THE CONTACT PROCESS

The Contact Process is an effective method o f producing sulphuricacid in three steps. The initial step is to make sulphur dioxide. This is normally done by burni ng sulphur in an excess of air or by heating sulphide ores in an excess of oxygen.About 70% of sulphuric acid is made from elemental sulphur.(Davenport and King 2006, pg. 5). Other options include metallurgical offgas, that includes sulphur dioxide, is able to be used for sulphuric acid productiononce the dust is removed from the gas as dust stops gas flow. 20% of sulphur dioxide is produced this way (Davenport and King 2006, pg 5,7). The third option to making sulphur dioxide is spent acid regeneration, when sulphuric acid which has been used as a catalyst is regenerated by catalysing oxidizing the offgas s SO2 to SO3.10% of sulphur dioxide is produced this way (Davenport and King 2006, pg. 7). The nextstep, is the reversible and exothermic conversion of sulphur dioxide into sulphur trioxide. This step occurs at high temperatures and low pressures to consider both equilibrium and rate.SO2 rich gases enter a catalytic converter and get converted to SO 3. The exit gases from this stage contain both SO 2 and SO3 which are passed through an absorption towers where sulphuric acid is dripped down columns.The catalytic converter and absorpt ion tower steps may be repeated. The final step is converting the sulp hur trioxide into sulphuric acid. This step involves dissolvi ng sulphuric acid to make oleum so that the sulphur dioxide is more controllable when you proceed to the next action, of adding water. The adding of water produces sulphuric acid. In the second step, the equilibrium needs to be shifted towards the forward re action, the production of sulphur trioxide. As this is exothermic, low temperatures f avour the forward reaction. 2SO2(g) + O 2(g) 2SO 3(g) H -100 MJ per kg-mole of SO 3 (Davenport and King 2006, pg 2)

However, the two types of catalysts used which are effective under usual gas conditions , vanadium and platinum, have are typically not active below 370C -420C (Donovan and McAlister 1982 pg 212). This is a restriction on this process, as these temperatures do not favour the forward reaction. A catalyst must be used because of the slow reaction time, and the most commercially used catalyst is vanadium pentoxide (Rinckhoff 1982, pg 35). So although low temperatures favour the forward reaction, it slows down the rate of reaction significantly. The high temperatures increase the cost, but make the reaction much more technically feasible. If you increase the pressure of the system during the oxidation of sulphur dioxide to sulphur trioxide, it will favour the conversion of sulphur trioxide. Therefore, high pressures will favour the forward reaction yet is not economically feasible so are performed at low pressures. Even at low pressures close to atmospheric, there is a 99.5% conversion of sulphur dioxide into sulphur trioxide. ( Clark 2002). The increase of conversion from increasing the pressure isn t worth the increase in cost of production. Higher pressures then 1 bar would need all equipment to be designed as pressure vessels for safety reasons (Louie 1961, pg. 3-3). The choice to proceed this reaction with high temperatures and low pressures finds a balance between what is economically feasible, low pressures and low temperatures, and technically feasible. Increasing temperature increases the rate more significantly making the process more efficiently but doesn t need as expensive cost as increasing the pressure, which changes safety aspects which hence require more expensive equipment, as well as operational costs. Ultimately, the operations of the contact process a safe, with a balance between the most efficient and economically feasible option. The second step, the conversion of sulphur dioxide to sulphur trioxide, needs to take place in the presence of a catalyst. A single absorption sulphuric acid plant consist of one or more catalyst beds arranged in series followed by an absorption tower to absorb the sulphur t rioxide formed. After sulphur dioxide is oxidised to sulphur trioxide, t he sulphur trioxide is absorbed by concentrated sulphuric acid in absorbers . In the absorbers, the sulphur trioxide is converted to sulphuric acid by water. Conversion efficiencies of 95% to 98% sulphur dioxide to sulphuric acid are typical (Louie 1961, pg. 3-3).In the double contact process, a primary conversion efficiency of 80% to 93%, depending on the arrangement of the contact beds and of contact time, is obtained in the primary co ntact stage of a converter preceding the intermediate absorber. (Afghan Energy, Chemical & Mining Industries 2004 ) After cooling the gases, the sulphur trioxide already formed is absorbed in the intermediate absorber in sulphuric acid. The absorption of t he sulphur trioxide brings about a considerable shift in the reaction equilibrium towards the formation of SO 3 because residual sulphur dioxide has been removed from the mixture, resulting in considerably higher overall conversion efficiencies. ( Louie 1961, pg. 3-3) The sulphur trioxide formed in the secondary stage is absorbed in the final absorber.The conversion efficiency in new plants can rea ch about 99.6%. (Afghan Energy, Chemical & Mining Industries 2004 ). Double contact acid making is more effi cient than single contact acid making. However,this extra efficiency is accompanied with extra costs; additional heat exchangers, energy for moving gas and acid through the second absorber and the cost of a second absorbing tower. Friedman believes double absorption process requires more capital than single absorption yet shows significant operating cost advantages (Friedman 1982 ). However, the costs are a compromise needed to be made to increase the efficiency of the conversion. Dual absorptionhas generall y been accepted as the best available control

technology for meeting NSPS emission limits acid (Inorganic Chemical Industry no date). There are no by-products or waste scrubbing materials created, only additional sulphuric trioxide. So in addition to the dual contact sulphuric acid process is not only efficiently feasible but is environmentally feasible. A double contact sulphuric acid production process is environmentally feasible as there are no by -products and emissions are low. Due to low damage to the environment and the safety of production the general public could accept such a process. The double contact sulphuric acid production has a very high conversion rate of 99.6% and is very efficient, although through being technically and efficiency feasible, there is additional costs generated. The downfall in the economic aspect though, is a comprise that is more than reasonable to consider.

POWERPOINT
- The Contact Process is an effective method of producing sulphur dioxide in three steps.
-The initial step is to make sulphur dioxide. Burning sulphur, metallurgical off -gas or spent acid regeneration.70% is made from burning sulphur. -The next step, is the conversion of sulphur dioxide into sulphur trioxide. 2SO2(g) + O 2(g) 2SO 3(g) H -100 MJ per kg-mole of SO3. A reversible and exothermic conversion. This step occurs at high temperatures and low pressures . Low temperatures is favourable towards the forward reaction but at a slow rate. Catalysts vanadium and platinum are not active below 370C-420C. Technically feasible to occur at high temperatures as it increases the rate . High pressures would again favour the forward reaction, but is not safe without spending additionally money. Even at low pressures close to atmospheric, there is a 99.5% conversion of sulphur dioxide into sulphur trioxide occurs. Small sacrifice in efficiency, for a safer and cheaper production.

-The final step is converting the sulphur trioxide into sulphuric acid with the addition of water.

-Single Absorption or Double Absorption. -Single Absorption has a conversion efficiency of 95% to 98% sulphur dioxide to sulphuric acid.
Economically feasible in comparison to dual absorption. -Double Absorption has a conversion efficiency of 99.6%. Dual absorption has generally been accepted as the best available control technology for meeting NSPS emission limits acid. Matches requirement with safety and the environment; this process should be accepted by the general public. The absorption of the sulphur trioxide brings about a considerable shift in the reaction equilibrium towards the formation of SO 3 making this process more technically feasible. Requires additional costs yet Friedman believes that the additional capital there is significant operating cost advantages

REFERENCES
Davenport, W G and King, M J 2006 ,Sulfuric Acid Manufacture: Analysis, Control and Optimization,Elsevier Ltd., UK

Donovan, J. R. and McAlister, D. R. 1982, Sulphuric Acid Plants: R & D Report , in Chemical Engineering Progress (editors), Sulfuric/Phosphoric Acid Plant Operations , American Institute of Chemical Engineers, United States of America, New York , pp 212-215 Rinckhoff, J. B. 1982, Nature s Law for Sulfuric Acid Plants , in Chemical Engineering Progress (editors), Sulfuric/Phosphoric Acid Plant Operations , American Institute of Chemical Engineers, United States of America, New York, pp33-40 Friedman, J. L. 1982, Sulfuric Acid Energy Design for the 80s , in Chemical En gineering Progress (editors), Sulfuric/Phosphoric Acid Plant Operations , American Institute of Chemical Engineers, United States of America, New York, pp 101-107 Jim Smith 2002, Chemguide, United Kingdom, accessed 02/03/2011<http://www.chemguide.co.uk/physical/equilibria/contact.html > Louie, D. K. 1961, Handbook of Sulfuric Acid Manufacturing , DKL Engineering Inc., Canada Inorganic Chemical Industry no date, US EPA, United States of America, accessed 05/03/2011 <www.epa.gov/ttnchie1/ap42/ch08/final/c08s10.pdf> Afghan Energy, Chemical & Mining Industries 2004, Nawabi , Afghanistan, accessed 09/03/2011 <http://nawabi.de/chemical/Sulphuric_Acid.asp>