Concepts

[edit] Behavior
Main article: Behavior Behavior is the activity of living organisms. Human behavior is the entire gamut of what people do including thinking and feeling.[27] Behavior can be determined by applying the Dead Man's test: "If a dead man can do it, it ain't behavior. And if a dead man can't do it, then it is behavior"[28] Behavior is that portion of an organism's interaction with its environment that is characterized by detectable displacement in space through time of some part of the organism and that results in a measurable change in at least one aspect of the environment.[29] Often, the term behavior is used to reference a larger class of responses that share physical dimensions or function. In this instance, the term response indicates a single instance of that behavior.[30] If a group of responses have the same function, this group can be classified as a response class. Finally, when discussing a person's collection of behavior, repertoire is used. It can either pertain specifically to a set of response classes that are relevant to a particular situation, or it can refer to every behavior that a person can do. [edit] Operant conditioning Main article: Operant conditioning Operant behavior is that which is selected by its consequences. The conditioning of operant behavior is the result of reinforcement and punishment.[31] Operant conditioning applies to voluntary responses, which an organism performs deliberately, to produce a desirable outcome. The term operant emphasizes this point; the organism operates on its environment to produce some desirable result. For example, operant conditioning is at work when we learn that toiling industriously can bring about a raise or that studying hard results in good grades. [edit] Respondent conditioning Main article: Classical conditioning All organisms respond in predictable ways to certain stimuli. These stimulusresponse relations are called reflexes. The response component of the reflex is called respondent behavior. It is defined as behavior which is elicited by antecedent stimuli. Respondent conditioning (also called classical conditioning) is learning in which new stimuli acquire the ability to elicit respondents. This is done through stimulusstimulus pairing, for example, the stimulus (smell of food) can elicit a person's salivation. By pairing that stimulus (smell) with another stimulus (e.g., a light), the second stimulus can obtain the function of the first stimulus, given that the predictive relationship between the two stimuli is maintained.

[edit] Environment
The environment is the entire constellation of circumstances in which an organism exists.[32] This includes events both inside and outside of an organism, but only real physical events are included. The environment consists of stimuli. A stimulus is an "energy change that affects an organism through its receptor cells."[32] A stimulus can be described:

Formally by its physical features.

Temporally by when they occur in respect to the behavior. Functionally by their effect on behavior.

[edit] Operant reinforcement

Main article: Reinforcement Reinforcement is the most important principle of behavior[33] and a key element of most behavior change programs.[34] It is the process by which behavior is strengthened, if a behavior is followed closely in time by a stimulus and this results in an increase in the future frequency of that behavior. The addition of a stimulus following an event that serves as a reinforcer is termed positive reinforcement. If the removal of an event serves as a reinforcer, this is termed negative reinforcement.[35] There are multiple schedules of reinforcement that affect the future probability of behavior.

[edit] Punishment
Main article: Punishment (psychology) Punishment is a process by which a consequence immediately follows a behavior which decreases the future frequency of that behavior. Like reinforcement, a stimulus can be added (positive punishment) or removed (negative punishment). Broadly, there are three types of punishment: presentation of aversive stimuli, response cost and time out.[36] Punishment in practice can often result in unwanted side effects, and has as such been used only after reinforcement-only procedures have failed to work. Unwanted side effects can include the increase in other unwanted behavior as well as a decrease in desired behaviors.[37] Some other potential unwanted effects include escape and avoidance, emotional behavior, and can result in behavioral contrast.

[edit] Extinction
Main article: Extinction (psychology) Extinction is the technical term to describe the procedure of withholding/discontinuing reinforcement of a previously reinforced behavior, resulting in the decrease of that behavior. The behavior is then set to be extinguished (Cooper, et al.). Extinction procedures are often preferred over punishment procures that are frequently deemed unethical and in many states prohibited. Nonetheless, extinction procedures must be implemented with utmost care by professionals, as they are generally associated with extinction bursts. An extinction burst is the temporary increase in the frequency, intensity, and/or duration of the behavior targeted for extinction. Other characteristics of an extinction burst include a) extinction-produced aggressionthe occurrence of an emotional response to an extinction procedure often manifested as aggression; b) extinction-related resistance assertionthe occurrence of attitudes immune to extinction procedures; and c) extinction-induced response variabilitythe occurrence of novel behaviors that did not typically occur prior to the extinction procedure. These novel behaviors are a core component of shaping procedures.

[edit] Discriminated operant and three-term contingency

In addition to a relation being made between behavior and its consequences, operant conditioning also establishes relations between antecedent conditions and behaviors. This differs from the S-R formulations (If-A-then-B), and replaces it with an AB-because-of-C formulation. In other words, the relation between a behavior (B) and its context (A) is because of consequences (C), more specifically, this relationship between AB because of C indicates that

the relationship is established by prior consequences that have occurred in similar contexts.[38] This antecedentbehaviorconsequence contingency is termed the three-term contingency. A behavior which occurs more frequently in the presence of an antecedent condition than in its absence is called a discriminated operant OD. The antecedent stimulus is called a discriminative stimulus SD. The fact that the discriminated operant occurs only in the presence of the discriminative stimulus is an illustration of stimulus control.[39]

[edit] Verbal Behavior

Main article: Verbal Behavior B.F. Skinner's classification system of behavior analysis has been applied to treatment of a host of communication disorders.[40] Skinner's system includes:

Tact (psychology) stimulus control as it enters the verbal domain Mand (psychology) behavior under control of motivating operations that is directly reinforced by the listener intraverbals verbal behavior under verbal control of others autoclitics (psychology) how tacts tact to other tacts to change effects on the speaker.

For assessment of verbal behavior from Skinner's system see Assessment of Basic Language and Learning Skills.

[edit] Measuring behavior

When measuring behavior, there are both dimensions of behavior and quantifiable measures of behavior. In applied behavior analysis, the quantifiable measures are a derivative of the dimensions. These dimensions are repeatability, temporal extent, and temporal locus.[41]

[edit] Repeatability
Response classes occur repeatedly throughout timei.e. how many times the behavior occurs.

Count is the number of occurrences in behavior. Rate/Frequency is the number of instances of behavior per unit of time. Celeration is the measure of how the rate changes over time.

[edit] Temporal extent

This dimension indicates that each instance of behavior occupies some amount of timei.e. how long the behavior occurs.

Duration is the amount of time in which the behavior occurs.

[edit] Temporal locus

Each instance of behavior occurs at a specific point in timei.e. when the behavior occurs.

Response latency is the measure of elapsed time between the onset of a stimulus and the initiation of the response. Interresponse time is the amount of time that occurs between two consecutive instances of a response class.

[edit] Derivative measures

Derivative measures are unrelated to specific dimensions:

Percentage is the ratio formed by combining the same dimensional quantities. Trials-to-criterion are the number of response opportunities needed to achieve a predetermined level of performance.

[edit] Analyzing behavior change

[edit] Experimental control
In applied behavior analysis, all experiments should include the following:[42]

At least one participant At least one behavior (dependent variable) At least one setting A system for measuring the behavior and ongoing visual analysis of data At least one treatment or intervention condition Manipulations of the independent variable so that its effects on the dependent variable An intervention that will benefit the participant in some way[43]

[edit] Functional analysis (psychology)

Main article: Functional analysis (psychology)

[edit] Functional behavior assessment (FBA)

Functional assessment of behavior provides hypotheses about the relationships between specific environmental events and behaviors. Decades of research has established that both desirable and undesirable behaviors are learned through interactions with the social and physical environment. FBA is used to identify the type and source of reinforcement for challenging behaviors as the basis for intervention efforts designed to decrease the occurrence of these behaviors. [edit] Functions of behavior The function of a behavior can be thought of as the purpose a behavior serves for a person.

All behaviors serve a purpose. Access to attention E.g: Child throws toy in order to get mom's attention. (If this maladaptive behavior results in mom looking at child and giving him lots of attentioneven if she's saying "NO"he will be more likely to engage in the same behavior in the future to get mom's attention)

Problem behaviors can serve the following functions for an individual:

Access to escape E.g: Mom tells the child "Go clean up" and child runs to the kitchen because s/he does not want to complete the task.

Access to automatic reinforcement E.g: Child flaps in order to release some tension s/he is feeling. Access to tangibles (e.g. activities, toys, edibles, etc.) E.g: Child hits mom because s/he wants the toy mom is holding.

Sensory input

We can describe behaviors in various ways such as tantrums, noncompliance, inattention, aggression etc, however all behavior can be classified as serving one or more of the functions above. Function is identified in an FBA by identifying the type and source of reinforcement for the behavior of interest. Those reinforcers might be positive or negative social reinforcers provided by someone who interacts with the person, or automatic reinforcers produced directly by the behavior itself.[44]

Positive reinforcement social positive reinforcement (attention), tangible reinforcement, and automatic positive reinforcement.[44] Negative reinforcement social negative reinforcement (escape), automatic negative reinforcement.[45]

[edit] Function versus topography

Behaviors may look different but can serve the same function and likewise behavior that looks the same may serve multiple functions. What the behavior looks like often reveals little useful information about the conditions that account for it. However, identifying the conditions that account for a behavior, suggests what conditions need to be altered to change the behavior. Therefore, assessment of function of a behavior can yield useful information with respect to intervention strategies that are likely to be effective.[45] [edit] FBA methods FBA methods can be classified into three types: Functional (experimental) analysis Descriptive assessment Indirect assessment

[edit] Functional (experimental) analysis

A functional analysis is one in which antecedents and consequences are manipulated to indicate their separate effects on the behavior of interest. This type of arrangement is often called synthetic because they are not conducted in a naturally occurring context. However, research is indicating that functional analysis done in a natural environment will yield similar or better results.[46] A standard functional analysis normally has four conditions (three test conditions and one control): Contingent attention Contingent escape Alone Control condition

While the above four conditions are the most widely used functional analysis experimental conditions, using the basic methodology of functional analysis (and experimental analysis in general) it is possible to arrange any combination of antecedents and consequences for behavior to determine what effect, if any, they have on a behavior.

Advantages it has the ability to yield a clear demonstration of the variable(s) that relate to the occurrence of a problem behavior. It serves as the standard of scientific evidence by which other assessment alternatives are evaluated. It represents the method most often used in research on the assessment and treatment of problem behavior.[47] Limitations assessment process may temporarily strengthen or increase the undesirable behavior to gravely unacceptable levels or result in the behavior acquiring new unpleasant functions. Some behaviors may neither be amenable to functional analyses (e.g. those that, albeit serious, occur infrequently). Functional analyses conducted in contrived settings may not detect the variable that accounts for the occurrence in the natural environment.

[edit] Indirect FBA

This method uses structured interviews, checklists, rating scales, or questionnaires to obtain information from persons who are familiar with the person exhibiting the behavior to identify possible conditions or events in the natural environment that correlate with the problem behavior. They are called "indirect" because they do not involve direct observation of the behavior, but rather solicit information based on others' recollections of the behavior.[48] Advantages some can provide a useful source of information in guiding subsequent, more objective assessments, and contribute to the development of hypotheses about variables that might occasion or maintain the behaviors of concern. Limitations informants may not have accurate and unbiased recall of behavior and the conditions under which it occurred.

[edit] Descriptive FBA

As with functional analysis, descriptive functional behavior assessment utilizes direct observation of behavior; unlike functional analysis, however, observations are made under naturally occurring conditions. Therefore, descriptive assessments involve observation of the problem behavior in relation to events