ART I: CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Education: A Global Survey A. Schooling and Economic Development B. Schooling in India C. Schooling in Japan D.

Schooling in Great Britain E. Schooling in the United States II. The Functions of Schooling A. Socialization B. Cultural Innovation C. Social Integration D. Social Placement E. Latent Functions of Schooling II. Schooling and Social Inequality A. Social Control B. Standardized Testing C. School Tracking D. Inequality Among Schools 1. Public and Private Schools 2. Inequality in Public Schooling E. Access to Higher Education F. Credentialism G. Privilege and Personal Merit II. Problems in the Schools A. Discipline and Violence B. Student Passivity 1. Bureaucracy 2. College: The Silent Classroom B. Dropping Out C. Academic Standards II. Recent Issues in U.S. Education A. School Choice

B. Schooling People with Disabilities C. Adult Education II. Looking Ahead: Schooling in the Twenty-First Century III. Summary IV. Key Concepts V. Critical-Thinking Questions VI. Applications and Exercises VII.Sites to See PART II: LEARNING OBJECTIVES To be able to describe the different roles of education in low-income and high-income countries To compare education in India, Japan, and Great Britain to that provided in the United States To be able to identify and describe the functions of schooling To consider how education supports social inequality To be able to discuss the major issues and problems facing contemporary education in the United States today To be able to identify and evaluate alternatives to the current structure of the institution of education in our society PART III: CHAPTER REVIEW: KEY POINTS Education refers to the social institution guiding a society's transmission of knowledge--including basic facts, job skills, and cultural norms and values--to its members. An important kind of education in industrial societies is schooling, or formal instruction under the direction of specially trained teachers. EDUCATION: A GLOBAL SURVEY Schooling and Economic Development The extent of schooling in any society is closely tied to its level of economic development. In agrarian societies, which make up most of the world, children spend several years in school, but learn mainly the practical knowledge they need to farm or perform other traditional tasks. The study of literature, science, art, and so on is available only to the wealthy. The English word "school" is derived from the Greek word for "leisure." Among low-income countries there is a marked diversity in schooling. One trait in common is limited access to schooling. Illiteracy is a serious problem in these countries. Industrial, high-income societies endorse the idea that everyone

should go to school. Workers require basic reading, writing, and arithmetic skills. Schooling in India India is a low-income society. People there earn about five percent of the income standard in the United States. Earnings from children are often important for families. Most children in India today receive primary education. Typically though, there are twice as many children per classroom as is found in the United States. About half the adult population is illiterate. Patriarchy also shapes Indian education. Girls are seen as a financial liability, because parents must provide a dowry. A daughter's work will benefit her husband's family, so parents typically invest little in their daughter's education. Schooling in Japan In Japan, mandatory education laws began in 1872. The cultural values of tradition and family are stressed in the early grades. In their early teens, students begin to face the rigorous and competitive exams of the Japanese system. Some 90 percent of Japanese students graduate from high school, compared with 82 percent in the U.S. However, only 30 percent go on to college, compared to 65 percent in the U.S. Japanese mothers of schoolage children participate in the labor force at considerably lower rates than mothers in the U.S. in order to focus on the educational success of their children. Schooling in Great Britain Schooling in Great Britain has long been associated with the elite. Traditional social distinctions still exist in England, with many children from wealthy families attending public schools, the equivalent of our private boarding schools. Expansion of the university system during the 1960s and 1970s has allowed all children to compete for Britain's government funded college system. However, graduates of the elite schools of Oxford and Cambridge have considerable economic and political power in Britain. Schooling in the United States Industrial societies embrace the principle of mass education. Mandatory education laws, or legal requirements that children receive a minimum of formal education, began to be enacted in the 1850s. The median number of years of schooling was 8.1 in 1910 and rose to 12.7 in 1996. Democratic ideals have characterized our system, though the ideal of equal opportunity has not been fully achieved. Still, the U.S. has a higher proportion of its population attending college than any other industrialized society. People in the U.S. value practicality, and this fact has influenced the types of studies emphasized in schools. Earlier in this century, John Dewey was the foremost proponent of progressive education. THE FUNCTIONS OF SCHOOLING

Structural-functional analysis focuses our attention on the functions of educational systems have for society. Socialization Education must be a part of the socialization process in order to ensure members become functioning adults. Important lessons on cultural values and norms are learned in schools. Cultural Innovation Education creates as well as transmits culture. Social Integration Through the teaching of certain cultural values and norms, people become more unified. This is a particularly critical function in culturally diverse societies. Social Placement Performance in schools is evaluated on the basis of achievement. Ideally, schooling enhances meritocracy by making personal merit a foundation of future social position. Latent Functions of Schooling Latent functions of schooling include providing child care, and establishing relationships and networks. The structural-functional perspective helps us to see how schools support the operation of an industrialized society. But this perspective neglects to examine how the educational system perpetuates social inequality. SCHOOLING AND SOCIAL INEQUALITY Social Control Social-conflict analysis views schooling as a perpetuation of social stratification. Social control is viewed as an outcome of schooling because youth are socialized to accept the status quo. Standardized Testing The argument is that standardized tests favor children of upper-middle-class backgrounds. The validity of such tests are therefore brought into question. School Tracking Standardized tests are the basis of tracking--the assignment of students to different types of educational programs. The justification for this approach is to give students the kind of learning that fits their abilities and motivation. Jonathan Kozol considers tracking part of the "savage inequalities" in our school system by which society defines some children as winners and others as losers. Inequality Among Schools Public and Private Education In 1996, 86 percent of the 55 million U.S. school-aged children were in public schools. Most students in private schools attend parochial schools run by the Roman Catholic Church. Desegregation policies have caused some parents to place their children in private, more racially homogeneous Christian academies. The highest levels of academic achievement are found among students attending prestigious and expensive preparatory schools.

Inequality in Public Schooling Funds available for public schools vary considerably across the United States. Some school corporations spend more than $8,000 per student annually, while others spend less than $3,000. The 1966 Coleman Report revealed that predominantly minority schools provided inferior education. This report helped initiatebusing policies. Coleman, however, found only a weak relationship between funding and the academic quality of schools. Families and peer groups, and the attitudes of teachers, seemed to be most highly correlated with academic achievement. Access to Higher Education Approximately 65 percent of high school graduates enroll in college. Credentialism Randall Collins refers to the U.S. as a credential society, meaning degrees and diplomas are used as a sign of a person's ability to perform a specialized occupational role. Credentialism, then, amounts to evaluating people on the basis of educational degrees. Socialconflict theorists criticize this as a gatekeeping strategy, arguing credentials often bear little relation to the skills and responsibilities of specific jobs. Privilege and Personal Merit Social-conflict analysis links formal education to inequality by contending that schooling is unequal for different categories of people, resulting in a process whereby schooling transforms social privilege into personal merit. This approach, however, minimizes the value of schooling for both individuals and society as a whole. It underestimates the value of education for individual achievement and upward mobility.
PROBLEMS IN THE SCHOOLS

Discipline and Violence Estimates on the extent of violence against teachers and students in U.S. schools suggests a serious problem exists. Disorder spills into schools from the surrounding society. The keys to overcoming this problem appear to lie in the commitment to children, teaching skills, firm disciplinary policies, and the ability of school officials to enlist the support of parents and the larger community. Student Passivity There is perceived to be a lack of active student participation in the learning process. This is known as student passivity. Bureaucracy Theodore Sizer argues that our bureaucratic structure in schools, while necessary, causes five serious problems. These include:rigid uniformity, numerical ratings, rigid expectations, specialization, and little individual responsibility. Suggested changes in the bureaucratic system include smaller classes, more broadly trained teachers, elimination of rigid class schedules, and basing graduation on what is learned rather than on the amount of time spent in

school. Forty-nine percent of a national sample of adults gave schools the grade of C or below. College: The Silent Classroom Research by David Karp and William Yoels suggests that patterns of interaction in the college classroom tend to be very predictable and involve little student initiative or creative thinking. Martha Gimenez describes this situation as the "silent classroom." Research by Karp and Yoels suggests that student participation can be increased by implementing four teaching strategies: (1) calling students by name when they volunteer, (2) positively reinforcing student participation, (3) asking analytical rather than factual questions, and giving students more time to respond, and (4) asking students' opinions even when they do not volunteer. Dropping Out Dropping out is defined as quitting school before earning a high school diploma. Currently about 11 percent of people aged 16-24 are dropouts. Lack of support by parents, who themselves may have little education, is cited as a key factor related to dropping out. Academic Standards A 1983 report by the National Commission on Excellence in Education entitled A Nation at Risk found that education in the U.S. had deteriorated during the previous decade. This report pointed out lower SAT scores as a major indicator of this decline. Further, it noted the extent of functional illiteracy, or reading and writing skills insufficient for everyday living. The 1983 report recommends more stringent educational requirements, including raising standards, requiring certain courses, keeping students in school until they reach certain levels of achievement, increasing the salaries of teachers, and professional training. RECENT ISSUES IN U.S. EDUCATION School Choice The key issue focused on in this section is making schools more competitive. One alternative to the current system is to provide vouchers to families, allowing them to choose which school their children attend. Another recent development is schooling for profit, or schools that operate as profit-making companies. Finally, charter schools are another recent innovation. These are public schools that operate with less state regulation so teachers and administrators can try out new teaching strategies. High performance standards must be established and achieved as part of the agreement with the state. Schooling People with Disabilities Our educational system requires our society to provide basic educational opportunities for everyone. However, in our bureaucratized system many physically and mentally handicapped children receive little, if any, services. Several obstacles are discussed which make providing educational service to these children difficult.

One recent trend has been toward mainstreaming or integrating special students into the overall educational program. An alternative approach, which works best for the physically impaired students, is termed inclusive education. Such programs are very expensive. The benefits for all students can be tremendous. Adult Education More than 25 million adults are currently enrolled in educational programs. Most are from the middle and upper classes. The motivation for them to return to school is generally work related. LOOKING AHEAD: SCHOOLING IN THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY Our society is struggling with many educational dilemmas which are social problems. Schools alone cannot fix these problems. Further, technology and the Information Revolution are reshaping education.
APPLICATIONS & EXERCISES

Arrange to visit a secondary school near your college or home. Does it have a tracking policy? If so, find out how it works. How much importance does a student's social background have in making a track assignment?

2.

Most people agree that teaching our children is a vital task. Yet most teachers earn relatively low salaries. What can you find out at the library about the average salaries of teachers compared to those of other workers? Can you explain this pattern?