Visual inspection of arc welds - a guide to best practice

Section 3. Practical application of visual inspection

Inspection details Parent materials and edge preparations Welding consumables

Inspection details
Introduction There is some flexibility in applying the 'rules' for assessing weld details because much depends on the type of product being examined. It appears to be a human trait that we tend to find fault with items under scrutiny. In my many years as a trainer of inspectors, I have found that most people are likely to assess initially only the negative features evident on a particular weld or product, i.e. they only look for, and assess, visible DEFECTS. Frequently, there are many positive features to assess initially. By carrying out a general assessment beforehand, an inspector, with experience, can very often judge the acceptability of the weld or product - based on these facts alone. As there are many ways of applying the techniques of visual inspection, a code of practice exists related to visual inspection practice. EN 970 provides guidance and also details the main principles of how to carry out visual inspection, as well as providing information on the tools that can be used and illumination requirements. This document provides a good first step before embarking on visual inspection practices. Details of the weld features to be considered during visual examination are given below.

1. Size - butt welds

Consider:
a) excess weld metal height b) root penetration c) weld width d) root bead width

2. Size - fillet welds

Consider:
a) z minimum (and maximum) leg length size b) a minimum design throat thickness

3. Shape - butt welds Consider:

Ideally, (a) is the most desirable but very often it may be difficult to achieve. Because of this, one should assess the excess weld height in conjunction with the weld profile and perhaps the toe blending.

4. Shape - fillet welds Consider:

In normal practice, (a) is the most desirable but, again, in many instances it is difficult to achieve. Acceptance levels, therefore, allow tolerances on weld shape.

5. Toe blend Depending on the service conditions of the product, the toe blend may be of greater importance than the size and shape of the weld. A poor toe blend may reduce service life by a considerable margin if the product is under a cyclic load. For butt welds, consider:

For fillet welds, consider:

6. Weld width and consistency of weld width For butt welds and fillet welds, consider:

Imperfections have not been addressed in this section of the best practice guide. These are considered in Section 4, Imperfections - identification and interpretation but before determining specific imperfections, assess the main features of the weld. Other factors may be of equal importance, but the more information you have available, the better. A simple inspection procedure can be implemented which should help to ensure that the inspector follows the same method each time. The quality control department may implement such a procedure, depending on the nature of the product and specific company procedures. For guidance, typical examples of visual inspection and defect assessment forms are shown below. These are of the type which could be used within a standardised procedure.

Visual inspection assessment form

Visual Inspection of the Completed Weld. Reference No. of Weld .....

= Acceptable

X = Non-Acceptable

Dimensions mm ________ l ________ w ________ t

Side 1 Excess weld metal/Penetration bead ______________ mm Weld width Toe blend Weld consistency Arc strikes Spatter Grinding marks Mechanical damage Surface colour Misalignment Angular distortion Longitudinal distortion Other comments: ______________ mm ______________ ______________ ______________ ______________ ______________ ______________ ______________ ______________ mm

Side 2 ______________ mm ______________ mm ______________ ______________ ______________ ______________ ______________ ______________ ______________ ______________

______________ mm in ______________ mm ______________ mm in ______________ mm

Defect assessment form

Defects Mark 'A' for acceptable Mark 'R' for rejectable Cracks Incomplete side fusion Incomplete interun fusion Incomplete root fusion Incomplete root penetration Undercut depth Undercut blend Undercut length Excess penetration Root concavity Overlap Weld face Weld root

Weld face Weld root Solid inclusions: Slag Silica Tungsten Copper Gas inclusions Porosity Wormholes

Isolated pores Crater pipes Others:

The weld, Ref. No. ...... is/is not ...... to the standard ......

Date .......... Signature ..........

Parent materials and edge preparations

Introduction It should be kept in mind that many problems associated with weld quality are due to poor edge preparation of the parent materials. Before any welding is carried out, inspection and conformance to the welding procedure requirements at this point can prevent the formation of imperfections during manufacture. Furthermore, it is equally important that correct welding consumables are used to ensure that the required mechanical properties are met. Parent materials To ensure that the correct material grade or composition is used on the project, it is necessary for the inspector to check 3 main areas:

Size
o o o o o

number of components for welding/to be joined (number off) thickness (abbreviated to 't') length (abbreviated to 'l') width (abbreviated to 'w') diameter (abbreviated to '' for pipes)

Type composition of material or o grade of material or o tradename of material

o

If the material is known, it is possible to assess the risk of cracking or other types of defect common to a particular material type. For example, the likelihood of, and susceptibility to, porosity in aluminium alloys.

Condition o surface condition: freedom from contaminants which may affect welding or in-service operation, including - mill-scale remaining from material manufacture - protective coatings to inhibit corrosion during storage - oil, grease or paints
o o

distortion, due to poor storage or transportation of the material inherent defects, including metallurgical imperfections such as segregation bands or surface-breaking imperfections such as laps The heat treatment condition is also important. For example, some steels can be supplied in the normalised or quenched and tempered condition. This can have an implication for the material's mechanical properties and its weldability.

A summary of the inspection points for parent materials is shown below.

Edge preparations
Many defects and/or imperfections may be caused by poor joint preparation which can be attributed to:

method of edge preparation finish of edge preparation details of edge preparation

1. Method of edge preparation - and potential problems

thermal cutting o increased hardness o oxidation o poor shape o distortion

machined edges o evolution of harmful gases during welding o poor shape o poor finish

sheared edges o evolution of harmful gases during welding o poor shape o work-hardening

grinding o poor shape o poor surface finish o inaccurate features

2. Finish of edge preparation

In some cases it is necessary to specify a particular level of finish on edge preparations, otherwise weld defects may arise. For example, TIG welding of flame-cut edges can result in serious porosity and inclusions. This is because the inherent roughness of the surface can readily trap contamination which is not removed during welding since the TIG process does not utilise a flux or slag. The same may be true for ground edges which are not sufficiently smooth, and in such cases chemical cleaning (e.g. degreasing) and mechanical cleaning will be required - although this may be impractical in some situations.

3. Details of edge preparation

As the first weld (the root run) is often the most difficult, the edge preparation details must conform to the specified requirements (welding procedure specification).

Butt welds Gap size too large:

a) excess penetration b) burnthrough c) shrinkage grooves d) gas entrapment

Gap size too small:

1) incomplete penetration 2) incomplete root fusion 3) incomplete side wall fusion 4) slag inclusions 5) root concavity

Root face too large:

a) incomplete root penetration b) incomplete root fusion

Root face too small:

1) excessive penetration 2) burnthrough 3) root concavity 4) root undercut

Included angle too large:

a) excess penetration b) incomplete filled groove

Included angle too small:

1) incomplete root penetration 2) incomplete interun fusion 3) incomplete root fusion 4) incomplete sidewall fusion 5) excessive cap 6) poor toe blend 7) slag inclusions

Fillet welds

Gap size too large:

1) reduced root penetration 2) slag inclusions 3) gas inclusions 4) reduced vertical leg length size 5) cracking

Poor fit-up and poor joint preparations very often account for a large proportion of weld imperfections. (The above causes and effects are for guidance only but it should be remembered that there is no such thing as a perfect weld.)

Welding consumables
Introduction The mechanical properties of a welded joint are greatly affected by the welding consumable used. It is, therefore, essential that the inspector confirms the correct consumables are to be used, or have been used. Each welding process utilises different consumables and these are given specific terms

welding electrode (MMA) welding wire welding rod welding flux shielding gas (MIG/MAG & SAW) (TIG & gas welding) (SAW & gas welding) (TIG & MIG)

Type and size also have a particular meaning -

size electrodes: wires: rods: flux: shielding gas: type electrodes:

gases/fluxes/rods & wires: Note: in many instances, it may also be necessary to check batch numbers of consumables

diameter & length diameter & weight diameter & weight (SAW) diameter/size of flux particles cylinder size & pressure tradename, brand name, specification & grade of flux covering tradename, brand name, specification & grade

Condition of consumables It is essential that every consumable is in first-class condition. To achieve (and maintain) this, the following may be necessary:

good storage packaging

consideration should be given to humidity, temperature, stacking, issue and return, date of purchase, etc the inspector should ensure 'good housekeeping' procedures, e.g. unused consumables must be returned to their original packaging

baking/drying moisture content of MMA electrodes and SAW fluxes must be kept low to avoid weld cracking: it may be necessary to bake/dry these types of consumable in a purpose-made oven

Instructions provided by the consumables manufacturer should be adhered to. An in-house consumables control procedure should be used on high integrity applications.

Visual inspection of arc welds - a guide to best practice

Section 2. Getting to grips with the basics

What is visual inspection? Terminology and definitions Visual inspection - key principles The welding inspector

What is visual inspection?

Introduction
Every day of our lives we rely on the practice of visual inspection - outside the workplace as well as within it. One of the best ways of explaining the principles of visual inspection is to make a comparison with an everyday situation that most of us are either familiar with, or can easily identify with.

Inspection of a motor car - an analogy

If we were to purchase a car, second-hand or new, we would apply similar visual inspection principles to those used for examining welded products - probably without even realising.

Examining a car before purchase provides a useful analogy for studying the principles of visual inspection of welds

The first stage of buying a car is to identify which make and model we want. Our decision may be based on performance in relation to top speed, acceleration, braking ability, or possibly fuel economy. Other factors considered may include the number of passengers it can carry or, for example, its manoeuvrability for parking. Design. We would most certainly look at the design or styling of the vehicle: will it be a sports car or coup; an estate car; a four-wheel drive for off-road use; or a handmade, specialist car, rather than a mass-produced vehicle? Materials. Thought would also be given to the materials used. For example, are all car body materials suitable for our intended use of the vehicle; are the interior trim and fittings sufficiently durable; will the materials used in the engine allow it to run on unleaded petrol? Workmanship. How well the vehicle has been made would also be important and this would be judged against some form of workmanship standard. Are all the body panels a good fit; is the underside suitably protected against corrosion; have all the engine ancillaries been fitted correctly and carefully to give long and trouble-free service? Full inspection. It may be important to have optional extras, such as tinted glass or electrically heated rear-view mirrors. Is the vehicle's paperwork authentic and complete? These and other 'characteristics' would be assessed as part of the full inspection, before purchase of the vehicle. Testing. Before driving the vehicle for the first time, we would make sure we tested the brakes and steering and that they were both satisfactory. Acceptance criteria. We would apply our own acceptance criteria to the vehicle as a whole before committing to the purchase. Specification. All the key points above can be regarded as a specification. The car manufacturer initially provides a specification for its vehicles and this gives details of technical requirements.

Visual characteristics
There are similar assessments to be established for a welded construction, and before visual inspection can take place, it is important that the specification is known and understood. It should, therefore, be noted that assessment of all visual characteristics should be taken on-board, so that the product (or weldment) is overall at an acceptable level of quality.

Service conditions
In addition, it is equally important that the product's service conditions are known so that specific characteristics are achieved, ensuring reliability and structural integrity in relation to service life and performance. After all, you would not expect a sports car to function reliably in off-road conditions, or a family car to perform well in a motor race!

Quality characteristics
Many products are, therefore, manufactured to specific codes of practice or specifications and, in general, specific rules are provided in the following areas:

design materials workmanship inspection and testing acceptance levels

It should be appreciated that a car manufacturer will impose similar rules before production of a new vehicle. For products not encompassed by a specification or code of practice, it may be necessary for the company's quality assurance/quality control function to specify appropriate rules in the form of a specification, procedures and acceptance levels. Having established the overall design specification, the next step is to consider at which stages visual inspection can be applied. For many product-types or applications, it might only be necessary to apply visual inspection on completion of the manufacturing process. This, of course, would normally be the case with visual inspection of either a new or second-hand car: we have to rely on the manufacturer to complete the before- and duringmanufacture inspections. It must be appreciated that visual inspection is not just a non-destructive examination method applied after welding. It can be used throughout the manufacturing process as a means of preventing quality problems, rather than having to cure problems after completion. To be effective at applying these principles in practice, it is important that those given the inspection task are aware of specific items within the welding quality requirements, in relation to a whole range of different aspects. Much of this philosophy is dependent on the experience, training and qualifications of the inspector.

Summary
In summing-up, it will be helpful to review briefly the various aspects specified in codes of practice. Design aspects and the importance of meeting the design criterion have been mentioned earlier. In relation to parent material requirements, you would not expect to find the car's exhaust system made from carbon steel if the specification for design stated stainless steel. Visually inspecting and checking materials before construction can prevent such situations arising. Equally, you would be extremely disappointed to find that due to poor workmanship, a door would not close properly, or that the upholstery was damaged during manufacture. The above examples of production problem - and the fact that the car manufacturer wants to sell all vehicles produced and ultimately make a profit dictate that it is essential to have a formal inspection and testing regime which is rigorously applied throughout the manufacturing process. You may have heard the phrase from design to delivery! Finally, it is important to appreciate that assessing how good something looks can be a rather subjective matter: some people like certain things which may not appeal to others. This is one of the reasons why we must have acceptance levels which allow everyone to apply the same standards (although no specification allows for different interpretations of the information).

Terminology and definitions

Introduction
It is essential that inspectors report their findings using correct terminology, otherwise there may be lack of clarity, leading to misunderstanding and inefficiency. The welding industry has a language of its own and, like any language, it takes time to become fluent. To complicate matters, the language may be flawed by slang or dialect. It is important, therefore, that conventional welding language is adopted (and adhered to) and this can be found by reference to appropriate national or international standards. Furthermore, if the joint design is correct and the features (such as root gap, root face and included angle) are correct it will improve the overall quality of the weldment and, ultimately, the product. Below are examples of joint designs, features and weldments. Please note the appropriate terminology, which is based on British standards (where specified).

Butt joints

Fillet joints

Completed welds show various features, which include the following -

Butt weld features

1 = Excess weld metal height 2 = Weld toe 3 = Fusion boundary 4 = Heat affected zone 5 = Thickness (t)

6 = Width (w) 7 = Length (l) 8 = Weld width 9 = Ripple shape 10 = Weld contour

The terminology below is consistent with British Standards. However, different standards and countries use variants of these terms, for example:

1. Excess weld metal Also termed 'reinforcement' in some codes and standards (including some British standards). Reinforcement is a non-preferred term because it implies that weld strength increases with increased excess weld metal height. This is not always the case, since the weld toe angle is also increased and may cause a continuous stress concentration at the weld toe. Some people often refer to excess weld metal as the 'cap height'. This is regarded as a slang term and should be avoided in inspection reports.

2. Weld toe Other terms are rare in this case. It should, however, be noted that toe blending is the main aspect of assessment during visual inspection.

3. Fusion boundary Also termed 'fusion line', which is acceptable. Many codes and standards use 'sidewall' as a term to report incomplete sidewall fusion. Whilst this may appear to have little relevance to surface inspection, it is possible to find incomplete fusion at the surface of the weld. 4. Heat affected zone This is also abbreviated to 'HAZ'. It is rarely visible on steel welds, but can often be seen on welds made in stainless steel and titanium. With titanium, it is frequently the first assessment made during visual inspection because the colours demonstrate different levels of contamination of the weld, which affects overall acceptance of the completed weld. 5. Thickness The abbreviation 't' is used in many codes and standards. It is important that the inspector checks the thickness of the material to ensure compliance. This dimension is also referred to as the 'short transverse' in the context of mechanical properties. 6. Width The inspector must ensure dimensional accuracy of the component being welded. Also, the inspector may report 'angular misalignment' if the components have distorted during welding. This is also termed the 'transverse direction' and in many cases the inspector should report transverse distortion, when evident. 7. Length Similarly, the inspector must check the length of the component to ensure accuracy. This is also referred to as the 'longitudinal direction'. It may be necessary for the inspector to report longitudinal distortion, especially in thin sheet materials. 8. Weld width The weld width is an important feature that is often overlooked during visual inspection. Many standards require welds to have a minimum and maximum weld width based on the original width of the fit-up of the joint. 9. Weld ripples The ripples of the weld are influenced by the travel speed used during the welding operation. Ripples which are excessively vee-shaped can lead to solidification problems within the weld metal, causing centreline cracking in some instances.

10. Weld contour Most standards related to welding inspection require specific shape details which should be regular and consistent. The inspector should assess this at an early stage of final inspection to evaluate the degree of control over the welding operation. Some standards also term this as the 'weld crown'. The above is for guidance only; other terms are also relevant but are not included because this guide is not intended to be exhaustive.

Fillet welds
Fillet welds are probably the most common connection used in general fabrication. Similar to the butt weld mentioned previously, a fillet weld has specific features and terminology. Fillet weld shapes Many specifications require fillet welds to have a certain shape, which often translates to a mitre appearance. Achieving this shape consistently can be difficult, especially with manual welding. Specifications will often allow some tolerance on the weld shape or profile, but it may be dictated by the application.

The three types of fillet weld shape shown above have advantages and limitations. Many specifications call for a mitre shape, since this is a compromise between the convex and concave types. The convex profile has the advantage of an increased throat thickness, however, the resultant toe angle is much smaller, giving rise to a higher risk of failure at the weld toe(s). Conversely, the concave fillet weld has a much smoother transition at the weld toe but the weld strength may be reduced due to a decrease in the design throat thickness.

Fillet weld features

1 = Leg length (horizontal) 2 = Leg length (vertical) 3 = Thickness (t) 4 = Weld width 5 = Length (l)

6 = Width (w) 7 = Height (h) 8 = Actual throat thickness 9 = Heat affected zone 10 = Weld toe (blend)

Please note that the drawing above shows the 'actual' throat thickness (feature 8). This must not be confused with the design throat thickness, which would not normally show penetration into the parent materials.

Visual inspection - key principles

Introduction
The methodology adopted for visual inspection is very much product-dependent. In many cases, visual inspection will be required before, during and after welding. This would be appropriate if the integrity of the product demanded that inspection is applied throughout the entire manufacturing process. It could be that the product is regarded as safety-critical and therefore visual inspection is a key activity in ensuring that the required overall quality and integrity are met.

Products with less demanding service requirements may only need visual inspection when welding is completed. In these cases, reliance is placed on the production team to apply good working practices throughout the manufacturing process. This approach has become more common in recent years, partly due to the fact that inspectors are often seen as a 'roving police force'. This perception promotes a negative attitude in the workplace with production and inspection functions regularly in conflict and the implication that production decreases and repairs to welds become more common. The general procedure for carrying out visual inspection is in 4 basic parts 1. Fact-finding Establish as many facts about the product and welding criteria as possible. Documentation pertinent to the product is usually a important source of information and should always be carefully reviewed.

Review relevant documentation . . . Documents which relate to a particular component under construction can provide useful facts on the characteristics of the product and help with the inspection process. For example

If the inspector checks the welding procedure specification before construction, it should be possible to establish the parent material's weldability. This will tell the inspector that preheating the component is critical or that checking of amperage, voltage and travel-speed is necessary to ensure welding quality requirements are met. In addition, the welding procedure specification should state the joint type, welding process and other essential variables. All this information allows the inspector to think about the types of imperfection that are likely to occur during manufacture and greatly assists the visual inspection process.

Also, a review of the material's 'mill sheet' could provide evidence of the crack sensitivity of a particular material type, so that adequate precautions can be taken to avoid cracking. A review of the quality plan can provide the necessary information on how, when and where visual inspection is required. The inspector may see from Welder Approval Certificates that a certain welder is not approved on the type of work to be undertaken.

These are all examples of the type of information that the product documentation can provide to help prevent problems before welding starts. . . . and provide documentation Documents play an important role in achieving overall integrity of the product. The inspector has to ensure that appropriate documentation is available on the job where necessary and that all relevant documents are collected and collated after the manufacturing process is complete. To help fabricators manage their welding information more efficiently, TWI has produced Welding Co-ordinator This is a software package which computerises paperwork related to welding procedures, welder approval records, NDE reports and weld datasheets. 2. Analysis of the facts Analyse details in relation to

service performance of the product drawings code of practice QA/QC requirements other relevant information

3. Planning Plan the inspection sequence, identifying the critical areas and 'hold-points' related to the product (e.g. inspector signs-off acceptance of the joint fit-up details BEFORE production welding is allowed to continue). 4. Implementation Implementation is the most difficult part, often due to the fact that the inspection team cannot check every inspection detail all of the time. Some reliance must, therefore, be placed on the production personnel and production supervision.

Key questions Here are some important questions which should always be answered before carrying out visual inspection: What is the nature of the product? If the product is regarded as 'safety-critical' it will be necessary to perform certain tasks at certain stages. What operating conditions will be present? If the product is operating at low temperature, a risk of brittle fracture may exist. Therefore, some types of weld defect may increase the likelihood of failure. Alternatively, if the product is under dynamic loading, it may be important to assess the weld toe blends more critically. What is the required quality of welding? This is an essential requirement if efficient and effective visual inspection is to be performed. What is - and what is not - an acceptable imperfection needs to be known in advance of the inspection. Is there a code that relates to the product, or a standard, against which the welds may be inspected? The inspector must have a full understanding of the code of practice being used, and fully appreciate the technical details specified. Is visual inspection required before during and after welding? In certain situations, it may be only necessary to carry out inspection after welding. This however, relies on the skill and knowledge of the welding supervisor or sometimes the welders involved and their ability to follow written procedures. By finding answers to these questions, and possibly others, the Inspector will have a good idea of the requirements and be better placed to determine which points of inspection require the most emphasis. In summary, the inspector must find out as much as possible about

the product materials, welding process and consumable being used operating conditions of the product allowable defects (reference to the applicable code or standard) types of joint being welded

The product

Materials, welding process and consumable being used

Operating conditions of the product

Allowable defects (reference to the applicable code or standard)

Types of joint being welded

The welding inspector

The diagram below gives a profile of a welding inspector. It outlines responsibilities and duties and the general sequences of inspection. It also indicates some of the important personal attributes of an effective inspector.

Checklist
Although the checklist below is not exhaustive, it provides a useful starting point and covers inspection before, during and after welding.

Before welding a) Documentation

code of practice quality plan welding procedure approvals (to code) welder approvals (to code) weld map or drawing, i.e. where the welds are, sizes etc, weld identification inspection procedures NDE procedures pre/post weld heat treatment procedures - methods, temperatures, times, etc

b) Materials

consumables o correct specification o correct storage and baking o controlled issue and return o batch identification

parent material o correct specification o identification - transference of cast marks

forming activity procedures o rolling, pressing

c) Weld preparations

correct for the job - check against documentation machined or flame cut - note any grinding requirements sheared - thin sheet - work-hardened - any further preparation? accurate and within tolerance forming activity procedures

d) Fit-up for welding

accuracy of fit-up - misalignment preheat and its maintenance/monitoring tack welding - incorporated in weld? safety manipulators

e) Welding equipment

maintenance and calibration condition - in relation to safety and performance correct consumables (wire, flux, gas) - check against welding procedure flux re-circulation system (SAW)

During welding a) correct parameters and monitoring equipment b) welding procedure specification (WPS) at the work-place c) inter-run cleanliness d) inter-run quality e) inter-pass temperature f) consumable control g) maintenance of preheat? h) process control NDE regime i) welding records and maintenance of weld maps After welding a) visual inspection and records b) NDE

working to procedure calibrated equipment records

c) PWHT (if required)

furnace or local (temp gradients) compliance with code recording of times and temperatures thermocouple positions

d) Final testing (if applicable)

hydraulic test procedure leak test procedure proof/load test procedure functional test procedure NDE

e) Cleaning, painting, preservation, packing f) Final documentation package

WPS, welding procedure approval records welder qualification records consumables certificates materials certificates inspection reports NDE reports/test reports heat treatment records welding records certificate of compliance authorised signatures

The above activities are regarded as 'surveillance inspection', as opposed to the details of visual inspection. However, it should be noted that visual inspection plays an important role throughout the manufacturing process.

Weldability of materials

Steels
In arc welding, as the weld metal needs mechanical properties to match the parent metal, the welder must avoid forming defects in the weld. Imperfections are principally caused by:

poor welder technique; insufficient measures to accommodate the material or welding process; high stress in the component.

Techniques to avoid imperfections such as lack of fusion and slag inclusions, which result from poor welder techniques, are relatively well known. However, the welder should be aware that the material itself may be susceptible to formation of imperfections caused by the welding process. In the materials section of the Job Knowledge for Welders, guidelines are given on material weldability and precautions to be taken to avoid defects.

Material types
In terms of weldability, commonly used materials can be divided into the following types:

Steels Stainless steels Aluminium and its alloys Nickel and its alloys Copper and its alloys Titanium and its alloys Cast iron

Fusion welding processes can be used to weld most alloys of these materials, in a wide range of thickness. When imperfections are formed, they will be located in either the weld metal or the parent material immediately adjacent to the weld, called the heat affected zone (HAZ). As chemical composition of the weld metal determines the risk of imperfections, the choice of filler metal may be crucial not only in achieving adequate mechanical properties and corrosion resistance but also in producing a sound weld. However, HAZ imperfections are caused by the adverse effect of the heat generated during welding and can only be avoided by strict adherence to the welding procedure.

This part of the materials section of Job Knowledge for Welders considers the weldability of carbon-manganese (C-Mn) steels and low alloy steels.

Imperfections in welds
Commonly used steels are considered to be readily welded. However, these materials can be at risk from the following types of imperfection:

porosity; solidification cracking; hydrogen cracking; reheat cracking.

Other fabrication imperfections are lamellar tearing and liquation cracking but using modern steels and consumables, these types of defects are less likely to arise. In discussing the main causes of imperfections, guidance is given on procedure and welder techniques for reducing the risk in arc welding.

Porosity
Porosity is formed by entrapment of discrete pockets of gas in the solidifying weld pool. The gas may originate from poor gas shielding, surface contaminants such as rust or grease, or insufficient deoxidants in the parent metal (autogenous weld), electrode or filler wire. A particularly severe form of porosity is 'wormholes', caused by gross surface contamination or welding with damp electrodes. The presence of manganese and silicon in the parent metal, electrode and filler wire is beneficial as they act as deoxidants combining with entrapped air in the weld pool to form slag. Rimming steels with a high oxygen content, can only be welded satisfactorily with a consumable which adds aluminium to the weld pool. To obtain sound porosity-free welds, the joint area should be cleaned and degreased before welding. Primer coatings should be removed unless considered suitable for welding by that particular process and procedure. When using gas shielded processes, the material surface demands more rigorous cleaning, such as by degreasing, grinding or machining, followed by final degreasing, and the arc must be protected from draughts.

Solidification cracking
Solidification cracks occur longitudinally as a result of the weld bead having insufficient strength to withstand the contraction stresses within the weld metal. Sulphur, phosphorus, and carbon pick up from the parent metal at high dilution increase the risk of weld metal (solidification) cracking especially in thick section and highly restrained joints. When welding high carbon and sulphur content steels, thin weld beads will be more susceptible to solidification cracking. However, a weld with a large depth to width ratio can also be susceptible. In this case, the centre of the weld, the last part to solidify, will have a high concentration of impurities increasing the risk of cracking. Solidification cracking is best avoided by careful attention to the choice of consumable, welding parameters and welder technique. To minimise the risk, consumables with low carbon and impurity levels and relatively high manganese and silicon contents are preferred. High current density processes such as submerged-arc and CO2, are more likely to induce cracking. The welding parameters must produce an adequate depth to width ratio in butt welds, or throat thickness in fillet welds. High welding speeds also increase the risk as the amount of segregation and weld stresses will increase. The welder should ensure that there is a good joint fit-up so as to avoid bridging wide gaps. Surface contaminants, such as cutting oils, should be removed before welding.

Hydrogen cracking
A characteristic feature of high carbon and low alloy steels is that the HAZ immediately adjacent to the weld hardens on welding with an attendant risk of cold (hydrogen) cracking. Although the risk of cracking is determined by the level of hydrogen produced by the welding process, susceptibility will also depend upon several contributory factors:

material composition (carbon equivalent); section thickness; arc energy (heat) input; degree of restraint.

The amount of hydrogen generated is determined by the electrode type and the process. Basic electrodes generate less hydrogen than rutile electrodes (MMA) and the gas shielded processes (MIG and TIG) produce only a small amount of hydrogen in the weld pool. Steel composition and cooling rate determines the HAZ hardness. Chemical composition determines material hardenability, and the higher the carbon and alloy content of the material, the greater the HAZ hardness. Section thickness and arc energy influences the cooling rate and hence, the hardness of the HAZ. For a given situation therefore, material composition, thickness, joint type, electrode composition and arc energy input, HAZ cracking is prevented by heating the material. Using preheat which reduces the cooling rate, promotes escape of hydrogen and reduces HAZ hardness so preventing a crack-sensitive structure being formed; the recommended levels of preheat for various practical situations are detailed in the appropriate standards e.g. BS 5135:1984. As cracking only occurs at temperatures slightly above ambient, maintaining the temperature of the weld area above the recommended level during fabrication is especially important. If the material is allowed to cool too quickly, cracking can occur up to several hours after welding, often termed 'delayed hydrogen cracking'. After welding, therefore, it is beneficial to maintain the heating for a given period (hold time), depending on the steel thickness, to enable the hydrogen to diffuse from the weld area. When welding C-Mn structural and pressure vessel steels, the measures which are taken to prevent HAZ cracking will also be adequate to avoid hydrogen cracking in the weld metal. However, with increasing alloying of the weld metal e.g. when welding alloyed or quenched and tempered steels, more stringent precautions may be necessary. The risk of HAZ cracking is reduced by using a low hydrogen process, low hydrogen electrodes and high arc energy, and by reducing the level of restraint. Practical precautions to avoid hydrogen cracking include drying the electrodes and cleaning the joint faces. When using a gas shielded process, a significant

amount of hydrogen can be generated from contaminants on the surface of the components and filler wire so preheat and arc energy requirements should be maintained even for tack welds.

Reheat cracking
Reheat or stress relaxation cracking may occur in the HAZ of thick section components, usually of greater than 50mm thickness, Fig. 4. The more likely cause of cracking is embrittlement of the HAZ during high temperature service or stress relief heat treatment. As a coarse grained HAZ is more susceptible to cracking, low arc energy input welding procedures reduce the risk. Although reheat cracking occurs in sensitive materials, avoidance of high stresses during welding and elimination of local points of stress concentration, e.g. by dressing the weld toes, can reduce the risk.

Weldability of steel groups

European Standard EN 287 identifies a number of steels groups which have similar metallurgical and welding characteristics. The main risks in welding these groups are: Group W 01 low carbon unalloyed (carbon-manganese) steels and/or low alloyed steels For thin section, unalloyed materials, these materials are normally readily weldable. However, when welding thicker section material with a flux process (MMA), there is a risk of HAZ cracking which will needs low hydrogen electrodes. The more highly alloyed materials also require preheat, or a low hydrogen welding process, to avoid HAZ cracking . Group W 02 chromium-molybdenum (CrMo) and/or chromiummolybdenum-vanadium (CrMoV) creep resisting steel Thin section material may be welded without preheat but using a gas shielded process (TIG and MIG); for thicker section material, and when using a flux process, preheat with low hydrogen electrodes (MMA) is needed to avoid HAZ and weld metal cracking. Post-weld heat treatment is used to improve HAZ toughness. Group W 03 fine-grained structural steels and nickel steels (2% to 5%) The weldability is similar to Group W 02 in that preheat is required for welding thick section material with flux processes.

Group W 04 ferritic or martensitic stainless steel, with chromium (12% to 20%) When using filler to produce matching weld metal strength, preheat is needed to avoid HAZ cracking. Post-weld heat treatment is essential to restore HAZ toughness. An austenitic stainless steel filler can be used where it is not possible to apply a preheat and post-weld treatment.

Distortion - Prevention by fabrication techniques

Distortion caused by welding a plate at the centre of a thin plate before welding into a bridge girder section. Courtesy John Allen

Assembly techniques
In general, the welder has little influence on the choice of welding procedure but assembly techniques can often be crucial in minimising distortion. The principal assembly techniques are:

tack welding back-to-back assembly stiffening

Tack welding
Tack welds are ideal for setting and maintaining the joint gap but can also be used to resist transverse shrinkage. To be effective, thought should be given to the number of tack welds, their length and the distance between them. With too few, there is the risk of the joint progressively closing up as welding proceeds. In a long seam, using MMA or MIG, the joint edges may even overlap. It should be noted that when using the submerged arc process, the joint might open up if not adequately tacked.

The tack welding sequence is important to maintain a uniform root gap along the length of the joint. Three alternative tack welding sequences are shown in Fig 1:

tack weld straight through to the end of the joint (Fig 1a). It is necessary to clamp the plates or to use wedges to maintain the joint gap during tacking tack weld one end and then use a back stepping technique for tacking the rest of the joint (Fig 1b) tack weld the centre and complete the tack welding by back stepping (Fig 1c).

Fig. 1 Alternative procedures used for tack welding to prevent transverse shrinkage a) tack weld straight through to end of joint b) tack weld one end, then use back-step technique for tacking the rest of the joint c) tack weld the centre, then complete the tack welding by the back-step technique

Directional tacking is a useful technique for controlling the joint gap, for example closing a joint gap which is (or has become) too wide. When tack welding, it is important that tacks which are to be fused into the main weld, are produced to an approved procedure using appropriately qualified welders. The procedure may require preheat and an approved consumable as specified for the main weld. Removal of the tacks also needs careful control to avoid causing defects in the component surface.

Back-to-back assembly
By tack welding or clamping two identical components back-to-back, welding of both components can be balanced around the neutral axis of the combined assembly (Fig 2a). It is recommended that the assembly is stress relieved before separating the components. If stress relieving is not done, it may be necessary to insert wedges between the components (Fig 2b) so when the wedges are removed, the parts will move back to the correct shape or alignment.

Fig. 2 Back-to-back assembly to control distortion when welding two identical components a) assemblies tacked together before welding b) use of wedges for components that distort on separation after welding

Stiffening
Fig. 3 Longitudinal stiffeners prevent bowing in butt welded thin plate joints Longitudinal shrinkage in butt welded seams often results in bowing, especially when fabricating thin plate structures. Longitudinal stiffeners in the form of flats or angles, welded along each side of the seam (Fig 3) are effective in preventing longitudinal bowing. Stiffener location is important: they must be placed at a sufficient distance from the joint so they do not interfere with welding, unless located on the reverse side of a joint welded from one side.

Welding procedure
A suitable welding procedure is usually determined by productivity and quality requirements rather than the need to control distortion. Nevertheless, the welding process, technique and sequence do influence the distortion level.

Welding process
General rules for selecting a welding process to prevent angular distortion are:

deposit the weld metal as quickly as possible use the least number of runs to fill the joint

Unfortunately, selecting a suitable welding process based on these rules may increase longitudinal shrinkage resulting in bowing and buckling. In manual welding, MIG, a high deposition rate process, is preferred to MMA. Weld metal should be deposited using the largest diameter electrode (MMA), or the highest current level (MIG), without causing lack-of-fusion imperfections. As heating is much slower and more diffuse, gas welding normally produces more angular distortion than the arc processes. Mechanised techniques combining high deposition rates and high welding speeds have the greatest potential for preventing distortion. As the distortion is more consistent, simple techniques such as presetting are more effective in controlling angular distortion.

Welding technique
General rules for preventing distortion are:

keep the weld (fillet) to the minimum specified size use balanced welding about the neutral axis keep the time minimum

between runs to a

Fig. 4 Angular distortion of the joint as determined by the number of runs in the fillet weld In the absence of restraint, angular distortion in both fillet and butt joints will be a function of the joint geometry, weld size and the number of runs for a given cross section. Angular distortion (measured in degrees) as a function of the number of runs for a 10mm leg length fillet weld is shown in Fig 4.

If possible, balanced welding around the neutral axis should be done, for example on double sided fillet joints, by two people welding simultaneously. In butt joints, the run order may be crucial in that balanced welding can be used to correct angular distortion as it develops. Fig. 5 Use of welding direction to control distortion a) Back-step welding b) Skip welding

Welding sequence
The sequence, or direction, of welding is important and should be towards the free end of the joint. For long welds, the whole of the weld is not completed in one direction. Short runs, for example using the back-step or skip welding technique, are very effective in distortion control (Fig 5).

Back-step welding involves depositing short adjacent weld lengths in the opposite direction to the general progression (Fig.5a). Skip welding is laying short weld lengths in a predetermined, evenly spaced, sequence along the seam (Fig 5b). Weld lengths and the spaces between them are generally equal to the natural run-out length of one electrode. The direction of deposit for each electrode is the same, but it is not necessary for the welding direction to be opposite to the direction of general progression.

Best practice
The following fabrication techniques are used to control distortion:

using tack welds to set up and maintain the joint gap identical components welded back to back so welding can be balanced about the neutral axis attachment of longitudinal stiffeners to prevent longitudinal bowing in butt welds of thin plate structures where there is choice of welding procedure, process and technique should aim to deposit the weld metal as quickly as possible; MIG in preference to MMA or gas welding and mechanised rather than manual welding in long runs, the whole weld should not be completed in one direction; back-step or skip welding techniques should be used.

Fillet welded joints - a review of the practicalities

Fillet welded joints such as tee, lap and corner joints are the most common connection in welded fabrication. In total they probably account for around 80% of all joints made by arc welding. It is likely that a high percentage of other joining techniques also use some form of a fillet welded joint including non-fusion processes such as brazing, braze welding and soldering. The latter techniques are outside the scope of this article. Although the fillet weld is so common, there are a number of aspects to be considered before producing such a weld. This article will review a number of topics that relate to fillet welded joints and it is hoped that even the most seasoned fabricator or welding person will gain from this article in some way. Common joint designs for fillet welds are shown below in Fig.1.

Fig.1

Fillet weld features

ISO 2553 (EN 22553) uses the following notation as Figs.2 and 3 show. a = throat thickness z = leg length s = deep penetration throat thickness l = length of intermittent fillet

Fig.2

Fig.3

Fillet weld shapes

Over specified fillet welds or oversized fillet welds

Fig.4

One of the greatest problems associated with fillet welded joints is achieving the correct weld size in relation to the required leg lengths or throat thickness (Fig.4).

The designer may calculate the size and allow a 'safety factor' so that the weld specified on the fabrication drawing is larger than is required by design considerations. The weld size is communicated by using an appropriate weld symbol. In the UK the weld size is frequently specified by referring to the leg length 'z' in ISO 2553 where the number gives the weld size in millimetres as shown in Fig.5.

Fig.5

In Europe, it is more common to find the design throat thickness, 'a' specified (Fig.6).

Fig.6

Once the drawing has been issued to the shop floor, it is usual to find an additional safety factor also being applied on by the welder or inspector. It is also common to hear 'add a bit more it will make it stronger'. The outcome is an oversized weld with perhaps an 8mm leg length rather than the 6mm specified by the designer. This extra 2mm constitutes an increase in weld volume of over 80%. This coupled with the already over specified weld size from the designer's 'safety factor' may lead to a weld that is twice the volume of a correctly sized fillet weld. By keeping the weld to the size specified by the drawing office, faster welding speeds can be achieved, therefore increasing productivity, reducing overall product weight, consumable consumption and consumable cost. The other benefit is that, in the case of most arc welding processes, a slight increase in travel speed would in most cases see an increase in root penetration so that the actual throat thickness is increased: An oversized weld is therefore very costly to produce, may not have 'better strength' and is wasteful of welding consumables and may see other fabrication problems including excessive distortion.

Lap joints welded with fillet welds.

As discussed earlier, oversized welds are commonplace and the lap joint is no exception. The designer may specify a leg length that is equal to the material thickness as in Fig.7.

Fig.7

Strength considerations may mean that the fillet weld size need not be anywhere near the plate thickness. In practice the weld may also be deficient in other ways for example:

Fig.8

Due to melting away of the corner of the upper plate (Fig.8), the vertical leg length is reduced meaning that the design throat has also been reduced; therefore an undersized weld has been created. Care is therefore needed to ensure that the corner of the upper plate is not melted away. Ideally the weld should be some 0.5-1mm clear of the top corner (Fig.9).

Fig.9

It may be the designer may therefore specify a slightly smaller leg length compared to the thickness of the component.

To compensate for this reduction in throat thickness it may be necessary to specify a deep penetration fillet weld. This amount of additional penetration would need to be confirmed by suitable weld tests. Additional controls may also be needed during production welding to ensure that this additional penetration is being achieved consistently. In addition to the reduction in throat thickness there is the potential for additional problems such as overlap at the weld toe due to the larger weld pool size (Fig.10) or an excessively convex weldface and consequential sharp notches at the weld toe (Fig.11). Fig.10 Fig.11

Both the potential problems shown in Figs.10 and 11 could adversely influence the fatigue life of the welded joint due to the increased toe angle, which acts as a greater stress concentration. Poor fit-up can also reduce the throat thickness as in Fig.12. The corner of the vertical component has been bevelled in the sketch in an exaggerated manner to illustrate the point.

Fig.12

Summary
Fillet welded joints are not only the most frequently used weld joints but are also one of the most difficult to weld with any real degree of consistency. Fillet welds require a higher heat input than a butt joint of the same thickness and, with less skilled welders this can lead to lack of penetration and/or fusion defects that cannot be detected by visual examination and other NDT techniques.

Fillet welded joints are not always open to NDT or are indeed time consuming to many non-destructively testing techniques such as radiography or ultrasonic testing and the results are often difficult to interpret. Inspection methods such as visual inspection, magnetic particle inspection and penetrant inspection are surface examination techniques only and with visual inspection, much of the effort is expended in measuring the size of the weld rather than identifying other quality aspects. Fillet welded joints are therefore much more difficult to weld and inspect. Often the welds that are produced are larger than they need to be or they may be of a poor shape which can adversely influence their service performance. To overcome these difficulties, designers need to specify accurately the most appropriate throat size and welding personnel should strive to achieve the specified design size. Welders also need to be adequately trained and sufficiently skilled to be capable of maintaining an acceptable weld quality.

Visual inspection of arc welds - a guide to best practice

Section 4. Imperfections - identification and interpretation

Detectable imperfections Practical guidance on interpretation Imperfections associated with particular welding processes

Detectable imperfections
Introduction It is important to keep in mind that visual assessment of a weld is, in many circumstances, one small part of the total inspection process. On many products, non-destructive examination (NDE) is applied, probably confirming 'visual uncertainties'. Also, NDE may frequently be employed to locate defects which cannot be seen with the naked eye (although in some instances low-power magnification may be used). If NDE is not being employed, it may be necessary to carry out more extensive visual inspection which may involve longer inspection times. However, visual inspection normally requires assessment of the consistency of weld features (i.e. weld width, height and shape along entire length of weld) and of the surface defects present. Many codes and standards use the term 'defect' but this word implies that the weld is substandard and therefore unacceptable. A more appropriate term is 'imperfection'; this is because many weld 'defects' may prove to be adequate for specific acceptance levels. Defects which can be detected by visual inspection can be grouped under five headings:

root defects contour defects surface irregularities surface cracks miscellaneous

1. Root defects 2. Contour defects 3. Surface irregularities

4. Surface cracks 5. Miscellaneous

Standard terminology for imperfections

Terminology relating to imperfections in fusion welds has been standardised in accordance with accepted practice.

Group 1 - Root defects Incomplete root penetration Failure of weld metal to extend into the root of a joint Lack of root fusion Lack of union at the root of a joint Excess penetration bead Excess weld metal protruding through the root of a fusion weld made from one side only

Root concavity (suck-back; underwashing - non-standard terms) A shallow groove which may occur in the root of a butt weld, but full fusion is evident Shrinkage groove A shallow groove caused by contraction in the metal along each side of a penetration bead or along the weld centreline Burnthrough (melt through) A localised collapse of the molten pool due to excessive penetration, resulting in a hole in the weld run

Group 2 - Contour defects

Incompletely filled groove A continuous or intermittent channel in the surface of a weld, running along its length, due to insufficient weld metal. The channel may be along the centre or along one or both edges of the weld

Bulbous contour A non-standard term used to describe poor appearance

Unequal legs (non standard term) Variation of leg length on a fillet weld Note: Unequal leg lengths may be specified as part of the design - in which case they are not imperfections

Group 3 - Surface irregularities

Undercut An irregular groove at a toe of a run in the parent metal or in previously deposited weld metal The inspector must determine if the undercut is continuous or intermittent, or sharp or smooth

Overlap An imperfection at the toe or root of a weld caused by metal flowing on to the surface of the parent metal without fusing to it

Gas pore A cavity, generally under 1.5mm in diameter, formed by trapped gas during the solidification of molten metal

Porosity A group of gas pores

Crater pipe A depression due to shrinkage at the end of a run where the source of heat was removed. Crater pipes may also lead to micro-cracking

Group 4 - Surface cracks

Crack A linear discontinuity produced by fracture Cracks may be ... a) ... longitudinal, in the weld metal, i.e. centreline b) ... longitudinal, in the parent metal or heat affected zone c) ... transverse d) Crater crack (star cracking)

Group 5 - Miscellaneous Stray flash/arc burn/arc strike (stray arcing) 1. The damage on the parent material resulting from the accidental striking of an arc away from the weld 2. The accidental striking of an arc away from the weld Note that the same term is used for both the action and the result

Spatter Globules of metal expelled during welding on to the surface of parent metal or of a weld

Practical guidance on interpretation

A wide variety of imperfections can be examined and the following additional points should be considered during visual inspection. Sharp imperfections The inspector must bear in mind that the most serious imperfections tend to be those which are sharp. It is most important, therefore, that the inspector is able to make a clear judgement and differentiate between sharp and smooth imperfections. Example Consider sharp undercut, 0.2mm deep, compared with smooth undercut, 1.0mm deep. It will be assumed that the acceptance levels specify an allowance of 1.0mm depth of undercut.

Although the smooth undercut is on the limit of acceptance, the physically smooth transition of the defect means that any transverse stresses applied will tend to flow round the imperfection when the weld or product is under service loading.

The depth of the sharp undercut is only 0.2mm, well under the specified allowance in relation to depth. However, it is likely that stresses will be concentrated at the sharp notch where a crack might develop in service. Undetected, this crack could lead to catastrophic failure of the product. Many sharp imperfections are often referred to as 'planar' (two-dimensional) imperfections. These generally include:

cracks and tears

Cracking (photo shows hydrogeninduced cracking in the heat affected zone)

Lamellar tearing

incomplete root penetration

Weld metal has not penetrated root gap

incomplete fusion (root, inter-run and sidewall)

Lack of root fusion

It must be appreciated that many imperfections observed also indicate the possible presence of sub-surface defects. Non-destructive examination methods, such as radiography and ultrasonic testing, must be considered in many situations along with visual inspection.

Lack of sidewall fusion

Many codes will not allow ANY cracks and will restrict acceptance of other types of planar imperfection specified in the acceptance levels to within fairly close limits. Some acceptance levels applied to higher integrity products will not allow any such types of imperfection. Workmanship imperfections Experience has shown that workmanship-type imperfections - such as poor stop/starts, arc strikes and tool marks - are often not found or recorded during visual assessment of welded structures. In some cases, these imperfections can lead to more serious problems developing - even catastrophic failure of the product due to cracks (perhaps started by an isolated arc strike).

Stray arcing or arc strikes

There are other potential problems such as incomplete fusion and crater pipes caused by poor stop/start technique. Excessively coarse grinding marks, whilst potentially ignored by the inspector, may set up small stress concentrations which could lead to failure of the product in service.

Crater pipe

Other workmanship features

We can still use the motor car analogy for visually examining a completed weldment - possibly even more so because when you assess the car there are several areas you would examine visually before driving the vehicle away. The bodywork of a motor car is in many ways similar to a weldment in that it will need to have certain visual characteristics such as the required contour (design shape).

Shape imperfections Overlap and sharp toe blend Other sharp imperfections include shape-type flaws such as overlap and sharp toe blend caused by excessive weld metal height on the weld face.

Overlap

Excess weld metal

Unfortunately, acceptance levels rarely provide guidance on the philosophy of sharp versus smooth imperfections.

Root penetration bead Excess root penetration and root concavity are other examples of shape-type imperfections and their degree of 'sharpness' should be assessed during visual inspection.

Excess penetration bead

Root concavity

Alignment In relation to other workmanship details which relate to construction, alignment of components and the manner in which they fit together is extremely important. Many specifications will set close limits and tolerances on both linear and angular alignment.

Dimensional checks Dimensional requirements are, of course, essential and the engineering drawing will provide appropriate dimensions and tolerances. It may also include weld symbols as a way of specifying the welding requirements. However, weld symbols are not part of this best practice guide. Further details can be obtained from ISO2553 or BS EN22553. Corrosion You would certainly assess a second hand car for corrosion or rusting and this could be sufficient reason for rejection. A similar principle can be applied to welded structures, especially if visual inspection is being employed in service during the life of the component. Colour Choice of colour may be one of the most influential factors in the purchase of a motor car. A weldment's colour is equally important as it will provide background on how efficient the gas shielding was during the welding operation (TIG and MIG/MAG processes). This can be the main criterion when visually inspecting weldments in reactive materials such as titanium. Knocks and dents This type of imperfection would certainly be assessed when visually examining a motor car and could be the reason for rejecting it. A welded structure may also suffer knocks and dents in the form of transportation damage, tool marks from chipping hammers and chisels or excessive grinding marks formed during the removal of surface contaminants. Other points on workmanship can be found in Section 2 of this best practice guide under Terminology and definitions .

Inclusions
Solid inclusions Solid inclusions such as slag (from manual metal arc welding, flux cored arc welding or submerged arc welding) are interpreted by many industrial sectors as being associated with lack of fusion imperfections. Furthermore, silica inclusions associated with the MAG welding of steel are commonly found to be the main cause of lack of fusion imperfections associated with the process. Visual inspection cannot find solid inclusions which are entirely sub-surface hence the need for non-destructive examination techniques such as radiography or ultrasonic testing. On the other hand, if the inspector engaged in visual inspection were to check the cleanliness of each weld pass during welding, the problem could, to some extent, be eliminated.

Slag inclusion

Gas inclusions Porosity and gas pores are difficult imperfections to assess by visual examination alone. This is due to the fact that they are not always surface-breaking and when they can be seen, the full extent of the problem is unknown until radiography or ultrasonic inspection has been carried out. Another problem is that porosity may hide other, more serious imperfections which cannot be found by any commonly used non-destructive examination methods.

Surface-breaking porosity

Imperfections associated with particular welding processes

Introduction An inspector with a sound knowledge of the welding process to be used can provide valuable information on avoiding typical defects associated with it. Process know-how will also allow the inspector to focus on particular areas after welding has been completed to pinpoint specific faults which could influence the acceptability of welds and the product overall. To illustrate this point, the TIG process can give very good weld pool control assuming appropriate welder skill. This means that the occurrence of shape-type defects, such as undercut or overlap, is unlikely compared with, for example, manual metal arc welding. However, tungsten inclusions and porosity are likely with the TIG process when compared with MIG/MAG welding to which lack of fusion problems have always been associated, especially when welding thicksection steel. The manual metal arc and submerged arc processes both utilise a flux. Slag is produced during welding which can create slag inclusions which are, therefore, associated with these process types. Also, submerged arc welding has a deep penetration characteristic, so an experienced inspector is likely to examine the completed weld with centreline cracking in mind because it is known that deep, narrow welds are susceptible to this type of cracking. It may also be necessary to carry out visual inspection during the welding operation to ensure that specific welding parameters are met or that the number or sequence of weld runs is in accordance with the welding procedure requirements. In practice, many factors can apply, depending on the type of product and its expected service performance. It is essential for those involved to hold a qualification in visual inspection or welding inspection such as CSWIP before embarking on more specialised work.

A brief outline of the common welding processes found in industry and their related, typical weld defects is given below -

TIG welding
Also known as: Tungsten Inert Gas Welding; Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTA or GTAW)

Process overview Type of operation Usually manual, but can be mechanised. Mode of operation An arc is maintained between the end of a tungsten electrode and the work. The electrode is not consumed and the current is controlled by the power source setting. The operator must control the arc length and also add filler metal if needed to obtain the correct weld. A high degree of skill is needed for best results. The arc is unstable at low currents. Special provision is made for starting (h.f. or surge injection) and for welding thin materials (pulsed TIG). In all cases the electrode and weld pool are shielded by a stream of inert gas. Filler rod is fed into the weld pool in some cases.

Typical defects associated with process

tungsten inclusions lack of fusion incomplete penetration root concavity undercut porosity burnthrough excess penetration oxide inclusions unequal leg length

MMA welding
Also known as Manual Metal Arc Weldng (MMA); Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMA or SMAW); Stick Welding

Process overview Type of operation Manual. Mode of operation Arc melts parent plate and electrode to form a weld pool which is protected by flux cover. Operator adjusts electrode feed rate, i.e. by hand movement, to keep arc length constant. Slag must be removed after depositing each bead. Normally a small degree of penetration, requiring plate edge preparation; but welds in thick plate or large fillets are deposited in a number of passes. The process can also be used to deposit metal to form a surface with alternative properties.

Typical defects associated with process

overlap porosity slag inclusions excessive spatter stray flash incomplete penetration excess penetration undercut crater cracks lack of fusion

MIG welding
Also known as: Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG); Metal Active Gas Welding (MAG); Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMA or GMAW)

Process overview Type of operation Manual, mechanised or automatic. Mode of operation An arc is maintained between the end of the bare wire electrode and the work. The wire is fed at a constant speed, selected to give the required current, and the arc length is controlled by the power source. The operator is not therefore concerned with controlling the arc length and can concentrate on depositing the weld metal in the correct manner.

The process can be operated at high currents (250-500A) when metal transfer is in the form of a 'spray', but, except for aluminium, this technique is confined to welding in the flat and horizontal positions. For vertical and overhead welding, special low-current techniques must be used, i.e. 'dip' transfer or pulsed arc. The arc and weld pool are shielded by a stream of gas. The electrode can be solid or flux cored.

Typical defects associated with process

incomplete penetration excessive penetration undercut excessive spatter cracking porosity lack of fusion stray flash

Submerged Arc Welding

Also known as: SAW

Process overview Type of operation Mechanised, automatic or semi-automatic. Mode of operation An arc is maintained between the end of a bare wire electrode and the work. As the electrode is melted, it is fed into the arc by a set of rolls, driven by a governed motor. Wire feed speed is automatically controlled to equal the rate at which the electrode is melted, thus arc length is constant. The arc operates under a layer of granular flux (hence 'submerged' arc). Some of the flux melts to provide a protective blanket over the weld pool; the remainder of the flux is unaffected and can be recovered and re-used provided that it is dry and not contaminated. A semi-automatic version is available in which the operator has control of a welding gun which carries a small quantity of flux in a hopper.

Typical defects associated with process

porosity cracking slag inclusions incomplete penetration excessive penetration weld profile defects undercut lack of fusion

Oxy-acetylene Welding
Also known as: Oxy Fuel Gas Welding; Gas Welding

Process overview Type of operation Manual. Mode of operation A fuel gas (usually acetylene) and an oxidant gas (oxygen) are mixed and burnt. The operator must manipulate the blowpipe to give the correct weld pool size, and also add filler metal as required. The melting is slow compared with arc processes, limiting the speed of work. The weld pool is shielded from atmospheric contamination by the burnt gas mixture which can be made mildly oxidising or reducing. Requires a very high level of operator skill. Typical defects associated with process

unequal leg length fillet butt weld profile too concave butt weld profile too convex undesirable weld profile (lap, fillet) excessive penetration excessive fusion of root edges burnthrough undercut along vertical member of fillet welded T joint root run too large with undercut in butt joint undercut both sides of weld face in butt joint oxidised weld face overheated weld incomplete root penetration in butt joints (single V or double V) incomplete root penetration in close square T joint

Conclusion
Visual examination of welds is a highly skilled activity. When correctly applied before, during and after welding, as both a quality control activity and a NDE technique, many problems associated with welding can be prevented. In contrast, non-destructive examination such as magnetic particle or penetrant inspection, radiography or ultrasonic testing may reveal imperfections AFTER welding has been completed, necessitating repair or a concession which invariably increases the overall cost of the product and delays completion and subsequent shipment. Formal training and qualifications in a broad range of welding technologies greatly contributes towards providing the skills and knowledge required to carry out effective visual inspection. This must be balanced with adequate on-the-job experience. Furthermore, practical experience, knowledge and correct interpretation of appropriate codes or specifications is essential to ensure accurate and efficient visual inspection of welded products.