504
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T_ADD
T_DROP
IN CALL
-25
-20
-13
-3
-6
-10
0
-15
If PN384 recovers, becoming stronger than T_Drop before the T_TDrop
time has passed, the mobile forgives its earlier weakness and will not
send a PSMM to request any change.
E
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/
I
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d
b
.
PILOT RECOVERS,
REMAINS ACTIVE
A
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P
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A
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P
i
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t
!
<T_TDrop
54 102 134 200 248 300 328 396 416 420 488 504
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
T_ADD
T_DROP
IN CALL
-25
-20
-13
-3
-6
-10
0
-15
PN134, has faded below T_Drop again.
The mobile puts PN134 on a probation watch waiting to see if it
remains below T_Drop for T_TDrop seconds .
E
C
/
I
O
d
b
.
AN ACTIVE PILOT
FALLS BELOW
T_DROP
AGAIN
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
!
T_TDrop
54 102 134 200 248 300 328 396 416 420 488 504
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
T_ADD
T_DROP
IN CALL
-25
-20
-13
-3
-6
-10
0
-15
If PN134 remains below T_Drop for T_TDrop seconds, the mobile sends
a PSMM requesting to drop it from the handoff.
E
C
/
I
O
d
b
.
PSMM: PN248, -5, keep;
PN134, -16, drop;
PN102, -11.5, keep
BTS
PILOT REMAINS
BELOW T_DROP
FOR T_TDROP
SECONDS.
SEND PSMM
TO REMOVE!
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
>T_TDrop
!
54 102 134 200 248 300 328 396 416 420 488 504
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
T_ADD
T_DROP
IN CALL
-25
-20
-13
-3
-6
-10
0
-15
The mobile waits for an Extended Handoff Direction Message (EHDM),
giving permission to drop the pilot from the Active set.
E
C
/
I
O
d
b
.
WAIT FOR
EHDM
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
54 102 134 200 248 300 328 396 416 420 488 504
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
T_ADD
T_DROP
IN CALL
-25
-20
-13
-3
-6
-10
0
-15
PN134 is now dropped from the Active set, and becomes a neighbor.
The mobile continues with Active pilots PN102 and PN248.
E
C
/
I
O
d
b
.
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
Receive
EHDM,
Drop
Pilot
EHDM: PN248, W14;
PN102, W52
BTS
54 102 134 200 248 300 328 396 416 420 488 504
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r

a
b
o
v
e

T
_
A
d
d
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r

a
b
o
v
e

T
_
A
d
d
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r

a
b
o
v
e

T
_
A
d
d
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r

a
b
o
v
e

T
_
A
d
d
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r

a
b
o
v
e

T
_
A
d
d
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r

a
b
o
v
e

T
_
A
d
d
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r

a
b
o
v
e

T
_
A
d
d
T_ADD
T_DROP
-25
-20
-13
-3
-6
-10
0
-15
E
C
/
I
O
d
b
.
IN CALL
SEE ADDITIONAL
PILOTS >T_ADD,
SEND PSMM!!
PSMM: PN248, -5, keep; PN300, -3.5, keep;
PN134, -10.5, keep; PN488, -10.5, keep;
PN102, -11.5, keep; PN328, -11.5, keep;
PN200, -12, keep; PN396, -12.5, keep;
PN420, -12, keep; PN504, -12, keep
BTS
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r

a
b
o
v
e

T
_
A
d
d
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
54 102 134 200 248 300 328 396 416 420 488 504
The mobile has just noticed several neighbor pilots have risen above T_ADD. It will immediately send a
PSMM requesting to add them in handoff. It quickly sends a PSMM requesting handoff with them.
R
e
q
u
e
s
t
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
R
e
q
u
e
s
t
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
R
e
q
u
e
s
t
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
R
e
q
u
e
s
t
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
R
e
q
u
e
s
t
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
R
e
q
u
e
s
t
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
R
e
q
u
e
s
t
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
T_ADD
T_DROP
-25
-20
-13
-3
-6
-10
0
-15
E
C
/
I
O
d
b
.
IN CALL
WAIT
for EHDM
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
R
e
q
u
e
s
t
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
54 102 134 200 248 300 328 396 416 420 488 504
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
U
n
a
s
s
i
g
n
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
U
n
a
s
s
i
g
n
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
U
n
a
s
s
i
g
n
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
U
n
a
s
s
i
g
n
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
RECEIVE
EHDM
T_ADD
T_DROP
-25
-20
-13
-3
-6
-10
0
-15
E
C
/
I
O
d
b
.
EHDM: PN300, W31; PN248, W14;
PN134, W08; PN488, W10;
PN328, W27; PN102, W52
BTS
IN CALL
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
54 102 134 200 248 300 328 396 416 420 488 504
The mobile receives the Extended Handoff Direction Message, and implements the handoff with the pilots
listed in the message. The BSC has chosen the strongest six pilots requested in the previous PSMM. Only
the strongest 6 signals requested by the mobile are chosen to be active.
PN 200, PN396, PN420 and PN504 are Unassigned Candidates.
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r

a
b
o
v
e

T
_
A
d
d
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
R
e
q
u
e
s
t
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
R
e
q
u
e
s
t
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
R
e
q
u
e
s
t
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
R
e
q
u
e
s
t
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
T_ADD
T_DROP
-25
-20
-13
-3
-6
-10
0
-15
E
C
/
I
O
d
b
.
IN CALL
PN134, -10.5, keep; PN488, -10.5, keep;
PN102, -11.5, keep; PN328, -11.5, keep;
PN200, -12, keep; PN396, -12.5, keep;
PN416, -10.5, keep; PN420, -12, keep;
PN504, -12, keep
BTS
SEE ADDITIONAL
PILOTS >T_ADD,
SEND PSMM!!
54 102 134 200 248 300 328 396 416 420 488 504
The mobile notices that PN416 has just grown stronger, and is now above T_Add. It sends a PSMM
requesting handoff with it and the other 10 signals above T_Add.
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
R
e
q
u
e
s
t
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
R
e
q
u
e
s
t
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
R
e
q
u
e
s
t
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
R
e
q
u
e
s
t
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
T_ADD
T_DROP
-25
-20
-13
-3
-6
-10
0
-15
E
C
/
I
O
d
b
.
IN CALL
R
e
q
u
e
s
t
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
WAIT
for EHDM
54 102 134 200 248 300 328 396 416 420 488 504
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
U
n
a
s
s
i
g
n
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
U
n
a
s
s
i
g
n
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
U
n
a
s
s
i
g
n
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
T_ADD
T_DROP
-25
-20
-13
-3
-6
-10
0
-15
E
C
/
I
O
d
b
.
IN CALL
RECEIVE
EHDM
EHDM: PN300, W31; PN248, W14;
PN134, W08; PN488, W10;
PN416, W52; PN328, W27
BTS
U
n
a
s
s
i
g
n
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
U
n
a
s
s
i
g
n
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
54 102 134 200 248 300 328 396 416 420 488 504
The mobile receives the Extended Handoff Direction Message, and implements the handoff with the pilots
listed in the message. The BSC has chosen the strongest six pilots requested in the previous PSMM. Only
the strongest 6 signals requested by the mobile are chosen to be active.
Notice that PN416 replaces PN102. PN102, PN200, PN396, PN420 and PN504 are Unassigned Candidates.
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
R
e
q
u
e
s
t
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
R
e
q
u
e
s
t
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
R
e
q
u
e
s
t
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
T_ADD
T_DROP
-25
-20
-13
-3
-6
-10
0
-15
E
C
/
I
O
d
b
.
IN CALL
Notice T_COMP
trigger, send
EHDM
R
e
q
u
e
s
t
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
R
e
q
u
e
s
t
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
PN134, -10.5, keep; PN488, -10.5, keep;
PN102, -11.5, keep; PN328, -14, keep;
PN200, -12, keep; PN396, -10, keep;
PN416, -10.5, keep; PN420, -12, keep;
PN504, -12, keep
BTS
T_COMP
54 102 134 200 248 300 328 396 416 420 488 504
Suppose T_COMP = 4 db. The mobile notices that the strongest candidate, PN396, has grown T_COMP db
stronger than the weakest active pilot, PN328.
This triggers the mobile to send a new PSMM including all the pilots above T_ADD. All of them were already
either actives or candidates, but the new PSMM includes the new current strength of each pilot.
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
R
e
q
u
e
s
t
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
R
e
q
u
e
s
t
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
R
e
q
u
e
s
t
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
T_ADD
T_DROP
-25
-20
-13
-3
-6
-10
0
-15
E
C
/
I
O
d
b
.
IN CALL
WAIT
for EHDM
R
e
q
u
e
s
t
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
R
e
q
u
e
s
t
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
T_COMP
Both before and after the mobile sends the PSMM, the active pilots are
the same and the candidate pilots are the same. The mobile patiently
waits for the Extended Handoff Direction Message, which may cause
some of the pilots to change sets.
54 102 134 200 248 300 328 396 416 420 488 504
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
U
n
a
s
s
i
g
n
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
U
n
a
s
s
i
g
n
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
T_ADD
T_DROP
-25
-20
-13
-3
-6
-10
0
-15
E
C
/
I
O
d
b
.
IN CALL
RECEIVE
EHDM
U
n
a
s
s
i
g
n
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
U
n
a
s
s
i
g
n
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
U
n
a
s
s
i
g
n
e
d

C
a
n
d
i
d
a
t
e
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
i
l
o
t
EHDM: PN300, W31; PN248, W14;
PN134, W08; PN488, W10;
PN416, W52; PN328, W27
BTS
54 102 134 200 248 300 328 396 416 420 488 504
Notice that PN396 has become Active, replacing PN328.
Deeper Handoff Details:
Search Windows & Timing
Deeper Handoff Details:
Search Windows & Timing
The Pilot Searchers Measurement Process
The searcher checks pilots in nested
loops, much like meshed gears.
Actives and candidates
occupy the fastest-
spinning wheel.
Neighbors are
next, advancing
one pilot for each
Act+Cand. revolution.
Remaining is slowest,
advancing one pilot each
time the Neighbors revolve.
CURRENT PILOT SET CONTENTS
A A A
C
N N N N N N N N N N N N
R R R R R R R R R R R R
R R R R
3
1
12
112
PILOT SEARCHER VIEWED IN SEQUENCE: Typical Elapsed Time = 4 seconds
A A A C N
R
A A A C A A A C A A A C A A A C A A A C A A A C N N N N N N
A A A C N A A A C A A A C A A A C A A A C A A A C A A A C N N N N N
A A A C N A A A C A A A C A A A C A A A C A A A C A A A C N N N N N N
N A A A C A A A C A A A C N N N R A A A C N A A A C A A A C A A A N N
C A A A C A A A C N N N
R
A A A C N A A A C A A A C A A A N N C A A A N
C A A A C N N
Only 3 of 112 remaining set pilots have been checked thus far!
A
N
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
A
A
Setting Pilot Search Window Sizes
When the handset first powers up, it does an
exhaustive search for the best pilot. No windows
are used in this process.
On the paging channel, the handset learns the
window sizes SRCH_WIN_A, N, R and uses
them when looking for neighbors both in idle
mode and during calls.
When a strong neighbor is requested in a PSMM,
the former neighbor pilot is now a candidate. Its
offset is precisely remembered and frequently
rechecked and tracked by the phone.
Window size for actives and candidates can be
small, since the windows float, drifting with the
observed pilot energy of the signal. Only search
wide enough to include multipath energy!
This greatly speeds up overall searching!
Most post-processing tools deliver statistics on
the spread (in chips) between fingers locked to
the same pilot. These statistics literally show us
how wide the SRCH_WIN_A should be set.
Neighbor and Remaining search windows should
be set to accommodate the maximum intercell
distances which a mobile might experience
SEARCH WINDOW SETTINGS
AND PROPAGATION DISTANCES
Window
Size (Chips)
14 (7)
Datafill
Value
N,R Delta Distance
4 1.06
20 (10)
40 (20)
28 (14)
Miles KM.
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
60 (30)
80 (40)
100 (50)
130 (65)
160 (80)
226 (113)
320 (160)
452 (226)
1.71
1.52 2.44
2.12 3.42
3.03 4.88
4.55 7.32
6.07 9.77
7.59 12.2
9.86 15.9
12.1 19.5
17.1 27.6
24.3 39.1
34.3 55.2
Meet the CDMA
Performance Indicators
Meet the CDMA
Performance Indicators
CDMA Performance Indicators
A Flight Data Recorder logs aircraft operational settings. Its CDMA
equivalent is a file of RF performance indicators captured by drive-test
equipment.
Key CDMA parameters and measurements show the condition of the RF
environment. They are the primary gauges used to guide CDMA
optimization and troubleshooting
some indicate uplink conditions, some downlink, and some, both.
these parameters are collected primarily at the subscriber end of the
link, and thus are easy to capture using readily available commercial
equipment without requiring assistance at the BSC
Understanding these parameters and their important implications requires
basic knowledge in several subject areas:
General: RF units, transmitter and receiver basics
CDMA and spread-spectrum signal characteristics
channel definitions
power control systems
basic CDMA call processing flow
signal behavior characteristics in noise and interference
Indicator #1: FER
FER Frame Erasure Rate
on forward channel
(realized at Handset)
on reverse channel
(realized at base station)
FER is an excellent call
quality summary statistic
FER
%
0 2 5 100
F
o
r
w
a
r
d
R
e
v
e
r
s
e
FER is the end-result of the whole transmission link
if FER is good, then any other problems arent having much
effect
if FER is bad, thats not the problem - it is just the end-result of
the problem
we must investigate other indicators to get a clue what is
going on
Indicator #2: Received Power at the Handset
Mobile Receive Power
usually expressed in dBm
measured derived from
handset IF AGC voltage
broadband, unintelligent
measurement: includes all
RF in the carrier bandwidth
regardless of source, not
just RF from serving BTS
-40
-90
-105
<
<
t
o
o

w
e
a
k

o
v
e
r
l
o
a
d
>
>
RX Level
x
LO
RX Level
(from AGC)
IF LNA
BW
~30
MHz.
BW
1.25
MHz.
Handset Receiver
R
R
R
S
Rake
Receive power is important, but its exact value isnt critical
too much received signal (-35 dbm or higher) could drive the
phones sensitive first amplifier into overload, causing intermod
and code distortion on received CDMA signals
too little received signal (-105 or weaker) would leave too much
noise in the signal after de-spreading, resulting in symbol errors,
bit errors, bad FER, and other problems
Indicator #3, Ec/Io - What does it mean?
Why cant we just use the handsets
received power level to guide
handoffs?
Because it is a simple total RF
power measurement, the total of
all sectors reaching the mobile
x
LO
RX Level
(from AGC)
IF LNA
BW
~30
MHz.
BW
1.25
MHz.
Handset Receiver
R
R
R
S
Rake
We need a way to measure the signal strength of each sector
individually, and we must be able to measure it quickly and simply
The solution is to use each sectors pilot (Walsh 0) as a test signal
to guide handoffs
At the mobile, if the pilot of a certain sector is very strong and
clean, that means we also should be able to hear a traffic
channel on that sector, so handoff would be a good idea
if the pilot of a certain sector is weak, then we probably wont
be able to get much benefit from using a traffic channel on that
sector
How Ec/Io Varies with Traffic Loading
Light Traffic Loading
Each sector transmits a certain
amount of power, the sum of:
pilot, sync, and paging
any traffic channels in use
at that moment
Ec/Io is the ratio of pilot power
to total power
On a sector with nobody
talking, Ec/Io is typically
about 50%, which is -3 db
On a sector with maximum
traffic, Ec/Io is typically
about 20%, which is -7 db.
Ec/Io = (2/4)
= 50%
= -3 db.
2w
1.5w
Pilot
Paging
Sync
I
0
E
C
0.5w
Heavily Loaded
Ec/Io = (2/10)
= 20%
= -7 db.
2w
1.5w
Pilot
Paging
Sync
I
0
E
C
T
r
a
f
f
i
c

C
h
a
n
n
e
l
s
6w
0.5w
How Ec/Io varies with RF Environment
Many Sectors, Nobody Dominant
One Sector Dominant
In a clean situation, one
sector is dominant and the
mobile enjoys an Ec/Io just
as good as it was when
transmitted
In pilot pollution, too many
sectors overlap and the
mobile hears a soup made
up of all their signals
Io is the power sum of all
the signals reaching the
mobile
Ec is the energy of a
single sectors pilot
The large Io overrides the
weak Ec; Ec/Io is low!
Io = -90 dbm
Ec = -96 dbm
Ec/Io = -6 db
Io = 10 signals
each -90 dbm
= -80 dbm
Ec of any one
sector = -96
Ec/Io = -16 db
2w
1.5w
Pilot
Paging
Sync
I
0
E
C
T
r
a
f
f
i
c
C
h
a
n
n
e
l
s
4w
0.5w
BTS1
I
0
E
C
BTS2
BTS3
BTS4
BTS5
BTS6
BTS7
BTS8
BTS9
BTS10
Pilot
Sync & Paging
Traffic
Pilot
Sync & Paging
Traffic
Pilot
Sync & Paging
Traffic
Pilot
Sync & Paging
Traffic
Pilot
Sync & Paging
Traffic
Pilot
Sync & Paging
Traffic
Pilot
Sync & Paging
Traffic
Pilot
Sync & Paging
Traffic
Pilot
Sync & Paging
Traffic
Pilot
Sync & Paging
Traffic
Ec/Io and Pilot Pollution
Io
Ec/Io value
at each
BTS TX
-80.0
-3
Signal
Strength Ec/Io
-90 -13.0 1
-90 -13.0 2
-90 -13.0 3
-90 -13.0 4
-90 -13.0 5
-90 -13.0 6
-90 -13.0 7
-90 -13.0 8
-90 -13.0 9
-90 -13.0 10
-80.0 Sum Power
Ec/Io of Multiple CDMA Signals
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Too Many Similar Signals!
Ec/Io of each is very poor
P
i
l
o
t

P
o
l
l
u
t
i
o
n
When multiple sectors are
about the same strength,
and there is no dominant
server, we call this pilot
pollution
To get acceptable reception
during pilot pollution, the
mobile must be using a
majority of the sectors it is
hearing. This causes too
much soft handoff and
consumes capacity.
Overcoming pilot pollution
requires careful coverage
control of the related
sectors
EcIoPlay.xls is a good tool
for experimenting
Io
Ec/Io value
at each
BTS TX
-73.9
-3
Signal
Strength Ec/Io
-90 -19.1 1
-90 -19.1 2
-90 -19.1 3
-90 -19.1 4
-75 -4.1 5
-90 -19.1 6
-90 -19.1 7
-90 -19.1 8
-90 -19.1 9
-90 -19.1 10
-73.9 Sum Power
Ec/Io of Multiple CDMA Signals
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
No Problem!
Great Signal.
Ec/Io and Pilot Pollution: Handoff Effects
This second workbook in EcIoPlay.xls demonstrates the benefits of soft
handoff and the concept of composite (combined) Ec/Io during soft
handoff.
Ec/Io, Handoff, and Rake Finger Pilot Status
%Pilot
Power
%
Over-
head
Power
Nominal
Max
Power
W
Sum RF
Power
Io
Comp
osite
Ec/Io
Max #
Lockable Rake
Fingers
Max #
Pilots in
Soft
Handoff T_ADD
10% 20% 16 -77.2 -4.8 4 6 -13
Traffic
Loading
%
Trans
mitted
Ec/Io
Path
Loss,
dB
Signal
Strength Ec/Io
0% -3.0 120 -84.9 -10.8 Rake Locked Handoff 1
0% -3.0 120 -84.9 -10.8 Handoff Interferor 5
0% -3.0 120 -84.9 -10.8 Handoff Interferor 6
0% -3.0 200 -164.9 -90.8 Interferor 7
0% -3.0 200 -164.9 -90.8 Interferor 8
0% -3.0 200 -164.9 -90.8 Interferor 9
0% -3.0 200 -164.9 -90.8 Interferor 10
0% -3.0 200 -164.9 -90.8 Interferor 11
0% -3.0 200 -164.9 -90.8 Interferor 12
0% -3.0 200 -164.9 -90.8 Interferor 13
0% -3.0 200 -164.9 -90.8 Interferor 14
Only grey-shaded fields can be changed. Other fields calculate automatically.
To unlock all cells, select TOOLS>PROTECTION>UNPROTECT SHEET.
Relative Energies of Multiple CDMA Signals
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
I ndi vi dual Si gnal s
Pilot Energy Sync, Paging, Traf f ic
Indicator #4: Handset Transmitter Power
TXPO
DUP x

IF
LNA
Subscriber Handset
R
R
R
S
Rake
Viterbi
Decoder
Vocoder
FEC
Orth
Mod
Long PN
x
x
x
IF Mod
I
Q
x
~
LO
Open Loop
LO
Closed Loop Pwr Ctrl
IF
Receiver>>
<<Transmitter
PA
BTS
TXPO Handset Transmit Power
Actual RF power output of the
handset transmitter, including
combined effects of open
loop power control from
receiver AGC and closed
loop power control by BTS
cant exceed handsets
maximum (typ. +23 dBm)
Typical TXPO:
+23 dBm in a coverage hole
0 dBm near middle of cell
-50 dBm up close to BTS
TXPO = -(RX
dbm
) -C + TXGA
C = +73 for 800 MHz. systems
= +76 for 1900 MHz. systems
What is the right power TX level? Whatever the BTS asks for!
As long as closed loop control is working, the phones opinion
isnt the last word. Just do what the BTS wants!!
However, if the BTS ever asks the phone to do the impossible,
something is wrong (lower than -60 dbm, higher than +23 dbm)
Indicator #5: Transmit Gain Adjust
What is Closed Loop Transmit Gain Adjust (TXGA)?
The power correction the base station is asking the mobile to
make right now, in real-time
At the beginning of a call, before the power control bits begin, it
is zero. Then the power control bits begin, 800 per second.
During a call, TXGA is the running total of all the power control
bits which have been received thus far.
Each power control bit asks for a 1 db correction, up or down
Each power control bit is based on the base stations latest new
decision: mobile is too strong, or mobile is too weak -- there is
no cumulative error, since each decision is fresh
0 dB
-10 dB
-20 dB
Typical Transmit Gain Adjust
Time, Seconds
TXPO = -(RX
dbm
) -C + TXGA
C = +73 for 800 MHz. systems
= +76 for 1900 MHz. systems
Closed Loop Power Control Dynamics
The figures at right show the
power control reactions to a
sudden change in path loss
The sudden change in path loss
causes a sudden change in
handset received signal
Both open loop and closed loop
control race to get the phone
back to the right new power and
succeed in about 10 milliseconds
Open loop continues to approach
the correct value better and better
on its own
40 milliseconds later, no net
closed loop correction is needed.
Problem Signatures
Problem Signatures
Signatures of Common Conditions
SIGNATURE:
GOOD CALL
FFER RXL E
C
/I
O
TxGa TxPo
BTS
Messaging
FFER RXL E
C
/I
O
TxGa TxPo
-110
-30
100%
50%
0%
10%
5%
2%
-40
-90
-100
-20
0
-6
-10
-15
-25
+25
+10
0
-10
-20
+23
-10
-20
-40
-50
-30
+10
0
The key CDMA RF Performance
Indicators provide powerful clues
in cause-and-effect analysis for
understanding problem conditions
There are many common
conditions which are easy to
recognize from their characteristic
signatures -- unique
relationships among the key
indicators which are observed
when these conditions exist
We will use the simplified format
shown at right to display the key
indicators for each of several
interesting cases.
Signature of a Successful Call
SIGNATURE:
GOOD CALL
FFER RXL E
C
/I
O
TxGa TxPo
BTS
Messaging
FFER RXL E
C
/I
O
TxGa TxPo
-110
-30
100%
50%
0%
10%
5%
2%
-40
-90
-100
-20
0
-6
-10
-15
-25
+25
+10
0
-10
-20
+23
-10
-20
-40
-50
-30
+10
0
If the mobile station originates
successfully, remains in service
area, and makes normal release,
data will show:
Low forward FER
Receive power > -100 dBm
Good Ec/Io (> -12 dB)
Normal Transmit Gain Adjust
(actual value depends on site
configurations, loading &
NOM_PWR setting)
Transmit power < +20 dBm
Good Messaging
Parsed message files will
contain a full set of normal
messages.
Signature of a Dropped Call in Poor Coverage
SIGNATURE:
DROPPED CALL, BAD COVERAGE
FFER RXL E
C
/I
O
TxGa TxPo
BTS
Messaging
FFER RXL E
C
/I
O
TxGa TxPo
-110
-30
100%
50%
0%
10%
5%
2%
-40
-90
-100
-20
0
-6
-10
-15
-25
+25
+10
0
-10
-20
+23
-10
-20
-40
-50
-30
+10
0
If a mobile station is taken out
of the service area or into a
coverage hole, and only data
from the mobile station is
available, the log files will show
the following characteristics:
High forward FER
Low receive power (<-100
dBm)
Low Ec/Io (< -10 dB)
Higher-than-normal Transmit
Gain Adjust (actual value depends
on site configurations, loading,
NOM_PWR setting)
Higher-than-normal transmit
power (> +20 dBm)
Poor messaging on both links
Signature of Forward Link Interference
SIGNATURE:
FORWARD LINK INTERFERENCE
FFER RXL E
C
/I
O
TxGa TxPo
BTS
Messaging
FFER RXL E
C
/I
O
TxGa TxPo
-110
-30
100%
50%
0%
10%
5%
2%
-40
-90
-100
-20
0
-6
-10
-15
-25
+25
+10
0
-10
-20
+23
-10
-20
-40
-50
-30
+10
0
Characteristics of data for a phone
experiencing forward link
interference from a source other
than the current BTS:
High forward FER
Good receive power (> -100 dBm)
Low Ec/Io (< -10 dB)
Higher-than-normal Transmit Gain
Adjust
Normal transmit power (< +20
dBm)
Poor forward link messaging
unreliable at best and may be
the actual cause of the drop.
A CDMA Drop Example: Forward Link Case
A
B
BTS
BTS
FORWARD LINK DIES
O
b
s
t
r
u
c
t
i
o
n
s
T
r
a
v
e
l
B grows stronger and stronger.
Mobiles open-loop instinct is to transmit
weaker; closed-loop correction from A
goes higher and higher, maintaining the
mobile at the right power.
Finally B obscures A, which disappears
in an explosion of FER. The mobile
mutes since it cant hear power control
bits, and a fade timer or message timer
kills the call in a few seconds.
A mobile using Site A comes
down the highway and
suddenly begins to see the
signal of Site B
If the mobile begins soft
handoff with site B, everything
continues to go well
If the mobile cannot begin
handoff with B for any reason,
the call is doomed
site Bs signal will override
site As signal, making it
unreadable
as soon as the FER goes
too high, a fade timer will
start the the mobile will
eventually die
Signature of Reverse Link Interference
SIGNATURE:
REVERSE LINK INTERFERENCE
FFER RXL E
C
/I
O
TxGa TxPo
BTS
Messaging
FFER RXL E
C
/I
O
TxGa TxPo
-110
-30
100%
50%
0%
10%
5%
2%
-40
-90
-100
-20
0
-6
-10
-15
-25
+25
+10
0
-10
-20
+23
-10
-20
-40
-50
-30
+10
0
Characteristics of data for a phone
whose BTS has a raised noise
floor due to reverse link
interference
Good forward FER
Good receive power (> -100 dBm)
Good Ec/Io (> -10 dB)
Higher-than-normal Transmit Gain
Adjust
Higher-than-normal transmit power
(< +20 dBm)
Poor reverse link messaging
in the message files, youll
see repeats of messages on
the forward link and reverse
link
A CDMA Drop Example: Reverse Link Case
B
BTS
O
b
s
t
r
u
c
t
i
o
n
s
T
r
a
v
e
l
It was a beautiful day in the neighborhood
for all the mobiles on site B until the grim
reaper arrived, transmitting at high power
to maintain its link with distant Cell A.
Cell B tried to power up each of its
individual mobiles so they would be
received as strong as the new interferor,
but mobiles more distant than the
interferor just couldnt keep up, and died.
Eventually the interferor died from
forward link interference, too.
If only the interferor had a soft handoff, all
of this violence could have been avoided.
REVERSE LINK DIES
When a cell is penetrated by a
mobile not under its own
power control, bad things
happen!
The foreign mobile is being
power controlled by a
more distant cell, so it is
transmitting louder than
appropriate
the local mobiles must
power up in a deadly race
to keep up with the
interferor
local mobiles can still hear
the cell fine; the forward
link is just great, to the
very end
Solving the #1 Death Scenario: Failed Handoff
Why didnt the mobile ask for handoff?
New sector not on neighbor list
Neighbor Search Window too Small?
BTS in island mode, wrong PN?
Why didnt the BTS set up the handoff?
Old BTS didnt hear mobile rev link
interf?
No resources available on new BTS?
T-1 unstable, messages lost
Why didnt the mobile do the handoff?
Couldnt hear BTS, Fwd link interf?
B
BTS
O
b
s
t
r
u
c
t
i
o
n
s
T
r
a
v
e
l
REVERSE LINK DIES
A
B
BTS
BTS
FORWARD LINK DIES
O
b
s
t
r
u
c
t
i
o
n
s
T
r
a
v
e
l
Steps in the Handoff Process
Mobiles searcher notices
the needed new pilot
Mobile sends PSMM
requesting handoff
System sets up the handoff:
channel elements
forward power
space in packet pipes
Simulcasting begins!
System tells mobile how to
hear the new sectors:
Handoff Direction Message
Mobile confirms completion:
Handoff Completion Message
System makes new neighbor list,
sends to mobile: Neighbor List
Update Message
Now the mobile can hear
the system better, too!
Now the system can hear
the mobile better!
see
ask
tell
do
ok!
tell
BTS
BTS
BTS
What Went Wrong??!
Planning PN Offsets
And Search Windows
Planning PN Offsets
And Search Windows
Introduction to PN Planning and
Search Windows
In PN planning and setting Search Windows, several pitfalls must
be avoided. These slides explain most of the basic facts,
background, principles, and practical considerations involved.
Short PN Basics:
PN Offsets Distinguish Sectors
A
B
C
D
x
LO
IF LNA
BPF
Phone
Rake Receiver
BPF
PN A Walsh X
PN B Walsh Y
PN C Walsh Z
Pilot Searcher
Decoding Vocoder
x
Each sector uses the short PN code, but at a different timing delay called
its PN offset
PN delays are settable in 64-chip steps called "PN offsets"
For example, PN offset 100 means 6,400 chips of delay
PN short code is 32,768 chips long - room for 512 different PN offsets
In the rake finger of a mobile in soft handoff, the short PN code is
generated in step with just one sector the mobile is trying to hear
The rake finger hears the matching sector's signal, ignores all others
The rake finger next decodes the walsh code of the desired channel
from that sector, ignoring all other users on that sector
A Practical "Rule of Thumb" to Remember
Transmitted:
PN 100
6,400 chips offset
BTS
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ1234567890abcdefghijkmnopqrstuvwxyz!@#$%^&*()_+
9.70 miles = 64 chips = 1 PN
Mobile
The PN chips SEEN by the mobile are what the base station
transmitted 64 chips in the past! What the base station is really
doing now, its true PN offset, is 64 chips later than what the mobile
sees. So the base station's signal at the mobile seems to be one
PN lower than it was actually transmitted.
Received:
PN 101
6,464 chips delay
The signal of a base station roughly 10 miles distant will SEEM to
be one PN higher than it was transmitted
Propagation Delay changes apparent PN Offset
10 KM
41 chips
2 KM
8 chips
PN200
PN360
Base stations transmit signals on assigned,
fixed short PN delays called PN Offsets
Transmitted signals encounter additional
delay traveling to the mobile
~6.7 chips/mile = ~4.1 chips/kilometer
These additional delays can become
significant and cause errors at the mobile!
Failure to recognize certain signals
Misidentification of signals, recognizing
one BTS as another
Improper combination of signals -
listening to the wrong BTS and trying to
decode and combine its signal in a
handoff
Mobile Timing: the Reference PN
Mobile System Acquisition Process
Scan entire range of PNs
Lock to strongest Pilot found
Put rake fingers on multipaths
Earliest arriving multipath is "reference PN"
Read sync channel message
Learn what PN this is!
But there's no way to know how many chips of propagation delay have
happened before this signal was received
The mobile is "blind" to whatever this error may be; so the mobile's
internal PN reference is late by an unknown amount
Every pilot the mobile looks for will appear to be early or late too!
Rake Fingers O
O
O
Reference PN
Active Pilot
E
c
/
I
o
0
0
32K
512
Chips
PN
Pilot Searcher Scans All PNs
All PN Offsets
0
-20
98/05/24 23:14:09.817 [SCH]
MSG_TYPE = Sync Channel Msg
P_REV = 3, MIN_P_REV = 2
SID = 179 NID = 0
LC_STATE = 0x0348D60E013
SYS_TIME = 98/05/24 3:14:10.160
LP_SEC = 12
LTM_OFF = -300 minutes
DAYLT = 0, PRAT = 9600 bps
SYNC CHANNEL MESSAGE
UNKNOWN EXTRA
PROPAGATION DELAY
How many chips????
What are "Search Windows"?
New pilots usually seem earlier or later
than their official PNs from the neighor list
Some have come from nearer, some
from farther, than the reference PN
A mobile must look for pilot energy through
a range of chips earlier and later than the
exact expected PN offset of the signal it is
trying to measure
These "tolerance" ranges are called
"Search Windows"
SRCH_WIN_A applies to active and
candidate pilots
SRCH_WIN_N applies to neighbors
SRCH_WIN_R applies to remaining
Search windows are chosen by RF
engineers and transmitted to the mobile in
messages from the BTS
10 KM
41 chips
2 KM
8 chips
PN200
PN360
360
+41
+8
360+33c
SRCH_WIN_N
What Search Window Settings are Available?
SRCH_WIN_val
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Width, Chips
4 (2)
6 (3)
8 (4)
10 (5)
14 (7)
20 (10)
28 (14)
40 (20)
60 (30)
80 (40)
100 (50)
130 (65)
160 (80)
226 (113)
330 (165)
452 (226)
Search windows can't be set to the exact number
of chips desired; each window can be set to a
value from the list at right
Remember the widths are total and apply with the
mobile's reference at the center.
For example, SRCH_WIN_N = 10 means
when the mobile is checking for neighbor
pilots, it will search a range 100 chips wide,
centered on what it thinks is the reference PN.
The mobile will search from 50 chips
earlier to 50 chips later than the exact PN
it expects to find
Search windows should be wide enough to include
needed signals, but not unnecessarily wide
Grossly over-wide search windows will slow
down the mobiles' overall pilot searching
speed
Search Window Settings: Neighbor Set
Neighbor Search Window
Example
10 KM
41 chips
2 KM
8 chips
PN200
PN360
360
+41
+8
360+33c
SRCH_WIN_N
The neighbor search window must be set
wide enough to include the energy of any
needed neighbor pilot
The mobile at right is using PN200 as its
reference (and only active) pilot
To the mobile, the pilot of neighbor sector
PN360 seems 33 chips late
SRCH_WIN_N must be set to at least 2 x
33 = 66 chips wide so the PN360 pilot can
be noticed by the mobile
The closest search window setting above
66 chips is SRCH_WIN_N = 9, which is 80
chips wide
Active
Sector
Neighbor
Sector
Worst-Case Wide Neighbor Window Situation
BTS A
BTS B
12 miles
1/2
mile
In some terrain, it is possible for a mobile to be very close to one BTS
and far from another BTS, yet need them both in soft handoff
This occurs when local terrain or buildings obstruct the signal of the near
BTS, making it much weaker than normal
The far BTS may have much more favorable conditions, such as an
over-water path
The signals of the two BTSs may seem equally strong!
Almost the entire distance between the BTSs appears as timing skew
If near BTS is reference PN, distant BTS is late this number of chips
If far BTS is reference PN, near BTS is late by this number of chips
Safe Initial Neighbor Search Window Value
Examine a cell map for an area of your system
Identify the farthest-apart pair of cells likely to
be used in soft handoff
Their distance separation determines
maximum timing skew a mobile could ever
possibly encounter in this part of the
system
Calculate the timing skew in chips
6.7 chips times miles or 4.1 chips times
kilometers
Safe required window size = two times the
skew
Refer to table to convert required window size
in chips to required value of SRCH_WIN_N
After thorough drive-test data is available, it
may be possible to reduce SRCH_WIN_N if
observed delay spread is significantly
narrower than the window
Determining Safe
Initial SRCH_WIN_N
Required Window
= 4.1 x 11.5 x 2 = 94.3 chips
SRCH_WIN_N = 10
If locations exist near site A
where mobiles are in handoff with
site F, mobiles could encounter
neighbor pilot timing skews as
large as the A-F distance. If
locked to A, F looks late by this
amount. If locked to F, A looks
early by this amount. Window
must be twice the skew value.
11.5 KM
A
B
C
E
F
D
Search Window Settings: Remaining Set
Remaining set search window size is
determined by maximum possible timing
skew in the same way as for neighbor set
window
Recommended SRCH_WIN_R is one or two
steps greater than SRCH_WIN_N
Remaining set pilots can be requested by the
mobile in a PSMM but the system cannot
assign traffic channels since it uses the
Neighbor Pilot Database as its cross-
reference for identification of their base
stations
There is still value in allowing mobiles to find
and request remaining pilots, since the
requests help system RF engineers identify
missing pilots that should be added to the
neighbor lists of various sectors
11.5 KM
A
B
C
E
F
D
Search Window Initial Settings: Active Set
Neighbor and Remaining search window
centers are indexed against the mobiles
Reference PN
Each active search window is different a
floating window centered over the earliest
observed multipath energy during the previous
mobile searcher scan of that individual pilot
Active search windows need not accommodate
distance-based timing skews they float
centered on their respective pilots!
The only timing variations they must
accommodate are multipath delay spreads
Multipath delay spreads are determined by
terrain and clutter-driven scattering and
reflection of the signal
Measurements are better than predictions to
set SRCH_WIN_A
The earliest arriving multipath
seen by the mobile during this
searcher sweep will be used
as the center of this active
window on the next searcher
sweep! This makes each
active search window "track"
individually with its pilot.
Earliest Detected
Multipath
Active Search Window
40 chips wide (typical)
0 +20 -20
E
c
/
I
o
SRCH_WIN_A Settings from Measurements
Typical active set delay spread from actual drive-tests
Notice the narrow distribution of energy!
28-chip width, SRCH_WIN_A = 6, is enough for this case
Drive-test your own system to determine your own value of spread
It is determined by the signal-scattering characteristics of your terrain
A Special SRCH_WIN_A Consideration
There is a dynamic relationship between mobile reference timing
stability and the active and neighbor search window sizes
The chart above shows which combinations of SRCH_WIN_A
and SRCH_WIN_N are safe and stable for all mobiles
SRCH_WIN_A, Chips
20
10
No
14
No
20
No
28
No
40
No
60
No
28 No No No No No No
40 No No No No Yes No
60 No No No Yes Yes Yes
80 No No No Yes Yes Yes
100 No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
130 Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
S
R
C
H
_
W
I
N
_
N
,

C
h
i
p
s
Active set delay spread is very narrow
can the active search window be set
narrow too?
Mobile reference timing occasionally
jumps due to false early-window
detection of the reference pilot
The Potential for PN Problems and Conflicts
After seeing the skewing effects of propagation, it is easy to
anticipate problems of PN confusion and misidentification!
There are many different kinds of possible PN problems:
Two same-PN base stations with areas of coverage overlap
Mobiles can't distinguish them, experience horrible FER
Combining unintended signals into the handoff mix being heard
The new signals cause interference instead of helping
Mistaken identity of signals when requesting handoff
The wrong base station is added, the mobile can't hear it
Running out of available PNs due to bad parameter choices
Fortunately, these problems can be avoided by careful planning!
PILOT_INC Helps Avoid PN Problems
Imagine a network with base stations spaced
approximately 10 miles apart - this is 1 PN offset!
Recall if we use adjacent PNs for adjacent base
stations, there will be locations where their PNs are
close together or even indistinguishable
It would be smart to assign PNs farther apart!
If properly set, PILOT_INC can prevent this problem
Only PNs divisible by PILOT_INC are allowed to
be assigned to sectors
PILOT_INC can be chosen from 1 to 16
If too small, interfering PNs can be assigned
If too large, the pool of available PNs is small
PILOT_INC is set based on the density of cells
3 or 4 in typical cities with suburban density
2 in dense urban environments
6 or 8 in very rural areas
D
Co-Active PN Demodulation Errors
BTS B
PN 142
BTS A
PN 142
x miles x miles
ACTIVE SEARCH WINDOW
Mobile is midway between two BTSs with the same PN, in a call on BTS A
PN energy of BTS A and B is indistinguishable in active search window
Rake fingers may be assigned to both A and B energy
If the walsh code used on A also happens to be in use by someone on
BTS B, demodulation of B will cause severe FER
The mobile audio will frequently clip and mute, and the call may drop
All the while, the phone will see very good Ec/Io since both A and B
are recognized as good energy!
Solution: Two different BTS covering the same area should never have
the same PN offset. Change the PN offset for one of the sectors involved.
Adjacent-Active-PN Demodulation Errors
BTS B
PN 99
BTS A
PN 100
1 mile 11 miles
ACTIVE SEARCH WINDOW
Mobile is in a call on BTS A from 1 mile away; A is the reference PN
The signal from BTS B on PN 99 travels 11 miles to the mobile and is
approximately as strong as BTS A due to terrain effects
Due to propagation delay, the signal of B is skewed and falls inside the
active search window of the mobile for A
A and B energy are indistinguishable to the mobile
Rake fingers may be assigned to both A and B multipaths
If the walsh code used by the mobile on A also is in use by someone
else on B, the mobile may demodulate their symbols and combine
them with its own symbols from BTS A
This would cause severe FER and possibly a dropped call
Solution: The PNs of the two BTSs are too close together. Use a different
PN offset for BTS B.
Adjacent-Neighbor PN Recognition Errors
BTS A
PN 100
BTS
BTS
m
o
u
n
t
a
i
n
s
BTS
BTS F
PN 200
BTS G
PN 198
X
20 miles
NEIGHBOR SEARCH WINDOW
Mobile is in a call on BTS A, PN 100
Mobile checks neighbor PN 200 to see if handoff needed with BTS F
Energy from distant BTS G on PN 198 is skewed so that it falls in the
neighbor search window for PN 200; mobile asks for handoff with F
The system sets up a traffic channel on BTS F - but mobile hears G!
If the walsh code assigned on F happens also to be in use on G, the mobile
may put a rake finger on it and include it in the mix
Severe FER and a possible dropped call will result!
Solution: Careful RF design to avoid such "pockets" of distant coverage
If signal of G can't be reduced by RF methods, assign it to a different PN
Sector PN Assignments:
Consecutive Assignment
Use only PNs divisible by PILOT_INC.
PILOT_INC is chosen large enough to
prevent aliasing of pilots in adjacent cells
Assign PNs in sequence to the sectors of all
the base stations
Common Usage: This is the typical default
method used in Nortel and Motorola CDMA
networks
Advantage
Simple assignment
When adjacent PNs are observed in the
field, they are known to be from sister
sectors of the same BTS or from nearby
BTSs
4
8
12
16
20
24
28
32
36
40
44
48
52
56
60
64
68
72
76
80
84
88
92
96
100
104
108
112
116
120
Sector PN Assignments:
Segment Assignment
Assign only PNs divisible by PILOT_INC
PILOT_INC is chosen to avoid aliasing
Different ranges of PN values are reserved
First 1/3 of PN offsets for alpha sectors
Second 1/3 of PN offsets for beta sectors
Third 1/3 of PN offsets for gamma sectors
Although 512/3 = 170.666, the value 168 is
usually used for the inter-sector PN increment
Common Usage: default in Lucent networks
Advantage: In the field, interference is
suddenly noticed from PN 468. Quickly, what
is the source of it?
Definitely some cells gamma sector!
4
172
340
8
176
344
12
180
348
16
184
352
20
188
356
24
192
360
28
196
364
32
200
368
36
204
372
40
208
376
1xEV DO Differences
From IS-95 and 1xRTT CDMA
1xEV DO Differences
From IS-95 and 1xRTT CDMA
Whats Different about 1xEV-DO?
BTS
IS-95 AND 1xRTT
Many users simultaneous forward
and reverse traffic channels
W0
W32
W1
W17
W25
W41
W3
W53
PILOT
SYNC
PAGING
F-FCH1
F-FCH2
F-FCH3
F-SCH
F-FCH4
CHANNEL STRUCTURE
IS-95 and 1xRTT
many simultaneous users, each
with steady forward and reverse
traffic channels
transmissions arranged,
requested, confirmed by layer-3
messages with some delay
1xEV-DO
One user at a time TDMA!
users rapidly time-multiplexed,
each receives fair share of
available sector time
preference given to user with ideal
receiving conditions, to maximize
average throughput
transmissions arranged and
requested via steady MAC-layer
walsh streams very immediate!
AN
1xEV-DO AN
(Access Node)
ATs
(Access Terminals)
1xEV-DO Forward Link
PILOT
PAGING
SYNC
Maximum Sector Transmit Power
User 1
2
3
4
5
5
5
6
7
8
time
p
o
w
e
r
IS-95: VARIABLE POWER
TO MAINTAIN USER FER
POWER MANAGEMENT
IS-95 and 1xRTT sectors adjust
each users channel power to
maintain a preset target FER
1xEV-DO IS-856 sectors always
operate at maximum power
sector output is time-
multiplexed, with only one
user served at any instant
The transmission data rate is
set to the maximum speed
the user can receive at that
moment
time
p
o
w
e
r
1xEV-DO: MAX POWER ALWAYS,
DATA RATE OPTIMIZED
NO SOFT HANDOFF
But Virtual Soft Handoff in forward direction, and parallel receiving on
reverse!
Mobile establishes active relationship with as many sectors as it can
use
Mobile chooses packet-by-packet which single sector should transmit
to it
Rate Adaptation
Forward and Reverse Link data rates dynamically adapt to channel
conditions on a near-instantaneous basis
Hybrid ARQ Process
A mobile can opt out of hearing duplicate transmission symbols by
sending an ACK on the special reverse ACK channel, speeding data
Multi-User Diversity Scheduling
The system assigns forward channels to each user when they are
best able to receive, thereby boosting overall throughput
Proportional Fairness
1xEV-DO Modulation
Qualcomm's 1xEV-DO uses special
modulation techniques to provide fast data
transmission on a single 1.25 CDMA carrier
Instead of the IS-95-standard QPSK
modulation, 1xEV-DO can use
16-QAM for very fast data under
favorable conditions
2.4 Mb/s downlink, 153.6 kbps uplink
8-PSK for moderately fast data under fair
conditions
QPSK if conditions are extremely poor
1xEV-DO provides data transmission only,
not circuit-switched voice
1xEV-DO Forward Link Example
1xEV-DO Forward Link Example
1xEV-DO Forward Link: Route Updating
Sector-by-Sector Bursts to AT Rake Receivers
Access Terminal
Rake Receiver
RF
PN Walsh
PN Walsh
PN Walsh
Searcher
PN W=0
user
data
Pilot E
c
/I
o
BTS
BTS
PN Walsh
ONE sector at a time!!
Burst by burst, the Access Terminal asks for transmission from whichever
Active sector it hears best, at the max speed it can successfully use
Frame-by-frame, the Access Terminal uses the combined outputs of the
four traffic correlators (rake fingers)
Each rake finger can be set to any precise PN delay and any walsh code
Fingers can be targeted on delayed multipath reflections
fingers can even be targeted on different BTS, but in 1xEV-DO, only a
single BTS transmits to us, never more than one at a time, so this
capability isnt needed or helpful
1xEV-DO Reverse Link: Soft Handoff
BTS
BTS
Access Terminal
Rake Receiver
RF
PN Walsh
PN Walsh
PN Walsh
Searcher
PN W=0
user
data
Pilot E
c
/I
o
PN Walsh
All Active Set sectors
can listen to the AT
DO-RNC chooses
cleanest packet
The mobile uses the Route Update protocol to frequently update its
preferences of which sectors it wants in its active set
Frame-by-frame, all the sectors in the Active Set listen for the
mobiles signal
Each sector collects what it heard from the mobile, and sends it
back to the DO-RNC.
The DO-RNC uses the best (lowest number of errors) packet
1xEV-DO Route Update Mechanics
Access Terminal
Rake Receiver
RF
PN Walsh
PN Walsh
PN Walsh
Searcher
PN W=0
user
data
Pilot E
c
/I
o
PN Walsh
AP
DO-RNC
AP
Sel.
1xEV-DO Route Update is driven by the Access Terminal
Access Terminal continuously checks available pilots
Access Terminal tells system pilots it currently sees
System puts those sectors in the active set, tells Access Terminal
Access terminal requests a data burst from the sector it likes best
tells which sector and how fast speed using the DRC channel
so there is no Soft Handoff on the forward link, just fast choices
All sectors in Active Set try to hear AT, forward packets to the DO-RNC
so the reverse link does benefit from CDMA soft handoff
Route Update Pilot Management Rules
The Access Terminal considers pilots in sets
Active: sectors who listen and can transmit
Candidates: sectors mobile requested, but
not yet approved by system to be active
Neighbors: pilots told to mobile by system,
as nearby sectors to check
Remaining: any pilots used by system but
not already in the other sets (div. by PILOT_INC)
Access Terminal sends a Route Update
Message to the system whenever:
It transmits on the Access Channel
In idle state, it notices the serving sector is
far from the sector where last updated
In connected state, whenever it notices the
Handoff Parameters suggest a change
6
6
Remaining
Active
Candidate
Neighbor 20
PILOT SETS
A
T

m
u
s
t

s
u
p
p
o
r
t
Pilot
Compare
PilotAdd PilotDrop
PilotDrop
Timer
HANDOFF
PARAMETERS
Dynamic Thresholds?
Softslope
AddIntercept
DropIntercept
NeighborMaxAge
1xEV-DO Active Set and Forward Bursting
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Node
(User
Terminal)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
DO-RNC
NEIGHBOR
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Node
(User
Terminal)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
DO-RNC
NEIGHBOR NEIGHBOR
ACTIVE
NEIGHBOR
NEIGHBOR
NEIGHBOR
Route Update
Build
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Node
(User
Terminal)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
DO-RNC
ACTIVE ACTIVE
ACTIVE
ACTIVE
NEIGHBOR
NEIGHBOR
Build
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Node
(User
Terminal)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
DO-RNC
ACTIVE ACTIVE
ACTIVE
ACTIVE
NEIGHBOR
NEIGHBOR
DRC
Build
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Node
(User
Terminal)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
DO-RNC
ACTIVE ACTIVE
ACTIVE
ACTIVE
NEIGHBOR
NEIGHBOR
Build
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Node
(User
Terminal)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
Access
Point
(AP)
DO-RNC
ACTIVE ACTIVE
ACTIVE
ACTIVE
NEIGHBOR
NEIGHBOR
DRC
1xEV-DO CDMA Forward and
Reverse Channels
1xEV-DO CDMA Forward and
Reverse Channels
1xEV-DO Channels
FORWARD CHANNELS REVERSE CHANNELS
S
e
c
t
o
r

h
a
s

a

S
h
o
r
t

P
N

O
f
f
s
e
t
Access
Point
(BTS)
Pilot
Control
Traffic
MAC
A
c
c
e
s
s
L
o
n
g

P
N

o
f
f
s
e
t
t
P
u
b
l
i
c

o
r

P
r
i
v
a
t
e
L
o
n
g

P
N

o
f
f
s
e
t
t
ACCESS
W
64
W2
64
W0
64
Wx
16
Wx
16
M
A
C
T
R
A
F
F
I
C
Pilot
Data
Pilot
Data
ACK
The 1xEV-DO channels are hybrids
mainly defined by CDMA codes
but with some TDMA-style time multiplexing
The forward link can support separate MAC instances for 59 simultaneous
users at a time
Users take turns getting 2.4 Mbps or whatever speed their
circumstances allow
MAC
Forward
Rev Activity
DRCLock
RPC
DRC
RRI
W4
8
W2
4
W8
16
W0
16
W2
4
W0
16
W0 W4
W1 W5
W2 W6
W3 W7
Basic Operation of the 1xEV-DO Forward Link
All sectors transmit forward pilot bursts
simultaneously
Each AT estimates C/I of active pilots,
predicts C/I and best rate to request for
forward link service
Each slot, the AT reports the requested
rate and sector for transmission via the
DRC channel
The AN schedules transmission of
preamble and data sequentially to each
AT, based on DRC contents
AT monitors preamble and decodes
data after preamble is detected
Reverse power control and other MAC
information for everyone are constantly
multiplexed into each half-slot sent over
the forward channel
BTS
FORWARD CHANNELS
Pilot
Control
Medium
Access
Control
Traffic
DRC Lock
Reverse Activity
Reverse Power Control
ACCESS
NETWORK
ACCESS
TERMINAL
Basic Operation of the 1xEV-DO Reverse Link
REVERSE CHANNELS
Traffic
Pilot
Medium Access Control
Reverse Rate Indicator
Data Rate Control
Access
Pilot
Data
Data
BTS
ACCESS
NETWORK
ACCESS
TERMINAL
When an AT has an air link, the reverse
pilot and MAC channels are transmitted
constantly
Reverse link is power controlled to
achieve reliable BER
Reverse data is transmitted when
available at rate specified in Reverse
MAC protocol
RRI Reverse Rate Indicator is sent over
the MAC channel to help AN decode the
reverse data channel
All the channels are BPSK modulated on
the I or Q carrier to keep the peak-to-
average ratio small
1xEV Network Architecture
1xEV Network Architecture
A Typical CDMA2000 System
Providing 1xRTT Voice, Data, and 1xEV-DO
A Typical CDMA2000 System
Providing ONLY 1xEV-DO
A Typical 1xEV-DO CDMA2000 System
Providing 1xEV-DO Only
The 1xEV-DO Forward Link Slot Structure
DATA
M
A
C
P
I
L
O
T
M
A
C
DATA DATA
M
A
C
P
I
L
O
T
M
A
C
DATA
400 chips 64 96 64 400 chips 400 chips 64 96 64 400 chips
Slot 1024 chips Slot 1024 chips
(16 slots in a 26-2/3 ms. frame)
no DATA no DATA no DATA no DATA
M
A
C
P
I
L
O
T
M
A
C
M
A
C
P
I
L
O
T
M
A
C
400 chips 64 96 64 400 chips 400 chips 64 96 64 400 chips
1 Forward Link Slot = 1-2/3 ms
IDLE
SLOT
ACTIVE
SLOT
Sectors always transmit a pilot on each active Forward 1xEV-DO channel
Pilot is unmodulated BPSK transmitted as bursts 96 chips long every
half slot at full sector power
64-chip idle skirts surround the first pilot burst per idle slot to improve
accuracy
The pilot is used for acquisition, synchronization, demodulation, decoding,
and C/I estimation by all ATs in the serving area
All sectors transmit simultaneously to allow C/I estimation
Burst pilot gives more accurate C/I estimation essential for DRC
generation and Turbo decoding
The Forward MAC Channel
The MAC channel includes RPC,
DRC Lock, and RA channels
RA Reverse Activity Channel
DRC Lock Channel
RPC Reverse Power Control
Channels
BTS
FORWARD CHANNELS
Pilot
Control
Medium
Access
Control
Traffic
DRC Lock
Reverse Activity
Reverse Power Control
ACCESS
NETWORK
ACCESS
TERMINAL
RPC Channel
600 bps, each AT with an assigned air link has an RPC
DRC Lock Channel
tells the AT whether the AN can receive its DRC transmissions
Transmits one DRC Lock bit per DRC slot, 600 bps
RA Channel
Transmits one reverse activity bit per slot, telling ATs if reverse
link loading is too high, requiring rate reduction
A Quick Glimpse of 1xEV-DV
A Quick Glimpse of 1xEV-DV
1x EV-DV: Fast Data and Voice on One Carrier?
Some operators desire to deliver both voice and data on a single
carrier. The 1xEV-DV mode is intended to provide both voice and
fast capability on a single carrier
Peak data rate on a single 1.25 MHz carrier up to 5 Mbps
average data throughput of 1.2 Mbps
backward-compatible with IS-95A/B and CDMA2000 1X
same channel structures, frame sizes, and coding schemes
an 1.25 MHz channel can carry IS-95A/B, 1xRTT and 1xEV-DV
installed base of IS-95A/B and 1X ATs are fully compatible
Demonstrated at the CTIA show in March 2001
high-speed data throughput of 3.2 Mbps using 16-QAM
potential rate of almost 5 Mbps with further enhancements
Development issues are still being studied
Commercial availability is still uncertain
Technical Basics of 1Xtreme
Multiple Walsh Codes can be combined into one wide channel
On an idle cell, up to 14 walsh codes are available and can be
combined into a single large "pipe" for fast data
Maximum data transfer rate up to 4.8 Mbps on the forward link
This multicode combined channel can be time-multiplexed and
shared among multiple users
1Xtreme uses a combination of FEC and ARQ
Forward Error Correction (turbo or convolutional coding)
Makes the signal more resistant to corruption
Automatic Repeat Request Protocols
Corrupted packets are requested to be retransmitted
Corrupted packets are not discarded; they are saved for
combining with the retransmitted packet to improve the
probability of successful decoding by improving SNR
Modulation and Coding Schemes of 1Xtreme
1Xtreme offers eight different
coding schemes
The best scheme for current
channel conditions is
dynamically selected
The AT measures the
conditions and relays its
requested rate to the AP
Scheme
Modulation
Type
Channel
Coding Rate
8 64-QAM 3/4
7 64-QAM 1/2
6 16-QAM 3/4
5 16-QAM 1/2
4 8-PSK 3/4
3 8-PSK 1/2
2 QPSK 3/4
1 QPSK 1/2
1Xtreme Phase Constellations
16-QAM 64-QAM
Dynamic selection of modulation type, coding scheme, and data
rate squeeze the best performance out of each moment
Chapter 9 Section A
Background Material
and Review Topics
Background Material
and Review Topics
April, 2004 RF Engineering 102 v1.5 (c) 2004 Scott Baxter 9 - 1
Chapter 9 Section A
Working in Decibels
Working in Decibels
Example: A Tedious Tale of One Radio Link
Why Use Decibels? For convenience and speed.
Heres an example of why, then well see how.
Q Lets track the power flow
from transmitter to receiver in
the radio link we saw back in
lesson 2. Were going to use
real values that commonly
occur in typical links.
Receiver
Antenna
Antenna
Trans.
Line
Transmitter
Trans.
Line
20 Watts TX output
x 0.50 line efficiency
= 10 watts to antenna
x 20 antenna gain
= 200 watts ERP
x 0.000,000,000,000,000,1585 path attenuation
= 0.000,000,000,000,031,7 watts if intercepted by dipole antenna
x 20 antenna gain
= 0.000,000,000,000,634 watts into line
x 0.50 line efficiency
= 0.000,000,000,000,317 watts to receiver
QDid you enjoy that arithmetic? Lets go back
and do it again, a better and less painful way.
Example: A Much Less Tedious Tale
of that same Radio Link
Lets track the power flow
again, using decibels.
Receiver
Antenna
Antenna
Trans.
Line
Transmitter
Trans.
Line
+43 dBm TX output
-3 dB line efficiency
= +40 dBm to antenna
+13 dB antenna gain
= +53 dBm ERP
-158 dB path attenuation
= -105 dBm if intercepted by dipole antenna
+13 dB antenna gain
= -92 dBm into line
= -95 dBm to receiver
QWasnt that better?! How to do it -- next.
Using Decibels
Q In manual calculation of RF power
levels, unwieldy large and small
numbers occur as a product of
painful multiplication and division.
Q It is popular and much easier to work
in Decibels (dB).
rather than multiply and divide
RF power ratios, in dB we can
just add & subtract
Decibel Examples
Number N dB
1,000,000,000 +90
100,000,000 +80
10,000,000 +70
1,000,000 +60
100,000 +50
10,000 +40
1,000 +30
100 +20
10 +10
4 +6
2 +3
1 0
0.5 -3
0.25 -6
0.1 -10
0.01 -20
0.001 -30
0.0001 -40
0.00001 -50
0.000001 -60
0.0000001 -70
0.00000001 -80
0.000000001 -90
db = 10 * Log ( X )
Ratio to Decibels
X = 10
(db/10)
Decibels to Ratio
Decibels - Relative and Absolute
Q Decibels normally refer to power ratios -- in
other words, the numbers we represent in dB
usually are a ratio of two powers. Examples:
A certain amplifier amplifies its input by a
factor of 1,000. (P
out
/P
in
= 1,000). That
amplifier has 30 dB gain.
A certain transmission line has an efficiency
of only 10 percent. (P
out
/P
in
= 0.1) The
transmission line has a loss of -10 dB.
Q Often decibels are used to express an absolute
number of watts, milliwatts, kilowatts, etc....
When used this way, we always append a letter
(W, m, or K) after db to show the unit were
using. For example,
20 dBK = 50 dBW= 80 dBm = 100,000
watts
0 dBm = 1 milliwatt
1 watt .001 w
x 1000
0 dBm 30 dBm
+30 dB
100 w
+50 dBm
x 0.10
-10 dB
10 w
+40 dBm
Decibels
Two Other Popular Absolute References
-10dB
-20dB
-30dB
-40dB
0 dB
100 300 1000 3000 10000
Frequency, Hz
C-Message Weighting
Q dBrnc: a common telephone noise measurement
db above reference noise, C-weighted
Reference Noise is 1000 Hz. tone at -90 dBm
C-weighting, an arbitrary frequency response,
matches the response best suited for intelligible toll
quality speech
this standard measures through a C-message filter
Q dBu: a common electric field strength expression
dBu is shorthand for dBV/m
decibels above one microvolt per meter field
strength
often we must convert between E-field strength in
dBu and the power recovered by a dipole antenna
bathed in such a field strength:
FS
dBu
= 20 * Log
10
(F
MHZ
) + 75 + Pwr
DBM
Pwr
DBM
= FS
dBu
- 20 * Log
10
(F
MHZ
)-75
Electro-
magnetic
Field
dBV/m
@ F
MHZ
Dipole
Antenna
Pwr
dBm
Decibels referring to Voltage or Current
Q By convention, decibels are based on power ratios. However,
decibels are occasionally used to express to voltage or current
ratios. When doing this, be sure to use these alternate formulas:
db = 20 x Log
10
(V or I) (V or I) = 10 ^
(db/20)
Example: a signal of 4 volts is 6 db. greater than a signal of 2
volts
db = 20 x Log
10
(4/2) = 20 x Log
10
(2) = 20 x 0.3 = 6.0 db
Prefixes for Large and Small Units
Large and small quantities
pop up all over
telecommunications and
the world in general.
We like to work in units we
can easily handle, both
in math and in concept.
So, when large or small
numbers arise, we often
use prefixes to scale
them into something
more comfortable:
Kilometers
Megahertz
Milliwatts
etc....
Summary of Units
Number N x10
y
Prefix
1,000,000,000,000 x10
12
Tera
1,000,000,000 x10
9
Giga-
1,000,000 x10
6
Mega-
1,000 x10
3
Kilo-
100 x10
2
hecto-
10 x10
1
deca-
1 x10
0
0.1 x10
-1
deci-
0.01 x10
-2
centi-
0.001 x10
-3
milli-
0.000001 x10
-6
micro-
0.000000001 x10
-9
nano-
0.000000000001 x10
-12
pico-
0.000000000000001 x10
-15
femto-
Link Budget Models
Q Link Budgets trace power
expenditures along path from
transmitter to receiver
identify maximum allowable path
loss
determine maximum feasible cell
radius
Q Two distinct cases: Uplink, Downlink
No advantage if link range in one
direction exceeds the other
adjust cell power to achieve
uplink/downlink balance
set power on both links as low as
feasible, to reduce interference
Q Link budget model can include
appropriate assumptions for
propagation, geography, other factors
Receiver
Antenna
Antenna
Trans.
Line
Transmitter
Trans.
Line
+43 dBm TX output
= +40 dBm to antenna
+13 dB antenna gain
= +53 dBm ERP
-158 dB path attenuation
= -105 dBm dipole antenna
+13 dB antenna gain
= -92 dBm into line
= -95 dBm to receiver
Uplink
Downlink
Cellular Link Budget Model Example
Source: FWD Path REV Path
Cell TX PO Watts Spec: 45.00 3.00 MS TX PO Watts
Cell TX PO dBM Calc: 46.53 34.77 MS TX PO dBm
Cell Combiner Loss dB Input: -3.00 0.00 MS Combiner Loss db
Cell Cable Loss db Input: -3.00 -2.00 MS Cable Loss db
Cell Antenna Gain dBd Input: 10.00 5.00 MS Antenna Gain dBd
ERP Watts Calc: 113.03 5.99 ERP Watts
ERP dBm Calc: 50.53 37.77 ERP dBm
Max. FWD Path Loss, dB Calc: -169.53 -169.77 Max. REV Path Loss, dB
MS Antenna Gain dBd Calc: 5.00 10.00 Cell Antenna Gain dBd
MS RX Cable Loss Input: -2.00 -3.00 Cell RX Cable Loss
MS Diversity Gain Input: 0.00 4.00 Cell Diversity Gain
MS RX Sensitivity dBM Spec.: -116.00 -121.00 Cell RX Sensitivity dBM
Worst-Case Link Budget Calc: -169.77 0.24 Imbalance, dB
PCS-1900 GSM Link Budget Model Example
TX
RX
TX TX
RX RX
TX
RX
TX TX
RX RX
Source: FWD Path REV Path
Cell TX PO Watts Spec: 16.00 1.00 MS TX PO Watts
Cell TX PO dBM Calc: 42.04 30.00 MS TX PO dBm
Cell Combiner Loss dB Input: -2.00 0.00 MS Combiner Loss db
Cell Cable Loss db Input: -3.00 0.00 MS Cable Loss db
Cell Antenna Gain dBd Input: 16.00 0.00 MS Antenna Gain dBd
ERP Watts Calc: 201.43 1.00 ERP Watts
ERP dBm Calc: 53.04 30.00 ERP dBm
Max. FWD Path Loss, dB Calc: -155.04 -154.00 Max. REV Path Loss, dB
MS Antenna Gain dBd Calc: 0.00 16.00 Cell Antenna Gain dBd
MS RX Cable Loss Input: 0.00 -3.00 Cell RX Cable Loss
MS Diversity Gain Input: 0.00 4.00 Cell Diversity Gain
MS RX Sensitivity dBM Spec.: -102.00 -107.00 Cell RX Sensitivity dBM
Worst-Case Link Budget Calc: -155.04 -1.04 Imbalance, dB
Chapter 9 Section B
Receiver and Transmitter
Characteristics
Receiver and Transmitter
Characteristics
RELEVANT EQUIPMENT CHARACTERISTICS
Q Receiver Performance
Sensitivity
Selectivity
Adjacent Channel Rejection, IF & detection bandwidth
Dynamic Range
Q Transmitter Performance
Power output & accuracy of regulation
Emitted noise spectrum
Modulation percentage, Deviation, Deviation Limiting
Frequency accuracy
SAT conditioning, ST production, QPSK phase accuracy
Superheterodyne Process
RECEIVER TRANSMITTER
Signal Generation
& Modulation
Frequency
Conversion
Frequency
Conversion
Signal Detection,
Processing
INTERMEDIATE
FREQUENCY
IF
INTERMEDIATE
FREQUENCY
IF
RADIO
FREQUENCY
RF
Q The complex waveforms of popular wireless technologies are
generated, detected, and filtered or processed most easily and
precisely at relatively low frequencies
Q Signals can be easily and arbitarily converted from low to high
frequencies & vice-versa
Q Most modern receivers and transmitters therefore perform
frequency conversion to allow processing at lower intermediate
frequencies
Q This architecture is called superheterodyne
Superheterodyne Pitfall: Image Frequencies
TYPICAL DOUBLE-CONVERSION SUPERHETERODYNE RECEIVER
BPF
LNA
~
1st. LOCAL
OSCILLATOR
BPF
1st. IF
Amp.
~
2nd. LOCAL
OSCILLATOR
2nd IF
Amp.
BPF
Detector
& Signal
Processing
1935 (Desired)
1985 (Undesired)
1960
25 MHz.
Example: Desired signal is 1935 MHz. 1st. LO is 1960 MHz. 1st. IF operates on
25 MHz. Undesired signal on 1985 MHz. also mixes with 1960 MHz. to produce
IF signal of 25 MHz., and becomes indistinguishable from desired signal.
Solution: Use a higher first IF frequency, and lower 1st. LO frequency.
Q Although superheterodyne receivers give superior signal
processing performance, they are vulnerable to image frequencies
frequencies of local oscillators and IF amplifiers must be
carefully chosen so that unintended image frequencies will be
excluded from processing
IF frequency and IF bandwidth must be chosen so that the
undesired image is highly attenuated
Limitations of Radio Receivers
Noise Basics
Q The weakest signal detectable is limited by presence of
undesired noise:
Thermal (white) noise
Shot noise
Fluctuation, partition and other causes
Q Characterization by a Noise Figure
Ratio of S/N out to S/N in
Q Limitations of strongest signals, or presence of both weak
and strong signals are due to non-linearities
Inter-modulation (IM), both inside and outside the
receiver
Q IM also produces noise; characterized by Intercept
Points
Sensitivity Limitations of receivers:
Q Thermal white noise is a manifestation of thermal
equilibrium distribution of electromagnetic zero-point wave
energy
electrical resistor (thermal agitation of electrons)
radio antenna coupled to empty space
Q shot noise is a manifestation of movement of discrete
electrons accelerating
What is the sound of a thousand hands clapping? (Zen
and the art of cellular system design!!) Applause is an
audio signal analogous to discrete electron noise.
Q Fluctuation and partition noise result from random
variation of electron streams which divide between several
target electrodes
Quantum Limited Spectral Noise Power
0
0.5
1
1.5
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
1
0
P( ) m
13 1
m
Spectral Power
Density (W/Hz)
kT
P = hf/ (e
hf/kT
-1)
half power freq=
1.3kT/h, approx 8x10
12
Hz
NOTE:smoother graph TBD
=log frequency, or frequency=10
m
900MHzz
2GHzz
Q P is spectral power density in W/Hz. T is absolute Kelvin temperature
(293=room temp, 20 Celsius). k is Boltzmanns constant 1.38x10
-
23
Ws/deg. h is Plancks constant 6.6x10
-34
Ws
2
.
Q For frequencies below 10
11
Hz, we can treat the spectral power density as
a uniform value kT
Ideal Uniform Spectrum Noise
Q Theoretically, noise power is computed by integral of frequency
power filter function with uniform kT, 4.14x10
-21
watts/hertz
density.
Q For practical accuracy, compute thermal noise power as product
of kT and bandwidth. Bandwidth may be derived from half-power
points or other criteria.
System Names BW(kHz) Noise Power(W) Noise Power(dBm)
TACS, SMR 25 1x10-19 -129.8
AMPS, TDMA 30 1.2x10-16 -129.05
GSM, DCS1900 200 8.3x10-16 -120.8
CDMA 1000 4.2x10-15 -113.8*
CDMA figure is broadband for entire composite signal without despreading gain. For
individual user including effects of despreading, the equivalent bandwidth is taken
as the bit rate of the vocoder (14,400 b/s in present-day IS-95 commercial
applications). On this basis, noise power is -132.25 dBm for an individual user
Shot Noise
time
A
m
p
s
Q Shot noise is due to granularity of current flow at weak signal lvels-
- the distinguishable random impacts of individual electrons in
active devices (diodes, transistors, etc.)
Many impacts in random time sequence produce uniform noise
power spectrum, like applause or raindrops
I
n
2
= qIGf, where I
n
is the standard deviation of the shot noise current, q is
1.6x10-19As, the charge of the electron, I is the dc signal current through
an active junction, and G is a factor dependent on geometry of the
structure. f is bandwidth. Note that I
n
is not related to temperature.
Shot noise is a problem for the circuit designer, not the system designer. Its
effect is included in the Noise Figure.
Noise Figure of Receiver
Q The composite effect of all noise generated in the receiver
is expressed by a figure of merit called Noise Figure (NF)
NF of an amplifier, or the entire pre-detection section of
a receiver, is the ratio of Signal/Noise at the output
divided by S/N at the input. Usually expressed in dB.
The input to a receiver is the antenna, and the
assumed noise source there is the kT thermal noise of
space.
Q Example: A 30 kHz bandwidth receiver rated at 7dB NF
has equivalent input noise level of -129+7=-122 dBm.
Minimum analog received signal must be -122+18=-104
dBm for good noise-limited reception. (not -111dBm!)
Neglecting IM, interference or other undesired signals
Chapter 9 Section C
Intermodulation
Intermodulation
Intermodulation
Q Intermodulation (IM) is an effect arising from very strong signals. It
thus relates to the upper end of the dynamic range of signal power
Q IM produces small signals at various frequencies which add to
other sources of system noise and reduce the sensitivity of
receivers. It thus relates to the lower end of the dynamic range of
signal power as well.
Intermodulation
Q Intermod theory
mixing
power amplifier transfer
characteristics of active and
passive devices
third-order intercept point
lab determination of 3rd-
order points, two-tone
testing
effective 3rd. order
points in passive devices
higher-order intercept points
Q Cellular and PCS channelization
characteristics
where we can expect
intermod to affect us
receive bands
transmit bands
f
f
1
f
2
Non-linear device Input Output
f
3f
1
-2f
2
3f
2
-2f
1
f
1
f
2
2f
2
-f
1
2f
1
-f
2
Power transfer characteristics
of typical amplifier or other device
Noise floor
Input power (dBm)
Output
power
(dBm)
Third order
intercept
point
Third order
intermodulation
products
Predicted
power
Intermodulation
Equivalent Conversion Loss
-6 dB.
Q Active intermod
production in transmitters
and receivers
Q Passive Intermod
antenna production
production in other points
of rectification
Q intermod forensics
finding intermod
eliminating intermod
available intermod
prediction software
Effective
Intercept Point
Isolation
BPF Preamp Splitter RX
TX Circ Duplexer Comb
TX Circ Duplexer Comb
Non-linear Effects and Intermodulation
Q Almost everything is slightly (or extremely) non-linear. Only free
space is theoretically a true linear medium. Particularly non-linear are:
all active semiconductor devices
corroded electrical connections, etc.
Q When high RF current levels are present in non-linear devices,
waveform distortion occurs
A distorted (clipped, peaked, etc.) non-sinusoidal waveform is
equivalent to a sum of sine waves of several different frequencies
(Fourier series)
Product waveforms can also occur when two frequencies are
mixed due to the non-linearity
if the nonlinear device characteristics are accurately known
(intercept point, etc.), IM amplitudes can be accurately computed.
If nonlinear device characteristics are unknown, the worst-case
intermod mechanism will have a conversion loss of at least 6 dB.
Modulation vs. Intermodulation
Q When two signals are intentionally combined in a non-
linear device we call the effect modulation
Amplitude modulator, or quad phase modulator
Mixer, down or up convertor in superheterodyne
Q When two (or more) signals are unintentionally combined
in a non-linear device, we call the effect intermodulation (a
pejorative term)
An analogy: Botanists use soil to grow plants. But on your living
room carpet, soil is just dirt.
Q IM signals increase system noise, or cause distinctive
recognizable interference signals
What to do about IM
Q Try to prevent or reduce the amplitude of strong RF signals
reaching receivers in wireless systems
Reduce or eliminate at the source, if feasible (spurious
emissions from electric lamps, signs, elevator motors, etc.)
Shielding, enclosure, modification of antenna directionality to
reduce the penetration of electromagnetic waves
Identify and eliminate secondary non-linear radiators: parallel
metal joints with conductive connections, ground all parts of
metal fences, rain gutters, etc. (also improves lightning
protection)
Conducted RF from wires, etc. entering receiver can be
reduced via low pass or band pass filters, ferrite beads, etc.
Notch filters to remove source RF, or specific harmonics or
products
Chapter 9 Section D
RFI/EMI
RFI/EMI
Interactions between Wireless Sites
and other Communication Systems
Q Antenna Interactions
blocking or shadowing by closely-spaced antennas
pattern distortion due to induced currents & re-radiation
Q EMI/RFI ElectroMagnetic Interference,
Radio Frequency Interference
crosstalk induced in audio circuitry
erratic operation of T1s, data circuits
Q Radio Interference
intermodulation products
externally generated due to high signal levels
generated by receiver overload
generated in unprotected transmitters
spurious products (noise, harmonics)
Q RF Exposure Biological Hazards near other high power sites
Key Parameters of
Communication Systems
System Frequencies Wavelength TX Power ERP
AMPs Cellular Sites
T 869-896 MHz
R 824-841 MHz
13-14 in
33-36 cm
1-60 watts
per carrier
1-300 watts
per carrier
PCS Sites
T 1930-1990 MHz
R 1850-1910 MHz
5.9-6.4 in
15-16 cm
1-45 watts
per carrier
1-1000 watts
per carrier
AM Broadcast 540-1600 kHz
615-1822 ft
187-556 m
250 watts
to 50 kW.
250 watts
to 500 kW.
10 watts
to 40 kW
10 watts
to 100 kW
88 - 108 MHz
9.1-11.2 ft.
2.8-3.4 m.
FM Broadcast
54 - 88 MHz
11.1-18 ft
3.4 - 5.6 m
10 watts
to 50 kW
10 watts
to 100 kW.
VHF TV Broadcast
Channels 2-6
174 - 216 MHz
4.6-5.6 ft
1.4-1.7 m
10 watts
to 100 kW.
10 watts
to 316 kW.
VHF TV Broadcast
Channels 7-13
1.2-2.1 ft
37-64 cm
1 watt
to 1 kW.
10 watts
to 10 kW.
UHFTV Broadcast
Channels 14-69
30 - 50 MHz
152-174 MHz
450-470 MHz
800-900 MHz
Land Mobile,
SMR, ESMR &
Paging
1.2-2.1 ft
37-64 cm
100 watts
to 220 kW.
10 watts
to 5 MW
490 - 800 MHz
and AM Broadcast Stations
Q Broadcaster affected
cellular tower may
intercept and reradiate
enough AM energy to alter
the AM coverage pattern --
especially if broadcaster is
already directional and has
carefully-controlled pattern
shape. FCC will require
cellular operator to correct
Q Wireless system affected
strong signal intercepted
by cell site wiring can
cause audible crosstalk of
radio program on analog
voice circuits, or erratic
operation of T1 & data
circuits
AM
Neutralizing AM Broadcast Re-radiation
by using a Detuning Skirt
Q Best solution: avoid building in the vicinity
of AM antennas
Q Second-best solution:
If AM radial measurements show
excessive reradiation, detune the
cellular structure using a wire skirt
the skirt cancels the reradiation by
carrying a current equal in strength but
opposite in direction to the current
naturally induced in the tower itself
adjustment of tuning components in the
detuning box to obtain cancellation is
very touchy
Skirt height is determined by available
space on tower, or by D from formula:
Detuning
Box
D
Cell Site
Shelter
Earth Ground
Skirt Wires
(at least 3,
spaced evenly
around tower)
Cellular feedlines
insulated
supports
insulated
supports
Cellular
Antennas
Top of skirt
connected to tower
Optimum D in meters and feet:
D
meters
= 60,000 / (AM Freq., kHz.)
D
feet
= 200,000 / (AM Freq., kHz.)
Q L and C in box are chosen for resonance
at AM frequency and tuned to set up
proper current and phase in skirt
L = typically 25 -125 uH @ 6 amps
use non-corroding straps, not
wire or braid, for all connections
make connections to L using
clips to allow very sensitive
adjustment
C = typically 1000 pF to 3000 pF
vacuum-variable best, but $$$;
fixed mica OK - at least 6 kV, 5 A
Q AM field strength meter measures
residual current in tower leg to indicate
degree of cancellation
L and C connections carefully
adjusted to achieve resonance and
then to minimize residual current
Detail of Tuning Box
Tower
Leg
L
C
ough
Insulator
Skirt Wires
Feed-thr
AM Field
Strength
Meter
inductive
coupling
Q Guy wires of the cellular tower
can also re-radiate AM signal!
insulators must be used to
break guy wires into sections
too short to re-radiate
Q Antenna feedlines on the the
cellular tower must be electrically
connected to the tower to avoid
reradiation
at the top of their runs
at the point where they leave
the tower
at intervals of not over 100 ft
(30m) (ignore if inside
monopole)
use grounding kits supplied by
the cable manufacturer
s
Maximum non-radiating length S:
D
meters
= 4,500 / (AM Freq., kHz.)
D
feet
= 15,000 / (AM Freq., kHz.)
Other Detuning Resources
Q Detuning structures to prevent AM re-radiation is quite different
from ordinary cellular and PCS RF practices and can be complex
Q Sometimes it is less expensive to turn to vendors and consultants
in the broadcast industry to resolve difficult problems
advantage: ready availability of parts, materials, kits
advantage: familiarity with design and adjustment techniques
A few vendors and consultants are shown below. Check ads in
broadcast trade and engineering magazines for others.
A Detuning hardware vendor:
Kintronic Laboratories
PO Box 845
Bristol, Tennessee 37615
(615) 878-3141
Fax (615) 878-4224
Skirt kits & components
Detuning network kits, parts
Consultants active in detuning work:
Biby Engineering Service
(Washington DC area)
(703) 558-0505 Fax (703) 558-0523
DuTreil, Lundin & Rackley (FL area)
(813) 366-2611 Fax (813) 366-5533
Eliminating Crosstalk
due to AM Broadcasters
Q Crosstalk occurs when high-
level AM signal is rectified in
sensitive audio circuits
Q AM RF Pickup mechanism:
every incoming wire is an AM
receiving antenna
Q Identify circuits where
interference is present
Identify probable RF
coupling mechanism
Decouple external lines
using L-C networks or
tuned stubs
Use shielded wiring for
sensitive audio and data
circuits between cabinets
Shield sensitive
audio and data
circuits between
cabinets
Decouple circuits
experiencing
interference
Ground antenna
feedlines prior
to building entry
Ground cabinets
and decouple
incoming lines
AC
CSU
Decoupling Methods for AM Crosstalk
AM frequencies: 540-1600 kHz
Wavelengths: 600 - 1800 Feet
Q Incoming circuits are
contaminated with RF
rectification occurs in
first solid-state
junction(s) encountered
Q Lumped L-C circuits
good technique for
analog audio circuits
(voice, modem)
watch out: cant directly
decouple high-bandwidth
circuits (T-1s, etc.)
Q Decoupling stubs
less degradation of
circuit bandwidth: OK
for T-1s
/4 is long! OK to coil
in a convenient location
Affected
Equipment
(Ch Bank, P-3, etc)
No Decoupling
Rectification occurs in
first junction
encountered
RF contamination
Affected
Equipment
Lumped L-C Decoupling
L
C
L
C
RF contamination Clean
Typical values
C = .02 uF L = 2 mH
Affected
Equipment
Decoupling Stub
/4
RF Clean
grounded end
floating end
/4
ft
200,000/Freq
AM kHz
EXAMPLE: 161 FT. @ 1240 kHz
foil-shielded
AM Crosstalk
Additional Techniques for Severe Cases
Q If AM signal is extremely strong
(>1000 mV/m), even ground
wires and cables between
cabinets become contaminated
with RF
Q Shield the entire cell site shelter
using expanded mesh copper
screen
connect all seams and
corners; use metal door and
ground with multiple flexible
braids across hinges
this is best done during
shelter manufacture
dont forget to ground or
decouple every circuit
coming in or out!!
AC
CSU
and FM Broadcast Stations
Q Wireless System Injured
strong FM signal may
overload cellular
receivers, producing
intermod
strong FM signal may
create intermod products
in nearby metal objects
strong FM signal
intercepted by cell site
wiring may cause white
noise or audible crosstalk
of radio programming into
analog voice circuits, and
erratic operation of T-1s
& data circuits
possible long-term
exposure hazard near
high-power FM antennas
FM
Power
T-1
CSU
and TV Broadcast Stations
Q Wireless System Injured
strong TV signal
intercepted by cell site
wiring may cause sync
buzz in analog voice
circuits, erratic operation
of T-1s & data circuits
strong TV signal may
create intermod products
in nearby metal objects
strong TV signal may
overload wireless
receivers, producing
intermod which causes
sync buzz on specific
wireless channels
possible long-term
exposure hazard near
high-power TV antennas
VHF-TV
UHF-TV
Power
T-1
CSU
Eliminating Crosstalk due to
FM and TV Broadcasters
Q Crosstalk occurs when strong FM
or TV RF is rectified in sensitive
circuits
Q TV/FM RF Pickup mechanism:
any short length of wire is a
receiving antenna
grounding of cell cabinets,
etc., has NOTHING to do with
the problem -- a ground
connection only 6 inches long
is a very good antenna!!
Q Identify circuits where interference
is present
Decouple at the affected
equipment, using L-C
networks or tuned stubs
Use shielded wiring for
sensitive audio and data
circuits between cabinets
T-1
Shield sensitive
audio and data
circuits between
cabinets
Decouple circuits
experiencing
interference
CSU
Channel
Bank
Decoupling FM and TV RF
Affected
Equipment
(Ch Bank, P-3, etc)
No Decoupling
Rectification occurs in
first junction
encountered
RF contamination
Affected
Equipment
Lumped L-C Decoupling
L
C
L
C
RF contamination Clean
Typical values
C = 100 pF L = 10
uH
Affected
Equipment
Decoupling Stub
/4
RF Clean
grounded end
floating end
/4
INCHES
2,500/Freq
MHZ
EXAMPLE: 27.5 INCHES. @ 88 MHz.
foil-shielded
Frequencies: 54-806 MHz
Wavelengths: 1.2 - 18 feet
Q How rectification occurs
every circuit
contaminated
rectification occurs in first
solid-state junction(s)
encountered
Q Lumped L-C circuits
parts are very small
apply directly at
terminals of affected
equipment -- do not allow
even a few inches of
exposed wire after
decoupling!!
Q Decoupling stubs
easier to apply than
lumped L-C circuits
FM and TV Interference Crosstalk
Additional Techniques for Severe Cases
Q If the FM/TV signals are
extremely strong or numerous,
shield the entire cell site shelter
using expanded mesh copper
screen
connect all seams and
corners; use metal door and
ground with finger stock
against contacts on door
this is best installed during
shelter manufacture
dont allow any openings
larger than 1/8 wavelength!!
dont forget to ground or
decouple every circuit
coming in or out!!
VHF-TV
UHF-TV
Chapter 9 Section E
RF Safety
RF Safety
Observe RF Exposure Guidelines
Q Although RF radiation is non-
ionizing, and the epidemiological
data is inconclusive, our medical
understanding of RF and any
possible effects is incomplete
Q Avoid RF exposure in excess of
appropriate guidelines
Typical distance to source, D:
UHF-TV: 500 ft.+/-
VHF-TV: 200 ft. +/-
FM: 100 ft. +/-
Cellular/PCS: 5-15 ft.
Q Read and follow the progress of
ongoing research in this field
Q More information is available at
the US website
www.fcc.gov/oet/rfsafety
Cellular
/PCS
UHF-TV D
D
VHF-TV
D
FM D
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
Q Electrical Power, Radio waves for Communication, Microwaves,
Heat, Visible Light, Ultraviolet light, X-rays, and Nuclear radiation
are all part of the electromagnetic spectrum
ELF
fields
Radio
Waves
Infrared Ultra-Violet X-Rays
Cosmic
Rays,
Nuclear
10
5
0 10
12
10
14
10
15
10
17
10
20
10
24
Visible
Light
Frequency,
Hertz
P
o
w
e
r

L
i
n
e
s
R
a
d
i
o
T
e
l
e
v
i
s
i
o
n
C
e
l
l
u
l
a
r
,

P
C
S
M
i
c
r
o
w
a
v
e

O
v
e
n
s
L
a
m
p
s
S
u
n

t
a
n
s
E
l
e
c
t
r
i
c

H
e
a
t
e
r
s
M
e
d
i
c
a
l
,

D
e
n
t
a
l

X
-
R
a
y
s
R
a
d
i
a
t
i
o
n

T
h
e
r
a
p
y
N
u
c
l
e
a
r

R
e
a
c
t
i
o
n
s
M
i
c
r
o
w
a
v
e
s
,

R
a
d
a
r
Non-Ionizing and Ionizing Radiation
10
5
0 10
12
10
14
10
15
10
17
10
20
10
24
ELF
fields
Radio
Waves
Infrared Ultra-Violet X-Rays
Cosmic
Rays,
Nuclear
EME Spectrum: non-ionizing
Ionizing Radiation
Visible
Light
Frequency,
Hertz
Q Electromagnetic energy at frequencies below visible light is non-ionizing
the photons dont contain enough energy to knock electrons out of atoms or
molecules, and no chemical changes are caused
the energy turns into heat if absorbed
the only known effects on living things come from this heat
at power levels defined in FCC standards, the heating is not physically
perceptible -- less than from the light of a flashlight
research is continuing into other possible interaction mechanisms, but no
conclusive links yet seen
Q Electromagnetic energy at frequencies above visible light is ionizing
photons have enough energy to tear electrons from their atoms, creating ions
can cause chemical and biological changes (sun tans and more serious effects)
Cumulative and Non-Cumulative Radiation Effects
Q Effects of non-ionizing radiation are not cumulative
heating is the only known mechanism causing effects
heating at allowed levels causes no changes in tissue
Q Effects of ionizing radiation are cumulative
chemical changes: formation of ions which may eventually
recombine, or may linger as free radicals with potential
biological damage; cells die, and may possibly mutate
January February March April May June July August September October November December
Non-Ionizing Radiation
Ionizing Radiation
PRACTICAL RF HAZARDS
Q RF energy will not shock or electrocute you. However, it is
possible to get a nasty RF Burn by touching RF-energized metal
surfaces. RF current only flows on the surface of a conductor.
Q Most antennas have insulated radomes, so you wont get burns
but dont put your fingers in RF connectors or touch the metal
surfaces of energized antennas
Q Danger of falling, if surprised/startled by an unexpected RF burn
Q DO NOT connect or disconnect RF connectors with power applied!
Q If using Cardiac Pacemakers, Medical Monitoring Equipment, or
other health-related electronic devices, consult your physician
and/or site safety manager before entering any controlled area
Q The standard is designed to protect YOU from these hazards!
Q Following these guidelines will ensure a safe working environment
with RF exposures at safe levels, and avoid the potential for
hazardous exposure.
Guidance on Acceptable RF Exposure
Read and be familiar with the following documents:
OSHA Safety Manual
RF safety chapter in your employee health and safety manual
additional reference documentation should be available in the
H&S manual or from your supervisor
additional company-specific RF material
many individual antenna locations have specific guidelines or
procedures which must be followed
Maximum Permissible Exposure (MPE) Limits
(A) Limits for Occupational/Controlled Exposure
Frequency
Range (MHz)
Electric
Field
Strength
(E) (V/m)
Magnetic
Field
Strength
(H) (A/m)
Power
Density (S)
(mW/cm
2
)
Averaging
Time |E|
2
,
|H|
2
or S
(minutes)
0.3 - 3.0
3.0 - 30
30 - 300
300 - 1500
1500 - 100,000
614
1842/f
61.4
--
--
1.63
4.89/f
0.163
--
--
f = frequency in MHz. *Plane-wave equivalent power density
(100)*
(900/f
2
)*
1.0
f/300
5
6
6
6
6
6
1000
100
10
8
1
0.2
0.1
0.03 0.3
1.34
3 30 300 3000
1500
30,000 300,000
100,000
Figure 1. FCC Limits for Maximum Permissible Exposure (MPE)
Plane-wave Equivalent Power Density
Frequency (MHz)
Occupational/Controlled Exposure
General Population/Uncontrolled Exposure
(B) Limits for General Population/Uncontrolled Exposure
Frequency
Range (MHz)
Electric
Field
Strength
(E) (V/m)
Magnetic
Field
Strength
(H) (A/m)
Power
Density (S)
(mW/cm
2
)
Averaging
Time |E|
2
,
|H|
2
or S
(minutes)
0.3 - 1.34
1.34 - 30
30 - 300
300 - 1500
1500 - 100,000
614
842/f
27.5
--
--
1.63
2.19/f
0.073
--
--
f = frequency in MHz. *Plane-wave equivalent power density
(100)*
(180/f
2
)*
0.2
f/1500
1.0
30
30
30
30
30
FCC OET Bulletin No. 65 gives these MPE
limits for RF energy. Notice the two
different sets of limits.
Occupational/Controlled Exposure limits
apply to workers who know the details of
the RF sources and can intelligently
minimize their exposure by controlling
their work practices.
General Population/Uncontrolled limits
apply to the public at large, which will not
be familiar with the RF sources and thus
cannot take prudent steps to minimize
their exposure. This group gets a larger
measure of protection.
Relative EME Levels
Q The EME MPE values set by the FCC have
been determined after exhaustive research
of all available data on possible ill effects of
RF. They are very conservatively below all
suspected thresholds of harm.
Q Safety limits set are generally 10 to 100
times lower than conditions known to be
potentially hazardous
common exposures can be controlled
to fall well below safety limits
Q Momentary exposure above standard
thresholds is permitted by the standard,
provided average exposure levels are
below the threshold. RF exposure effects
are not cumulative, so averaging is a valid
way to monitor and control exposure.
Industrial Heating Applications
Hazard Threshold
Exposure Standard
ANSI, NCRP Standards
FCC Occupational Limits
Uncontrolled MPE
RF Exposure Surveys
Site Survey to measure
EME exposure as
percentage of MPE
Q Perform on-site survey characterize area
with multiple RF sources
Q Need measurement equipment and
probes which will
measure all frequencies used at site
Microwave to 28 or 38 GHz
Low Band Land Mobile to 30 MHz
AM Broadcast around 1.0 MHz
measures E field for higher
frequencies, and M field for lower
frequencies
passband response shaped to give
proper MPE percentage of exposure
directly
Exposure as Percentage of MPE
Each RF signal at a site must be considered; it contributes a
percentage of your MPE limit. Refer to the MPE graph to
determine the percentage it represents. Your total EME exposure
from all sources must remain below the 100% MPE limit.
1000
100
10
1
0.1
0.3
1.34
3 30 300 3000
1500
30,000 300,000
100,000
FCC Maximum Permissible Exposure (MPE)
Frequency (MHz)
M
w
/
c
m
^
2
44 mw/cm^2 at 100 mw/cm^2 MPE = 44% MPE
2.0 mw/cm^2 at 2.8 mw/cm^2 MPE = 82 % MPE
EXCEEDS 100% MPE EXCEEDS 100% MPE
126 % MPE 126 % MPE
Exposure as Percentage of MPE
examine EME
exposure at a
particular frequency
compute percentage of
MPE limit at that
frequency
add to percentages of
all other operating
frequencies at test
location
if total percentages >
100% = Problem
if total percentages <=
100% = OK
1000
100
10
1
0.1
0.3
1.34
3 30 300 3000
1500
30,000 300,000
100,000
FCC Maximum Permissible Exposure (MPE)
Frequency (MHz)
M
w
/
c
m
^
2
44 mw/cm^2 at 100 mw/cm^2 MPE = 44% MPE
2.0 mw/cm^2 at 2.8 mw/cm^2 MPE = 82 % MPE
EXCEEDS 100% MPE EXCEEDS 100% MPE
126 % MPE 126 % MPE
Tips on Using Personal Safety Monitors
Q Personal Safety Monitors sound an alarm
when EME at their location exceeds MPE
small, can be worn or carried at all times
when working in RF environment
accurately measure total EME level at a
site, from all sources
Can be used as hand-held probes to
locate and avoid hot spots
Q Guidelines for using Personal Safety Monitors:
be sure its turned on and operating
correctly while you work!
be sure to turn it off when you leave!
wear it on your front, at waist or shirt level
keep it between you and the RF sources
be sure you can hear it over local noises!
Tips on using RF Protective Suits
Q RF Protective Suits are shielded
garments which can reduce RF exposure
by a factor of 10 to 100 or more
drawbacks: expensive, somewhat
awkward to wear; easily torn or
damaged; some are hot to wear in
summer months
advantage: allows safe, routine work
in otherwise excessive EME zones
Q Wear your Personal Safety Monitor
inside the suit to alarm when levels
inside exceed the MPE
Q Watch out for tears and damage to suits
when working
Q Inspect each suit at the beginning and
end of each work session
3G Information Resources
Bibliography - Articles - Web Links
3G Information Resources
Bibliography - Articles - Web Links
Bibliography, 3G Air Interface Technologies
3G Wireless Demystified by Lawrence Harte, Richard Levine, and Roman Kitka
488pp. Paperback, 2001 McGraw Hill, ISSBN 0-07-136301-7 $50. For both non-technical and
technical readers. An excellent starting point for understanding all the major technologies and
the whole 3G movement. Comfortable plain-language explanations of all the 2G and 3G air
interfaces, yet including very succinct, complete, and rigorously correct technical details. You
will still want to read books at a deeper technical level in your chosen technology, and may
sometimes turn to the applicable standards for finer details, but this book will give you what you
wont find elsewhere -- how everything relates in the big picture, and probably everything you
care to know about technologies other than your own.
"Wireless Network Evolution 2G to 3G" by Vijay K. Garg. 764pp. 2002 Prentice-Hall, Inc. ISBN 0-
13-028077-1. $80. Excellent technical tutorial and reference. The most complete and
comprehensive technical detail seen in a single text on all these technologies: IS-95 2G CDMA,
CDMA2000 3G CDMA, UMTS/WCDMA, Bluetooth, WLAN standards (802.11a, b, WILAN).
Includes good foundation information on CDMA air interface traffic capacity, CDMA system
design and optimization, and wireless IP operations. Excellent level of operational detail for IS-
95 systems operating today as well as thorough explanations of 2.5G and 3G enhancements.
"3G Wireless Networks" by Clint Smith and Daniel Collins. 622pp. Paperback. 2002 McGraw-Hill,
ISBN 0-07-136381-5. $60. An excellent overview of all 3G technologies coupled with good
detail of network architectures, channel structures, and general operational details. Good
treatment of both CDMA2000 and UMTS/WCDMA systems.
WCDMA: Towards IP Mobility and Mobile Internet by Tero Ojanpera and Ramjee Prasad. 476pp.
2001 Artech House, ISSBN 1-58053-180-6. $100. The most complete and definitive work on
UMTS (excellent CDMA2000, too!). CDMA principles, Mobile Internet, RF Environment &
Design, Air Interface, WCDMA FDD standard, WCDMA TDD, CDMA2000, Performance,
Heirarchical Cell Structures, Implementation, Network Planning, Basic IP Principles, Network
Architectures, Standardization, Future Directions. This is a MUST HAVE for a one-book library!
More Bibliography,
3G Air Interface Technologies
The UMTS Network and Radio Access Technology by Dr. Jonathan P. Castro, 354
pp. 2001 John Wiley, ISBN 0 471 81375 3, $120. An excellent, well-organized, and
understandable exploration of UMTS. Includes radio interface, channel
explanations, link budgets, network architecture, service types, ip network
considerations, a masterful tour de force through the entire subject area. Very
readable, too!
WCDMA for UMTS by Harri Holma and Antti Toskala, 322 pp. 2000 Wiley, ISBN 0
471 72051 8, $60. Very good overall treatment of UMTS. Excellent introduction to
3G and summary of standardization activities, every level of UMTS/UTRA. Good
overview of CDMA-2000, too!
The GSM Network - GPRS Evolution: One Step Towards UMTS 2nd Edition by
Joachim Tisal, 227pp. paperback, 2001 Wiley, ISBN 0 471 49816 5, $60. Readable
but not overwhelming introduction to GSM in all its aspects (140pp), DECT (11pp),
GPRS (6pp), UMTS (7pp), WAP (25pp), EDGE (10pp).
Bibliography, The IP Aspect of 3G
Mobile IP: Design, Principles and Practices by Charles E. Perkins, 275 pp., 200, 1998 Addison-
Wesley, ISBN 0-201-63469-4. $60. Comprehensive view of Mobile IP including home and
foreign agents, advertisement, discovery, registration, datagrams, tunneling, encapsulation,
route optimization, handoffs, firewalls, IPv6, DHCP. Tour-de-force of mobile IP techniques.
Mobile IP Technology for M-Business by Mark Norris, 291 pp., 2001 Artech House, ISSBN 1-
58053-301-9. $67. GPRS overview and background, Mobile IP, Addressing, Routing, M-
business, future prospects, IPv4, IPv6, Bluetooth & IrDA summaries.
TCP/IP Illustrated, Volume 1, The Protocols by W. Richard Stevens, 1994 Addison-Wesley, ISBN-
0-201-63346-9, 576pp., $66. Comprehensive, definitive, and authoritative exposition of each
protocol in modern networking IP, ARP, RARP, ICMP, IP, dynamic routing, UDP,
Broadcasting & multicasting, IGMP, DNS, TFTP, BOOTP, TCP including sections on
connection establishment and termination, interactive data flow, bulk data flow, timeout and
retransmission, all its parameters; SNMP, Telnet, FTP, SMTP, NFS, and much, much more.
Very highly recommended.
TCP/IP Explained by Phillip Miller, 1997 Digital Press, ISBN 1-55558-166-8, 518pp. $50. In-depth
understanding of the Internet protocol suite, network access and link layers, addressing,
subnetting, name/address resolution, routing, error reporting/recovery, network management.
Cisco Networking Academy Program: First-Year Companion Guide edited by Vito Amato, 1999
Cisco Press, ISBN 1-57870-126-0, 438pp. Textbook supporting a year-long course on
networking technologies for aspiring LAN/WAN (and 3G) technicians and engineers. It covers
every popular networking technology (including all its elements and devices) in deep and
practical detail. Excellent real-world understanding of TCP/IP, as well as the nuts-and-bolts of
everything from physical components to protocols to actual devices such as routers, switches,
etc. You might even want to take the evening courses at a local community college near you.
Bibliography - General CDMA
IS-95 CDMA and CDMA2000: Cellular/PCS Systems Implementation by Vijay K. Garg. 422 pp.
2000 Prentice Hall, ISBN 0-13-087112-5, $90. IS-95 and CDMA2000 Access technologies,
DSSS, IS-95 air interface, channels, call processing, power control, signaling, soft handoff,
netw. planning, capacity, data. CDMA2000 layers, channels, coding, comparison w/ WCDMA.
CDMA Systems Engineering Handbook by Jhong Sam Lee and Leonard E. Miller, 1998 Artech
House, ISBN 0-89006-990-5. Excellent treatment of CDMA basics and deeper theory, cell and
system design principles, system performance optimization, capacity issues. Recommended.
CDMA RF System Engineering by Samuel C. Yang, 1998 Artech House, ISBN 0-89006-991-3.
Good general treatment of CDMA capacity considerations from mathematical viewpoint.
CDMA Internetworking: Deploying the Open A-Interface by Low and Schneider. 616 pp. 2000
Prentice Hall, ISBN 0-13-088922-9, $75. A tour-de-force exposition of the networking between
the CDMA BSC, BTS, and mobile, including messaging and protocols of IS-634. Chapters on
SS7, Call Processing, Mobility Management, Supplementary Services, Authentication,
Resource Management (both radio and terrestrial), 3G A-Interface details. One-of-a-kind work!
"CDMA: Principles of Spread Spectrum Communication" by Andrew J. Viterbi. 245 p. Addison-
Wesley 1995. ISBN 0-201-63374-4, $65. Very deep CDMA Theory. Prestige collectors item.
Bibliography - General Wireless
Mobile and Personal Communication Services and Systems by Raj Pandya, 334 pp.
2000 IEEE Press, $60. IEEE order #PC5395, ISBN 0-7803-4708-0. Good technical
overview of AMPS, TACS< NMT, NTT, GSM, IS-136, PDC, IS-95, CT2, DECT,
PACS, PHS, mobile data, wireless LANs, mobile IP, WATM, IMT2000 initiatives by
region, global mobile satellite systems, UPT, numbers and identities, performance
benchmarks.
Wireless Telecom FAQs by Clint Smith, 2001 McGraw Hill, ISBN 0-07-134102-1.
Succint, lucid explanations of telecom terms in both wireless and landline
technologies. Includes cellular architecture, AMPS, GSM, TDMA, iDEN, CDMA.
Very thorough coverage; an excellent reference for new technical people or anyone
wishing for clear explanations of wireless terms.
"Mobile Communications Engineering" 2
nd
. Edition by William C. Y. Lee. 689 pp.
McGraw Hill 1998 $65. ISBN 0-07-037103-2 Lees latest/greatest reference work
on all of wireless; well done.
Bibliography
Wireless Communications Principles & Practice by Theodore S. Rappaport. 641 pp., 10 chapters, 7 appendices.
Prentice-Hall PTR, 1996, ISBN 0-13-375536-3. If you can only buy one book, buy this one. Comprehensive
summary of wireless technologies along with principles of real systems. Includes enough math for
understanding and solving real problems. Good coverage of system design principles.
The Mobile Communications Handbook edited by Jerry D. Gibson. 577 pp., 35 chapters. CRC Press/ IEEE Press
1996, ISBN 0-8493-0573-3. $89 If you can buy only two books, buy this second. Solid foundation of modulation
schemes, digital processing theory, noise, vocoding, forward error correction, excellent full-detailed expositions
of every single wireless technology known today, RF propagation, cell design, traffic engineering. Each chapter
is written by an expert, and well-edited for readability. Clear-language explanations for both engineers and
technicians but also includes detailed mathematics for the research-inclined. Highly recommended.
Digital Communications: Fundamentals and Applications by Bernard Sklar. 771 pp., Prentice Hall, 1988. $74
ISBN# 0-13-211939-0 Excellent in depth treatment of modulation schemes, digital processing theory, noise.
"Communication Electronics" by Louis E. Frenzel, 2nd. Ed., list price $54.95. Glencoe/MacMillan McGraw Hill,
April, 1994, 428 pages hardcover, ISBN 0028018427.
"Wireless Personal Communications Services" by Rajan Kuruppillai. 424 pp., 75 illus., McGraw-Hill # 036077-4, $55
Introduction to major PCS technical standards, system/RF design principles and process, good technical
reference
"Voice and Data Communications Handbook" by Bates and Gregory 699 pp, 360 illus., McGraw-Hill # 05147-X, $65
Good authoritative reference on Wireless, Microwave, ATM, Sonet, ISDN, Video, Fax, LAN/WAN
Bibliography (concluded)
"Spread Spectrum Communications Handbook" by Simon, Omura, Scholtz, and Levitt. 1227 pp., 15 illus., McGraw-
Hill # 057629-7, $99.50 Definitive technical reference on principles of Spread Spectrum including direct
sequence as used in commercial IS-95/JStd008 CDMA. Heavy theory.
"Cellular Radio: Principles and Design" by Raymond C. V. Macario. 215 pp., 142 illus., 044301-7, $50 Good
introduction to RF basics for AMPS and TDMA technologies; but no CDMA coverage.
Applications of CDMA in Wireless/Personal Communications by Garg, Smolik & Wilkes. 360 pp., Prentice Hall,
1997, ISBN 0-13-572157-1 $65. Probably the best CDMA-specific book weve seen. Excellent treatment of IS-
95/JStd. 008 as well as W-CDMA. More than just theoretical text, includes chapters on IS-41 networking, radio
engineering, and practical details of CDMA signalling, voice applications, and data applications.
"CDMA: Principles of Spread Spectrum Communication" by Andrew J. Viterbi. 245 p. Addison-Wesley 1995. ISBN
0-201-63374-4, $65. Definitive CDMA Theory. Valuable but dry reading for mere mortals. Much calculus.
"PCS Network Deployment" by John Tsakalakis. 350 pp, 70 illus., McGraw-Hill #0065342-9, $65 Tops-down view
of the startup process in a PCS network. Includes good traffic section.
"CDPD: An Introduction" by John Agosta. 256 pp, 100 illus, McGraw-Hill # 000600-8, $50. Detailed reference on
how CDPD works in Analog and TDMA systems.
"Cellular System Design & Optimization" by Clint Smith and Curt Gervelis. 448 pp, 110 illus., McG.-Hill #059273-X,
$65 Optimization for conventional cellular systems; implications for PCS but not CDMA-specific.
"The ARRL Handbook for Radio Amateurs (1997)" published by the American Radio Relay League (phone 800-594-
0200). 1100+ page softcopy ($44); useful exposure to nuts-and-bolts practical ideas for the RF-unfamiliar.
Solid treatment of the practical side of theoretical principles such as Ohms law, receiver and transmitter
architecture and performance, basic antennas and transmission lines, and modern circuit devices. Covers
applicable technologies from HF to high microwaves. If you havent had much hands-on experience with real
RF hardware, or havent had a chance to see how the theory you learned in school fits with modern-day
communications equipment, this is valuable exposure to real-world issues. Even includes some spread-
spectrum information in case youre inclined to play and experiment at home. At the very least, this book will
make dealing with hardware more comfortable. At best, it may motivate you to dig deeper into theory as you
explore why things behave as they do.
Web Links and Downloadable Resources
Scott Baxter: http://www.howcdmaworks.com
Latest versions of all courses are downloadable.
Category - Username - Password
Intro - (none required) - (none required)
RF/CDMA/Performance - shannon - hertz
3G - generation - third
Grayson - telecom - allen
Agilent - nitro - viper
Dr. Ernest Simos Space2000: http://www.cdmaonline.com/ and http://www.3Gonline.com/
CDG: http://www.cdg.org (check out the digivents multimedia viewable sessions)
The IS-95 and IS-2000 CDMA trade marketing webside, CDMA cheerleaders.
GSM: http://www.gsmworld.com
The GSM Association website. Worldwide GSM marketing cheerleaders but also includes some
excellent GSM and GPRS technical overview whitepapers and documents; latest user figures.
UWCC: http://www.uwcc.com
The IS-136 TDMA trade marketing website, TDMA cheerleaders.
RCR News: http://www.rcrnews.com
Wireless Industry trade publication - regulatory, technical, business, marketing news.
Subscribers can access text archives of past articles; very handy in researching events.
Wireless Week: http://www.wirelessweek.com
Wireless Industry trade publication - regulatory, technical, business, marketing news.
More Web Links
3GPP: http://www.3gpp.org/
The operators harmonization group concerned mainly with ETSI-related standards
3GPP2: http://www.3gpp2.org/
The operators harmonization group concerned mainly with IS-95-derived CDMA standards
ITU: http://www.itu.int/imt/
ETSI: http://www.etsi.fr/
UMTS forum: http://www.umts-forum.org/
GSM MoU: http://www.gsmworld.com/
TIA: http://www.tiaonline.org/
T1: http://www.t1.org/
ARIB: http://www.arib.or.jp/arib/english/index.html
TTC: http://www.ttc.or.jp/
TTA: http://www.tta.or.kr/
ETRI: http://www.etri.re.kr/
RAST: http://www.rast.etsi.fi/
End of Chapter 9
End of Course

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A Technical Introduction

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Practical Antenna Testing:

April, 2004 RF Engineering 102 v1.5 (c)2004 Scott Baxter 102.5 - 35

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will sweep and display its

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must be calibrated using the OSL method: a reference

Accessories Used In Calibration

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