Ad Majorem Dei Gloriam ATENEO DE MANILA UNIVERSITY School of Social Sciences Department of Psychology PSY 106: Seminar in Psychology

I: Physiological Psychology Manuel D. Cuenca, Jr., MD, DPBA Brain Structures THE FOREBRAIN - It makes up the largest part of the brain. - It is the most highly developed portion of the brain. A. Telencephalon - It surrounds the lateral ventricle. Cerebrum (Cerebral Hemispheres) - It is the uppermost, largest, most prominent and most (recently) developed structure of the brain. - It is the center of intellect, memory, language and consciousness. - It is responsible for complex mental activities. - It receives and interprets sensory information from all sense organs, processes perceptions and complex thoughts, and controls motor activities. - The advanced intellectual functions of an individual depend upon the activity of the cerebrum and its interaction with other portions of the nervous system. - It is involved in many aspects of memory storage and recall and in most higher cognitive functions. - It is necessary for the comprehension and execution of language and for certain special talents such as musical and mathematical abilities. - It is through this structure that an individual is able to become aware of the environment and perceive its qualities by means of the senses. - It makes learning possible since it can store and retrieve images of past sensory experience - Its thin surrounding outer layer is an area of gray matter (nerve cell bodies or unmyelinated fibers) called the cerebral cortex (bark) and beneath the cerebral cortex is an area of white matter composed mostly of myelinated fibers. - Its surface is thrown into numerous folds or convolutions called gyri (or gyrus) which greatly enlarge the surface area of the cerebrum. - It has an area of approximately 2.5 square feet, but only a third of this is found on the free surface. - Between two gyri is a canal (groove) called sulcus/sulci (small, shallow) or fissure (large, deep). - It is thickest over the crest of a convolution, thinnest in the depth of a sulcus, and contains an estimated 14 billion neurons. - It is divided into two hemispheres (right and left) by the longitudinal fissure. - The corpus callosum is an enormous communication network and the largest band of commissural fibers that connect the two cerebral hemispheres - A commissural fiber is a nerve fiber that goes to the opposite side of the brain and spinal cord. - The two cerebral hemispheres do not perform identical functions, but they cooperate' and communicate with each other. - left hemisphere: analysis of information; language and mathematical tasks; logical and verbal activities such as talking, understanding the speech of other people, reading and writing; good at recognizing and controlling serial events and behaviors - right hemisphere: synthesis of information; perceptual and spatial tasks (spatial construction and pattern sense); abstract, artistic and musical tasks; ability to draw sketches, read maps, construct complex objects out of smaller elements; expression (perceiving and expressing emotions); body language; facial recognition; non-verbal ideation; can only understand very simple language but cannot communicate through speech - It consists of frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital lobes which have sensory, motor and association areas. (see Cortical Areas)

The frontal lobe is separated from the parietal lobe by the central fissure (fissure of Rolando). The temporal lobe is separated from the fronto-parietal lobes by the lateral fissure (Sylvian fissure). The parietal lobe is separated from the occipital lobe by the parieto-occipital sulcus. It is separated from the cerebellum by the transverse fissure.

*The temporal lobe is regarded as the center for memory. Acetylcholine-producing neurons found abundant in the temporal lobe form synaptic connections with cortical association areas and the hippocampus (a structure which plays a crucial role in memory). In Alzheimers disease, a disorder which leads to degenerative changes in the brain, the acetylcholine-producing neurons are damaged causing memory impairment. The frontal lobe also appears to be involved in planning and judgment, ability to adapt to new situations (flexibility of behavior) and in personality. In some frontal lobe damage, patients may manifest personality changes such as impulsive behavior, sexual promiscuity, and the use of obscene language. *The parietal lobe is concerned with the integration of complex sensorial information like recognizing a particular stimulus perceived through the sense of touch only. CORTICAL AREAS - The cerebrum is responsible for the qualities that an individual human person cherishes ability to reason, communicate by language, create poetry and art, and invent machines such as computers and artificial hearts. - For convenience, the functions performed by the cerebrum can be divided into three categories. - sensory functions - The cerebrum receives sensory information from the eyes, ears, touch and pressure receptors and other sense organs and then interprets these messages so that the individual is (at least) aware of what he is seeing, hearing, tasting, smelling or feeling. - These functions are carried out by areas of the cerebrum known as sensory areas. - motor functions - The motor areas of the cerebrum are responsible for all voluntary movements and for some involuntary movements. - association functions - Association is a term used to describe all of the intellectual activities of the cerebrum. - These include learning, analyzing, planning, perceiving, thinking (thought) and reasoning (judgment), memory storage and recall, language abilities, and even consciousness and personality. - Association areas also link sensory with motor areas. Primary Motor Cortex / Area - It is located in the frontal lobes and lies just before the central fissure (precentral gyrus). - It covers Brodmann area 4. - It is directly involved in the control and execution of voluntary movements (or behavior) of the body in a contralateral manner (keyboard of the piano). - There is an upside-down representation of the body in the motor center -- movements of the face and hands are controlled by the lower half of the motor area while the trunk and hip are controlled by the upper half . - Damage to certain part of the motor cortex would result to impaired movement of specific body part. Primary Somatosensory Cortex / Area - It is located in the parietal lobes and lies just after the central fissure (postcentral gyrus). - It covers Brodmann areas 1,2, 3. - It receives information from the sensory receptors in the skin and joints (body senses). - Sensory signals conveying touch, pressure, pain, thermal sense, and sense of body movements are all contralaterally represented and brought to this area. Primary Visual Cortex / Area - It is located at the back portion of the occipital lobes (Calcarine fissure spur shaped). - It covers Brodmann area 17. - It receives visual information from the sensory organs (eyes) via the cranial nerve and thalamus. - visual system: eyes (photoreceptors) -> cranial nerve > thalamus > primary visual area

Primary Auditory Cortex / Area - It is located near the lateral fissure in the temporal lobes (temple) (transverse gyri of Heschl). - It covers Brodmann areas 41,42. - It receives auditory information from the sensory organs (ears). - It is involved in temporal patterning of sound. *With the exception of olfaction, sensory information from the body or the environment is sent to the primary sensory areas of the contralateral hemisphere. Thus, the primary somatosensory cortex of the left hemisphere learns what the right hand is holding and the left primary visual cortex learns what is happening towards the persons right, and so on. *The amount of somatosensory or motor area associated with a particular part of the body is directly related to its sensitivity and use (sensory and motor homonculus). The largest area represents the face, hands and fingers where precise localization is most important. Association Cortex / Areas (motor, somatosensory, visual, auditory association areas) - They are very much involved in higher mental functions such as perceiving, remembering, learning, thinking, analyzing, planning, and the production and comprehension of spoken and written language. - They integrate and analyze information and signals. - motor association cortex / areas - It is located in the frontal lobes, before the precentral gyrus. - It covers Brodmann area 6 (premotor cortex / supplementary motorcortex), 8 and 44. - It is responsible for generating strategies and plans for movement (player of the piano). - It is involved in mental rehearsal of movement. - It controls the primary motor cortex and directly controls behavior. - Brocas area (Broadmann area 44): necessary for normal speech production - Brocas aphasia: a form of aphasia characterized by agrammatism, anomia and extreme difficulty in speech articulation - agrammatism: one of the usual symptoms of Brocas aphasia; a difficulty in comprehending or properly employing grammatical devices, such as verb endings and word order - anomia: difficulty in finding (remembering) the appropriate word to describe an object, action, or attribute; one of the symptoms of aphasia - somatosensory association cortex / areas - It is located in the parietal lobes, after the postcentral gyrus. - It covers Brodmann areas 9, 10, 11. - It analyzes and integrates somatosensory information received from other areas of the cerebrum (primary somatosensory area) and thalamus. - It is where perception takes place and memories are stored. - It is through this integration process that an individual not only becomes aware of himself in relation to his environment, but he is also able to interpret characteristics of objects that he feels with his hands. - visual association cortex / areas - It is located in the occipital and temporal lobes. - It covers Brodmann areas 18, 19. - It is involved in visual perception. - It is responsible for recognizing and discriminating different forms. - auditory association cortex / areas - It is located in the temporal lobes (superior temporal gyrus). - It covers Brodmann area 22. - It is involved in auditory perception. - It is responsible for recognizing and discriminating different sounds. - Wernickes area: important in the comprehension of words and the production of meaningful speech (speech comprehension) - Wernickes aphasia: a form of aphasia characterized by poor speech comprehension and fluent but meaningless speech *Damage to primary areas? Damage to association areas? Implications? *Phylogenetically, the neocortex which include the primary and association areas is the newest cortex.

Limbic System - It consists of related structures that control emotions, motivation, learning and memory. - It is a group of brain regions that includes the anterior thalamic nuclei, amygdala, hippocampus, limbic cortex, parts of the hypothalamus, interconnecting fiber bundles, fornix and mammillary bodies. - It is the link between emotion and cognitive (thought) processes. - It is closely interconnected with the hypothalamus and appears to exert additional control over some of the instinctive behaviors already under the regulation of the hypothalamus and the brainstem - It seems to inhibit some of the instinctive patterns, allowing the organism to be more flexible and adaptive to changes in the environment. Limbic Cortex - It is another form of cerebral cortex that is located around the medial edge of the cerebral hemispheres (limbus means border). - The cingulated gyrus is a strip of limbic cortex lying along the lateral walls of the groove separating the cerebral hemispheres, just above the corpus callosum. Hippocampus - It is a sea-horse structure that lies between the thalamus and cerebrum. - It is connected to the amygdala. - It is associated with the temporal lobes. - It is larger in humans than in any other species. - It has a crucial role in memory and learning (gateway to memory). - It is critical for the storage of new events or information as lasting memories. - Damage or lesion may result to problems in remembering new information, but no difficulty, for example, in recognizing old friends or recalling earlier experiences. - Research on a patient with unrelenting and uncontrollable seizures (epilepsy): hippocampus and parts of amygdala were removed producing severe memory problems -- short term memory only. Amygdala - It is a round or almond-shaped structure located at the lower end of the hippocampus and at the base of the temporal lobe. - It is involved in arousal and is responsible for the regulation of emotions. - It is concerned with the control of appetitive, sexual, aggressive and anxiety-related behaviors (emotional behaviors). - It appears to be important in fear responses. - It plays a role in the association of memories formed in different senses. - It evaluates sensory information and quickly determines its emotional importance or attaches emotional significance to it (storehouse of emotional memories). e.g. if you meet a former classmate in a party, you recognize him/her -- this is the work of the hippocampus; at the same time, you remember that this is your classmate whom you hate because he/she is the cause of your greatest frustrations in life -- this emotional memory is the responsibility of the amygdala Hypothalamus - It is also part of the limbic system. - It is the pleasure center of the brain. Basal Ganglia - It is a set of structures within the white matter of the cerebrum, near the thalamus and hypothalamus. - It is a collection of subcortical nuclei. - Its major parts are the caudate nucleus, putamen and globus pallidus. (nucleus with a tail, shell, pale globe) - The caudate nucleus and putamen make up the striatum. - The putamen and globus pallidus make up the lenticular nucleus. - The striatum and lenticular nucleus make up the corpus striatum. - The corpus striatum and claustrum make up the basal ganglia.

It is involved with motor functions. - It plays an important role in the control of movement by modulating thalamic outflow to the motor cortex to plan and execute smooth movements. Damage or lesion may result to changes in muscle tone, inability to maintain postural support (damage to the lenticular nucleus), wild flinging movements (hemiballismus), quick, continuous and uncontrollable movements seen in Huntingtons disease (damage to the striatum), and abnormal movements seen in Parkinsons disease - Parkinsons disease is caused by degeneration and destruction of certain neurons (dopaminergic neurons) located in the midbrain (substantia nigra) that send axons to the caudate nucleus and putamen, and then to the globus pallidus. (review Huntingtons disease and Parkinsons disease) (see also midbrain, cerebellum and motor cortex)

B. Diencephalon - It surrounds the third ventricle. - It is called the interbrain. - It is the uppermost part of the brainstem. - It is situated between the telencephalon (cerebrum) and mesencephalon (minbrain). Thalamus - Thalamus means inner chamber. - It is the largest portion of the diencephalons. - It consists of two oval masses, one located on each side of the third ventricle, that direct information to and from the cerebrum. - It has two lobes which are connected by massa intermedia. - It acts as the last main relay station and integrative center (traffic officer) between the spinal cord and cerebrum. - It is a collection of projection fibers (sets of axons that arise from cell bodies located in one region of the brain and synapse on neurons located within another region) and contains many important nuclei (groups of neurons of similar shape) that directs and connects incoming sensory impulses, information or stimuli from the sense receptors for vision, auditory, touch and taste to specific and proper locations of the cerebrum (e.g. sight of a sunset sends signals that the thalamus directs to a vision area; at the sound of a guitar, signals are sent by the thalamus to auditory area). - Sensory or afferent neurons coming from the sense organs synapse within these thalamic nuclei. - Neural messages arriving from these sensory or afferent neurons are sent on into the cerebrum. - sensory systems / organs information thalamus (thalamic nuclei) neural input specific sensory projection areas of the cerebrum - lateral geniculate nucleus receives information from the eyes and projects to the primary visual cortex - medial geniculate nucleus receives information from the ears and projects to the primary auditory cortex - ventrolateral nucleus receives information from the cerebellum and projects to the primary motor cortex - It regulates and control the excitability of the cerebrum. - It modifies, interprets and translates many types of sensory information or afferent impulses. - It is bypassed by sense of smell which has its own switching station, the olfactory bulb. - It facilitates or suppresses motor control of the cerebrum. - Many motor or efferent neurons carrying messages from the cerebrum also synapse within the thalamic nuclei. - It is involved in emotional tone and in the regulation of pain and burning temperature. Hypothalamus - It lies just below the thalamus and contains many nuclei that play a major role in the regulation of basic biological drives (4 Fs) and control of autonomic functions, including the bodys biological clock and rhythms. - It modulates and organizes behaviors related to survival of species. - It is a small but mighty part of the brain that helps regulate an impressive number of mechanisms essential to maintaining homeostasis.

It is involved in the regulation of sleep and wakefulness. It regulates the pituitary gland and links the nervous and endocrine systems. - It produces several releasing hormones that regulate the secretion of hormones from the anterior pituitary gland. - hypothalamus (neurosecretory cells) blood vessels anterior pituitary gland - It manufactures antidiuretic hormone (ADH or vasopressin) and oxytocin which are stored in the posterior pituitary gland and are released from it when needed. - hypothalamus axoplasmic transport posterior pituitary gland It contains centers for control of body temperature, appetite (eating behavior) and water balance (drinking behavior). - It regulates body temperature (e.g. triggers sweating and shivering). - Its appetite (hunger) and satiety (fullness) centers regulate food intake. - ventromedial nucleus satiety center - lateral hypothalamic area hunger / feeding center - It helps maintain fluid balance. - Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) produced by its cells regulates the volume of water excreted by the kidneys. - A thirst center informs the individual when fluid is needed. It helps control the autonomic nervous system. - It is the most important relay station between the cerebrum and the lower autonomic centers. - It is sometimes called the control center of the autonomic nervous system. - It serves as an important link between mind (cerebrum) and body (physiological mechanisms) (e.g. stimulation of certain areas in the hypothalamus results in a decrease in heart rate). It is involved in some emotional and sexual responses. - It influences sexual behavior and the affective (emotional) aspects of sensory input. - Its centers help the individual decide whether something is pleasant or painful. It plays a significant role in the regulation of responses to stress-producing or emotion-provoking situations (fight-flight responses) by mobilizing the body for proper action.

THE MIDBRAIN - It relays information between the spinal cord and forebrain. A. Mesencephalon - It surrounds the cerebral aqueduct which connects the third and fourth ventricles. - It is the shortest, smallest, least differentiated structure of the brainstem. - It lies just superior to the pons and extends from the pons to the diencephalons. - It consists of large bundles of neurons connecting the cerebrum with lower portions of the brain and with the spinal cord. - It contains the nuclei of CN III and IV. - It consists of two major parts: the tectum and the tegmentum. Tectum - It is the roof or the dorsal portion of the mesencephalon. - It contains relay centers for visual and auditory systems (reflex centers that regulates visual and auditory reflexes) (e.g. constriction of pupil in response to light). - superior colliculi part of the visual system - inferior colliculi part of the auditory system Tegmentum - It is the covering or the ventral portion of the mesencephalon. - It includes the rostral end of the reticular formation, several nuclei controlling eye movements, periaqueductal gray matter, red nucleus, substantia nigra and ventral tegmental area. Reticular Formation (Reticular Activating System) - It is a vast complex of gray and white matter (many nuclei) that extends from the spinal cord through the medulla and upward through the thalamus. - It is a diffuse interconnected network of neurons with complex dendritic and axonal processes.

It modulates the activity of neurons throughout the CNS. It monitors the general level of activity and maintains a state of arousal or alertness. It is essential for the control and regulation of sleep and wakefulness. It is a small net that acts as a filter, allowing some sensory messages to pass and reach the cerebrum (to conscious awareness) while preventing or blocking others, thus enabling the individual to focus his attention to a particular stimuli (e.g. attention when name is heard amidst cafeteria noise). It occupies the core of the brainstem. - Within the reticular formation of the medulla are several vital reflex centers (see medulla oblongata and pons) - cardiac center controls heart rate - vasomotor center helps regulate blood pressure by controlling the diameter of the blood vessel - respiratory center initiates and regulates breathing - centers for other reflex actions such as vomiting, sneezing, coughing and swallowing It is involved in movement and muscle tone. It helps higher brain centers integrate information from different neural pathways. The upper portion of the reticular formation is located in the midbrain. The lower portion of the reticular formation is located in the hindbrain (medulla oblongata and pons).

Periaqueductal Gray Matter - It is the region of the midbrain surrounding the cerebral aqueduct. - It controls sequences of movements that constitute species-typical behaviors (e.g. fighting and mating). - Opiates such as morphine decrease an organisms sensitivity to pain by stimulating receptors on neurons located in this region. Red Nucleus - It is an important component of the motor system. - It receives inputs or motor information from the cerebellum and motor cortex and brings or sends this information to motor neurons in the spinal cord. Substantia Nigra - It is an important component of the motor system. - It is a darkly stained region of the tegmentum that contains neurons that communicate with the caudate nucleus and putamen in the basal ganglia. - Some of the neurons in the midbrain contain melanin pigment, while others synthesize neurotransmitter dopamine. - Too much dopamine at the synapse can cause schizophrenia; shortage can result to Parkinsons disease which is characterized by weakness, tremors, lead-pipe rigidity, poor balance (shuffling gait), difficulty in initiating movements, reduced voluntary movements, stooped posture with loss of arm swing when walking, masked face and slurred speech (e.g. Muhammad Alis doctors suspect that in Alis brain, dopamine depletion resulted from repeated blows to the head sustained during his long boxing career).

THE HINDBRAIN - It surrounds the fourth ventricle. - It is located in the bottom portion of the brain and is an extension of the spinal cord. - In evolutionary terms, it is the oldest portion of the brain. A. Metencephalon Cerebellum - It is called the little brain (size of a small fist) and is the second largest part of the brain. - It is the convoluted structure located at the rear of the brain consisting of two lateral masses called hemispheres and a connecting portion. - Its outer layer, called the cerebellar cortex, consists of gray matter; while beneath it, it is composed mainly of white matter. - It has a deep cerebellar nuclei that receive projections from the cerebellar cortex and themselves send projections out of the cerebellum to other parts of the brain.

The cerebellar peduncles (superior, middle and inferior) attach each cerebellar hemisphere to the dorsal pons. It is responsible for the coordination of movements and learning motor skills (central control of movement). - It helps make movements smooth instead of jerky and steady rather than trembling. - e.g. It helps a ballerina or pianist make smooth and precise movements; it helps an individual properly use a pencil, thread a needle, ride a bike, drive a car, and learn or remember some kinds of motor skills. - It helps maintain muscle tone and thus posture. - It helps maintain equilibrium (sense of balance). - It receives visual, auditory, vestibular and somatosensory information and information about individual muscle movement being directed by the brain. - It integrates these information and modifies the motor outflow, exerting a coordinating and smoothing effect on movements. - vestibulocerebellum control of balance and eye movements - pontocerebellum planning and initiation of movement - spinocerebellum synergy and control of rate forces, range and direction of movement When it is damaged, movements essential in running, walking, writing, talking and many other activities become uncoordinated; extensive cerebellar damage makes it impossible even to stand. - Cerebellar damage or lesion can result to speech disturbances (slow, monotonous and some words are uttered in an explosive manner), gait disturbances, awkward posture and ataxia (lack of coordination) such as delay in initiation of movements, poor execution of a sequence of movements, inability to perform rapid alternating movements (dysdiadochokinesia), intention tremors during attempt to perform voluntary movements, and inability to stop a movement (rebound phenomenon) - Its functions may be disrupted through alcohol intoxication (drunken gait, slurred speech, dysmetria or pass-pointing as seen in finger to nose test for drunk drivers). - It helps control and coordinate higher mental functioning (language, planning and memory) much as it does in ensuring the dexterity of body movements.

Pons - It forms a bulge on the anterior surface of the brainstem. - It is just superior to the medulla oblongata with which it is continuous and posterior surface is hidden by the cerebellum. - It lies between the medulla oblongata and mesencephalon (midbrain). - It is a bridge and serves as a link connecting various parts of the brain. - It consists mainly of nerve tracts passing between the medulla and other parts of the brain. - It relays information from the cerebral cortex to the cerebellum. - It contains portions of the reticular formation (e.g. sleep, arousal, waking, dreaming). - It contains respiratory center which helps regulate respiration and centers for reflexes mediated by CN V-VII (see reticular formation). - It helps regulate sensory information and facial expressions. B. Myelencephalon Medulla Oblongata - It is an oblong marrow. - It is the most inferior and caudal portion of the brainstem. - It is continuous with the spinal cord. th - It is associated with the 4 ventricle which is continuous with the central canal of the spinal cord. - Its white matter consists of nerve tracts passing between the spinal cord and various parts of the brain. - Because of its position, all nerve tracts carrying and relaying messages from the spinal cord to the brain must pass through the medulla and all the motor tracts transmitting messages back from the decisionmaking parts of the brain pass through the medulla. - Within the medulla, most of the motor fibers cross; this is why the right side of the brain controls the movement of the left side of the body and vice-versa; likewise, sensation experienced on the right side of the body is transmitted to the left side of the brain (contralateral). - Its gray matter consists of nuclei or group of cell bodies of CN IX-XII (originate from it).

It contains some parts of the reticular formation (see reticular formation) - Within the reticular formation, it contains vital centers that regulate heartbeat, respiration and blood pressure. - Within the reticular formation, it contains reflex centers that control swallowing, coughing, sneezing and vomiting. Hanging has long been used as a method of execution because when it breaks the neck, nervous pathways from the medulla are severed, stopping respiration. It plays a role in movement control (skeletal muscle tone).

*Brainstem - It is a tapered, 3-inch long segment at the base of the skull. - It is like a stalk rising out of the spinal cord. - It is a pathway to and from upper areas of the brain. - It handles vital life-support duties. - It is involved in postural control. - It is the oldest part of the brain. - From here emerge 10 of the bodys 12 cranial nerves which spread to the hands, neck and torso, activating glands and retrieving a wealth of sensory information. - It consists of the following: mesencephalon (midbrain) metencephalon (pons with cerebellum excluded) myelencephalon (medulla oblongata) diencephalon (thalamus) sometimes considered part of the brainstem supratentorial diencephalon infratentorial midbrain, pons and medulla

Anatomical Subdivisions of the Brain Telencephalon Forebrain Thalamus Diencephalon (interbrain) Hypothalamus Tectum Midbrain Mesencephalon (middlebrain) Tegmentum (endbrain) Cerebrum (Cerebral Cortex) Basal Ganglia Limbic System

Cerebellum Metencephalon Hindbrain Myelencephalon (marrowbrain) (afterbrain) Pons Medulla Oblongata

This outline (summary notes) was prepared to facilitate the lectures and discussions in class. It may help you in your review, but it is not enough. You still have to read the book for your exam. - Dr. Cuenca

Keeping the moral high ground will taste a thousand times better than revenge ever would. - Richard Templar