Genre in Three Traditions: Implications for ESL

SUNNY HYON
California State University, San Bernardino

Within the last two decades, a number of researchers have been interested in genre as a tool for developing L1 and L2 instruction. Both genre and genre-based pedagogy, however, have been conceived of in distinct ways by researchers in different scholarly traditions and in different parts of the world, making the genre literature a complicated body of scholarship to understand. The purpose of this article is to provide a map of current genre theories and teaching applications in three research areas where genre scholarship has taken significantly different paths: (a) English for specific purposes (ESP), (b) North American New Rhetoric studies, and (c) Australian systemic functional linguistics. The article compares definitions and analyses of genres within these three traditions and examines their contexts, goals, and instructional frameworks for genre-based pedagogy. The investigation reveals that ESP and Australian genre research provides ESL instructors with insights into the linguistic features of written texts as well as useful guidelines for presenting these features in classrooms. New Rhetoric scholarship, on the other hand, offers language teachers fuller perspectives on the institutional contexts around academic and professional genres and the functions genres serve within these settings.

n the past 15 years, the concept of genre has been the focus of a wave of studies in a number of fields concerned with L1 and L2 teaching. Traditionally a literary construct, genre has become a popular framework for analyzing the form and function of nonliterary discourse, such as the research article, as well as a tool for developing educational practices in fields such as rhetoric, composition studies, professional writing, linguistics, and English for specific purposes (ESP). Candlin (1993) has marveled at the recent sweeping interest in genre across disciplines: What is it about the term and the area of study it represents that attracts such attention? . . . Clearly, a concept that has found its time (p. ix). Similarly, Freedman and Medway (1994b) observe that in composition studies, the word genre is on everyones lips, from researchers and scholars to curriculum planners and teachers (p. 1).

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The growing force of the genre movement in L1 and L2 teaching circles in various parts of the world is reflected in a recent proliferation of genre conferences, including Australias Working With Genre series (1989, 1991, 1993) and North Americas Rethinking Genre colloquium (Ottawa, 1992). The movement has also sparked substantial debate, particularly in Australia, where genre-based education has come under attack from process writing proponents (see the debates in Martin, Christie, & Rothery, 1987; Reid, 1987; Sawyer&Watson, 1987; Threadgold, 1988), although similar controversies have begun to take off in North America as well (Fahnestock, 1993; Freedman, 1993, 1994; Williams & Colomb, 1993). Because of its fast-growing, controversial nature, genre scholarship has been a complicated movement to understand in a number of respects. It has been referred to as a movement which . . . has the positive potential to mean many things to many people (Cope & Kalantzis, 1993a, p. 2). It has also been on a fast track of change, with conference titles such as Rethinking Genre (Ottawa, 1992) and Strictly Genre? (Sydney, 1993) reflecting the dynamism of the field. To understand all of the currents in this new area of study as well as their implications for L1 and L2 teaching requires a close examination of the various approaches to genre, particularly in three research traditions where genre scholarship has been most fully developed and where its theory and pedagogical applications have taken significantly different paths. These three focal areas are (a) ESP, (b) North American New Rhetoric studies, and (c) Australian systemic functional linguistics. To date, few comparisons have been conducted of these genre worlds. Although Freedman and Medway (1994d) have recently contrasted the stances of North American [New Rhetoric] scholars and Sydney School genre educationalists (p. 10), a number of features of the New Rhetoric, Australian, and ESP approaches to genre and genre-based pedagogy remain to be investigated. The purpose of this article is to provide a guide to current genre theories and genre-based teaching applications in these three research traditions and to explore their effectiveness for ESL reading and writing instruction. The comparison is based on an examination of genre scholarship and interviews conducted with researchers in the field. The article begins by examining the definitions of genres and approaches to text analysis central to ESP, New Rhetoric, and Australian systemic functional research. I then examine the contexts and goals of genrebased pedagogy within these research areas and explore the types of instructional guidelines developed for implementing these applications and the degrees to which they have affected educational sectors. I note how forums of genre research as well as researchers beliefs about the usefulness of explicit teaching have shaped the types of genre-based 694 TESOL QUARTERLY

applications proposed. The article concludes by discussing the usefulness of various genre theories and pedagogical applications for L2 teaching contexts and raising several questions about the nature of genre-based instruction within the ESL curriculum. GENRE THEORY AND ANALYSIS ESP Analyses Researchers in ESP have been interested in genre as a tool for analyzing and teaching the spoken and written language required of nonnative speakers in academic and professional settings (Bhatia, 1993; Flowerdew, 1993; Gosden, 1992; Hopkins & Dudley-Evans, 1988; Love, 1991; Nwogu, 1991; Swales, 1990a; Thompson, 1994; Weissberg, 1993). Scholars in this field have framed genres as oral and written text types defined by their formal properties as well as by their communicative purposes within social contexts. Swales (1981, 1986, 1990a), whose research has been seminal in shaping genre theory in ESP, describes genres as communicative events that are characterized both by their communicative purposes and by various patterns of structure, style, content and intended audience (1990a, p. 58). The concern for both social function and form is echoed in other ESP definitions of genre (Bhatia, 1993; Flowerdew, 1993; Hopkins& Dudley-Evans, 1988; Thompson, 1994 Weissberg, 1993). In their analyses of texts, however, many ESP scholars have paid particular attention to detailing the formal characteristics of genres while focusing less on the specialized functions of texts and their surrounding social contexts. A number of researchers, for example, have used structural move analyses to describe global organizational patterns in genres such as experimental research articles (Swales, 1981, 1990a), master of science dissertations (Hopkins & Dudley-Evans, 1988), medical abstracts (Salager-Meyer, 1990), popularized medical research reports (Nwogu, 1991), business letters (Bhatia, 1993), and university lectures (Thompson, 1994). Others have looked at sentence-level grammatical features, such as verb tense, hedges, and passive voice, in these text types (Hanania & Akhtar, 1985; Salager-Meyer, 1994; Swales, 1990a; Tarone, Dwyer, Gillette, & Icke, 1981). New Rhetoric Studies Research emerging from what have come to be known as New Rhetoric studies (Coe, 1994a; Freedman & Medway, 1994a) reflects a somewhat different approach to conceptualizing and analyzing genre than that GENRE IN THREE TRADITIONS: IMPLICATIONS FOR ESL 695

found in ESP. New Rhetoric research describes a body of North American scholarship from a variety of disciplines concerned with L1 teaching, including rhetoric, composition studies, and professional writing. Genre scholars in these areas have differed from those in ESP as they have focused more on the situational contexts in which genres occur than on their forms and have placed special emphases on the social purposes, or actions, that these genres fulfill within these situations (Bazerman, 1988, 1994; Campbell & Jamieson, 1978; Coe, 1994a; Devitt, 1993; Freedman& Medway, 1994d; Miller, 1984, 1994; Schryer, 1993, 1994; Slevin, 1988; Smart, 1993; Van Nostrand, 1994; Yates & Orlikowski, 1992). Millers article Genre as Social Action (1984) has been seminal in shaping New Rhetoric genre theory within L1 disciplines. In it, Miller argues, a rhetorically sound definition of genre must be centered not on the substance or the form of discourse but on the action it is used to accomplish (p. 151 ). In line with their focus on the functional and contextual aspects of genres, a number of scholars in New Rhetoric fields have used ethnographic rather than linguistic methods for analyzing texts, offering thick descriptions of academic and professional contexts surrounding genres and the actions texts perform within these situations (Bazerman, 1988; Devitt, 1991; Schryer, 1993, 1994; Smart, 1992, 1993). Schryer (1993), for example, in her discussion of the problem-solving veterinary medical record genre, includes a verbal map of the college setting in which it is used: After walking through the oldest section of the complex, the visitor descends the stairs and walks through a series of tunnels to arrive at the Clinical Studies area (p. 202). She used a variety of ethnographic techniques, including participant observation, interviews, and document collection, to investigate the purposes of the record within the medical college and the attitudes of clinicians and researchers toward this genre. Others have adopted ethnographic approaches to study genres in scientific research communities (Bazerman, 1988), tax accounting firms (Devitt, 1991), and bank offices (Smart, 1992, 1993). Australian Genre Theories Although Australian genre theories have developed during roughly the same period as those of ESP and New Rhetoric studies, they have evolved mainly independently of both traditions. Australian approaches to genre have been centered within a larger theory of language known as systemic functional linguistics, developed by British-born scholar Michael Halliday, who founded the University of Sydneys linguistics department in 1975 and has since greatly influenced language theory and education in Australia. Broadly speaking, systemic functional linguistics is concerned with the relationship between language and its functions in social 696 TESOL QUARTERLY

settings. The forms of language are said to be shaped by key features of the surrounding social context, defined by Halliday as field (the activity going on), tenor (the relationships between participants) and mode (the channel of communication) (Halliday, 1978; Halliday & Hasan, 1989; Hammond, Burns, Joyce, Brosnan, & Gerot, 1992). These three elements together determine the register of language (Halliday, 1978; Halliday & Hasan, 1989). Although register rather than genre has been Hallidays central construct for analyzing language, some of his Australian students, most notably Jim Martin, have developed theories of genre within a systemic functional framework. Reflecting Hallidays concern for linking form, function, and social context, Martin and his systemic colleagues have defined genres as staged, goal-oriented social processes, structural forms that cultures use in certain contexts to achieve various purposes (Martin, Christie, & Rothery, 1987). In analyzing these social processes, Australian genre scholars have differed from both ESP and New Rhetoric researchers in their focus on primary and secondary school genres and nonprofessional workplace texts rather than on university and professional writing (Callaghan, Knapp, & Noble, 1993; Christie, 1991; Hammond, 1987; Joyce, 1992; Martin, 1989.1 Their analyses have resembled those of many ESP researchers, however, in their attention to the linguistic features characteristic of various genres. Freedman and Medway (1994d) note that this concern with text form distinguishes the Australian work from the sociocontextual genre descriptions in New Rhetoric: There is far greater emphasis by the Sydney School scholars on explicating textual features, using Hallidayan schemes of linguistic analysis (p. 9). These schemes have focused on both global text structure and sentencelevel register features, associated with field, tenor, and mode (Christie, 1991; Hammond, 1987; Hammond, Burns, et al., 1992; Literacy and Education Research Network [LERN], 1990a, 1990b, 1990c, 1990d; Martin, 1991; Martin, 1993a; Martin & Rothery, 1980). ESP, New Rhetoric, and systemic functional scholarship thus embrace unique approaches to defining and analyzing spoken and written genres. These different theoretical perspectives are reflected in the genre-based teaching applications developed within each of the three research areas. CONTEXTS AND GOALS OF GENRE-BASED PEDAGOGY Genre-based pedagogy, in all its forms, involves some kind of classroom consideration of genres and the contexts in which they are found.
1 A few North American researchers have focused on genre-based pedagogy for primary and secondary school settings (Grabe & Gilbert, 1992; Lemke, 1988).

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In the three traditions discussed in this article, such pedagogy has generally focused on written texts and been directed at writing classrooms, although some ESP researchers have recently discussed genrebased applications for ESL oral communication (Dudley-Evans, 1994; Thompson, 1994; Weissberg, 1993). Beyond these fundamentals, however, researchers in ESP, New Rhetoric, and Australian systemic functional linguistics have developed genre-based pedagogy in different directions and with different goals and educational sites in mind. Contexts ESP: EAP and EPC Classes In ESP, researchers have focused on the implications of genre theory and analysis for English for academic purposes (EAP) and English for professional communication (EPC) classrooms. SchoIars working in these contexts have proposed that genre-based applications can help nonnative speakers of English master the functions and linguistic conventions of texts that they need to read and write in their disciplines and professions (Bhatia, 1993; Flowerdew, 1993; Swales, 1990a). As might be expected from their formal text analyses, many ESP researchers particularly emphasize the teaching of genre structures and grammatical features. Researchers examining scientific genres, for example, have suggested that their analyses offer pedagogically useful information for helping students control the organizational and stylistic features of these texts (Gosden, 1992; Love, 1991; Salager-Meyer, 1994; Swales, 1981, 1990a). In his early work in ESP, Swales (1981) suggested that one of his aims was to help students follow the linguistic conventions of the research article introduction in their own texts. In this way, he saw himself as a prescriptive teacher . . . requiring my students to demonstrate to my satisfaction that they can communicate effectively within the confines and constraints of the models I have constructed (p. 88). New Rhetoric: University and Professions By contrast, New Rhetoric researchers, in line with their theoretical focus on sociocontextual aspects of genres, have predictably been less concerned with the potential of genre theory for teaching text form and more with its role in helping university students and novice professionals understand the social functions or actions of genres and the contexts in which these genres are used (Bazerman, 1988; Devitt, 1993; Freedman & Medway, 1994b; Miller, 1994). Miller suggests that concern with genre function should be central to writing instruction, arguing that the 698 TESOL QUARTERLY

failure to understand genre as social action afflicts the typical first-year college writing program in the United States; it turns what should be a practical art of achieving social ends into a productive art of making texts that fit certain formal requirements (p. 67). Similarly, Bazerman, an expert in scientific rhetoric, suggests that the goal of writing pedagogy should not be just to give students the formal trappings of the genres they need to work in but to enhance students understanding of all of the life embodied in texts (p. 320). He argues that knowledge of social contexts surrounding texts is essential for helping writers select rhetoric that is appropriate for their situations: The more you understand the fundamental assumptions and aims of the community, the better able you will be . . . to evaluate whether the rhetorical habits you and your colleagues bring to the task are appropriate and effective (p. 323). Freedman and Medway also contend that in learning a genre, what has to be attended to . . . are features of the situation . . . . Knowing the gross surface features is the easy part, and insufficient on its own (pp. 111 2). Indeed, the work of New Rhetoric scholars has begun to influence ESP genre theory and practice (Bhatia, 1993; Johns, 1993a; Swales, 1990a,1993). Both Bhatia and Swales discuss the research of Carolyn Miller and attend to contextual and functional issues in their definitions of texts and aims for genre-based pedagogy. Australia: Primary, Secondary, and Adult Education In Australia, the contexts as well as some of the goals for genre-based instruction have differed from those of both ESP and New Rhetoric. Although some systemic pedagogical efforts have been directed toward tertiary education (Drury & Webb, 1991), genre-based applications have been centered mainly in child and adolescent contextsprimary and secondary schoolsand more recently in adult migrant English education and workplace training programs. Genre-based instruction began as an educational experiment (Cope & Kalantzis, 1993a, p. 1) in Sydney schools as researchers examined the types of writing primary school students were producing in progressive, process writing classrooms (Martin, 1989, 1991). Out of a concern that students were not being prepared to write a range of text types, genre experts began to develop a new approach to literacy education. In the late 1980s, a number of researchers (including Mike Callaghan, Bill Cope, Anne Cranny-Francis, Mary Kalantzis, Peter Knapp, Gunther Kress, Mary Macken, Robyn Mamouney, Jim Martin, Joan Rothery, and Diana Slade) founded the Literacy and Education Research Network (LERN) (Cope, Kalantzis, Kress, & Martin, 1993, p. 239), which was committed to developing an instructional approach that would help students master a variety of GENRE IN THREE TRADITIONS: IMPLICATIONS FOR ESL 699

school genres, including those linked to what Martin (1989) has called factual writing such as reports, procedures, expositions, and explanations. Since these school initiatives, a number of Australian adult sectors have also developed genre-based applications. Hammond, Wickert, Burns, Joyce, and Miller (1992) report that 42% of the adult language and literacy experts they surveyed cited the genre based approach and systemic linguistics, from which the notion of genre derives, as informing their organisations views of literacy (p. 60). One adult sector that has adopted a genre-based orientation is the New South Wales Adult Migrant English Service (NSW AMES), an organization that provides a variety of government-supported English courses to newly arrived migrants from non-English-speaking backgrounds. This state AMES operates under the national Adult Migrant English Program (AMEP), the largest government-funded language teaching program in the world, serving approximately 42,000 students each year (Strong & Candlin, 1993; Helen Joyce and Susan Hood, personal communication, December 1994). The AMES has also aligned its genre-based curriculum with competency-based workplace training initiatives recently instituted by the Australian federal government to enhance the competitiveness of Australian industries (Feez & Joyce, 1995; National Training Board, 1992). The central curriculum document of the AMES says it responds to the National Training Reform Agenda (Hagan et al., p. 8) and has been linked to the enhancement of labour market productivity of migrants from nonEnglish speaking backgrounds (Strong & Candlin, 1993, p. i). Goals Helping Students Succeed The aims of genre-based pedagogy in these different Australian contexts have been similar to those of both ESP and New Rhetoric in their overarching concern with helping students become more successful readers and writers of academic and workplace texts. Callaghan (1991) contends that the goal of systemic functional grammar and genre-based teaching for primary and secondary schools is to help students participate effectively in the school curriculum and the broader community (p. 72). In achieving this goal, Australian researchers acknowledge the importance of teaching the social functions and contexts of texts described in Martin, Christie, and Rotherys (1987) definition of genres as staged, goal oriented social processes (Callaghan, Knapp, & Noble, 1993; Hammond, 1987; Kress, 1993). Hammond observes that what such [genre-based] programs have in common is, first of all, an emphasis on the function and meaning of language in context (p. 172). 700 TESOL QUARTERLY

However, as in ESP, emphasis has also been placed on teaching students the formal, staged qualities of genres so that they can recognize these features in the texts that they read and use them in the texts that they write (Christie, 1991, 1992; Hagan et al., 1993; Hammond, 1987; LERN, 1990a, 1990b, 1990c, 1990d). Hammond asserts that part of genre-based instruction involves classroom discussion of text structure, of how to best begin and end [a text], of what to put in the middle, of how best to organize information (p. 173). Similarly, Hagan et al. contend that it is essential to make the structures and features of the text explicit. Mastery of text types does not develop naturally and we need to intervene by introducing models and analysing them (p. 11). Empowering Students The Australian concern for teaching the discourse conventions of school and workplace genres is often framed in ideological terms, with genre-based instruction described as a tool for empowering students with linguistic resources for social success (Christie, 1989, 1991; Cope & Kalantzis, 1993a; Knapp, 1991; Kress, 1993; Martin, 1993b). Certain genres have been argued to offer their users access to . . . certain realms of social influence and power (Cope & Kalantzis, p. 7; see also Christie, 1991 ). Some of the target populations that Australian researchers have attempted to reach with powerful school genres, such as report and exposition, have been those from minority and other nonmainstream groups who have had less exposure to such texts than mainstream students have (Cope & Kalantzis, 1993a; Hammond, 1987). Sydneys Metropolitan East Disadvantaged Schools, central to the initial genre efforts, have approximately 90% of their students from non-English speaking backgrounds and the highest number of Aboriginal students of any region in this state (Knapp, p. 46).2 In the adult sector, some of the new migrants served by the AMES as well as other workplace training programs are also those from limited educational and non-English-speaking backgrounds (Hagan et al., 1993; Kalantzis & Solomon, 1993). In its concern for giving various learner groups access to linguistic and social resources, Kress (1993) argues, genre work [in Australia] has been both a pedagogical and political project (p. 28). Similarly, Christie (1991 ) proposes that teaching students about genres and language in general is an ideological matter of social justice, insisting that as long as we leave matters of language use available to some and not to others, then we maintain a society which permits and perpetuates injustice of many kinds (p. 83).
2 Statistics

given as current in Knapp (1992).

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New Rhetoric genre studies have not been as ideologically charged in their discussions of genre-based teaching. Freedman and Medway ( 1994d) observe that this liberationist stance has been absent along with the vocabulary of power and domination (p. 10). The lack of political edge here can be attributed at least in part to the fact that many of the learner groups in focus are mainstream undergraduate and graduate students and professionals (Bazerman, 1988; Freedman, 1994; Killingsworth & Gilbertson, 1992; Schryer, 1993, 1994; Smart, 1992, 1993), who are not likely to be perceived as needing the same degree of empowering as some of the key Australian populations. The absence of strong ideological language in ESP genre work may be due to similar reasons. Although ESP applications aim to help nonnative speakers acquire the genres of English-speaking discourse communities, these learners may not always be viewed as needing empowerment and liberation perhaps because, as Johns (1993b) observes, they are often graduate students and others representing the educational and economic elite of the world (p. 85). INSTRUCTIONAL FRAMEWORKS In converting their pedagogical goals into action, ESP, New Rhetoric, and Australian genre scholars have varied in the amount and types of guidelines developed for bringing genre into language classrooms. The ESP Framework In ESP, many researchers have presented their descriptions of genres as useful discourse models for ESP writing instructors but have not detailed instructional methodologies for presenting this content in the classroom (Gosden, 1992; Hanania & Akhtar, 1985; Hopkins & DudleyEvans, 1988; Love, 1991; Nwogu, 1991; Tarone et al., 1981). Hopkins and Dudley-Evans, for example, offer their analysis of cyclical move patterns in scientific masters dissertations as a teaching/learning resource (p. 120) for ESP classrooms but do not describe how to convert this model into materials and tasks, saying only, We regard it as self-evident that the description and classification of genres and subgenres will be of value to teachers and learners (p. 119). Some ESP genre specialists, however, have been more explicit about teaching applications (Bhatia, 1993; Flowerdew, 1993; Swales, 1990a; Weissberg & Buker, 1990). Swales (1990a), for example, discusses classroom tasks used in his Dissertation, Thesis, and Prospectus Writing class to help nonnative speakers become better writers of the genre of request letters to academics. He also suggests activities for teaching the structure 702 TESOL QUARTERLY

of research article introductions, including marking up texts with colored pens and reconstructing the proper order of a jumbled introduction (Swales, 1981, 1990a). More recently, Swales and Feaks (1994) textbook Academic Writing for Graduate Students provides models of rhetorical forms, such as problem-solution and data commentary, as well as language analysis tasks aimed at helping nonnative-speaking graduate students master these discourse conventions in their own writing. In the Asian ESP world, Bhatia (1993) has converted his analyses of business and scientific genres into a set of self-access English for business and technology (EBT) materials for several polytechnic universities in Singapore. Developed by Bhatia and other EBT specialists, this twovolume set of materials provides students with models of genres such as the sales promotion letter, business memo, job application, and lab report as well as a set of worksheets for identifying the language strategies in these genres and for constructing business and scientific texts using these strategies. Flowerdew (1993) also describes activities he uses to raise students genre awareness in EPC courses at the City Polytechnic of Hong Kong. Arguing that there is no way to predict the wide range of possible genres students of English for Professional Communication will need to participate in (p. 309), he proposes that students be trained in the techniques of text analysis that they can use to identify the discourse conventions of new genres outside of the classroom. Such techniques include flow chart analyses of genre structure, gap filling of structural slots, and concordancing of verb forms found in genres such as the sales letter (Flowerdew, 1993, pp. 310312). The New Rhetoric Framework In contrast to the applied focus of some of this ESP work, New Rhetoric literature has generally lacked explicit instructional frameworks for teaching students about the language features and functions of academic and professional genres. As Freedman and Medway (1994d) note, Direct translations into teaching are almost entirely absent (p. 10). Like some in ESP, New Rhetoric scholars have focused on providing descriptions of genres and their contexts and left it up to readers to infer their own teaching applications (Bazerman, 1988; Giltrow, 1994; Miller, 1984, 1994; Par & Smart, 1994; Schryer, 1993; Van Nostrand, 1994; Yates & Orlikowski, 1992). Only in the last paragraph of her article Genre as Social Action, for example, does Miller (1984) state that such a theory has implications . . . for rhetorical education (p. 165). The recent work of a few L1 scholars, however, has reflected a greater focus on applications. Freedman and Medways Learning and Teaching Genre ( 1994c) is the first collection of research to consider how New Rhetoric genre theory, with its emphasis on text context and function, GENRE IN THREE TRADITIONS: IMPLICATIONS FOR ESL 703

can inform L1 composition instruction. In this volume, Coe ( 1994b) describes classroom procedures for raising university students awareness of the social contexts that shape their writing. At the top of each assignment, he asks students to specify the features of the rhetorical situation, including the purpose of the text, the audience of the text, and the circumstances of the writing. He then assesses the students text based on how well it responds to this context. Also in the Freedman and Medway volume, Bialostosky (1994) describes how he focuses students attention on everyday speech genres, such as apologies, in teaching poetry in undergraduate literature courses. The Australian Framework In contrast with the relatively few discussions of classroom methodology in New Rhetoric, the Australian systemic functional literature has promoted several instructional frameworks for implementing genrebased pedagogy (Cope et al., 1993; Hammond, Burns, et al., 1992; Joyce, 1992; LERN, 1990a, 1990b, 1990c, 1990d). In the schools, the LERN project has worked with Sydneys Disadvantaged Schools Program to develop the most widely recognized Australian model for genre instruction (Cope & Kalantzis, 1993a; Cope et al., 1993; LERN, 1990a). This model maps out a teaching-learning cycle . . . in the figure of a wheel (Cope & Kalantzis, p. 10). Shown in Figure 1, the teaching-learning cycle outlines the process of genre instruction in three phases: modeling, joint negotiation of text, and independent construction of text. As described in the figure, the modelling phase involves teacher-led presentation of text type(s) and their various features, including what the texts are for (functions), how the information in the [texts] is organised (schematic structure) and aspects of the way the text speaks (lexico-grammatical features) (Cope & Kalantzis, 1993a, p. 10).3 Phase 2 of the cycle, the joint negotiation phase, involves a negotiating process between the teacher and the class in which the teacher . . . acts as a scribe for the class group and shapes the students contributions into a text which approximates to the genre under focus (LERN, 1990a, p. 11). The rationale for the close guidance of the teacher in both the modelling and joint construction stages is that language acquisition . . . is really highly interventionist (Callaghan, Knapp, & Noble, 1993, p. 181; see also Martin, 1986). In the next stage, students are given an opportunity to construct an instance of the genre on their own. The
3 Callaghan, Knapp, & Noble (1993) note that the social context of a genre is also modeled. This context can be specific to an educational setting or subject or a wider social activity (p. 181). For example, one teacher they observed linked the explanation genre to the topic of the greenhouse effect (pp. 183188).

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FIGURE 1 The Teaching and Learning Cycle

Note. From Teaching Factual Writing: A Genre-Based Approach. Report of the Disadvantaged Schools Program Literacy Project (p. 39), by M. Callaghan and J. Rothery, 1988, Sydney, Australia Metropolitan East Disadvantaged Schools Program. Copyright 1988 by Metropolitan East Disadvantaged Schools Program. Reprinted with permission.

cycle is meant to be used flexibly, with teachers encouraged to enter and reenter into the cycle in a way that best meets students needs (Callaghan, Knapp, & Noble, p. 182). Some adult language and literacy researchers have used a revised version of the LERN cycle with an additional segment called building knowledge of the field, which aims to develop students knowledge of the social context and content topic of the genre at hand (Hammond, Burns, et al., 1992; Joyce, 1992). Researchers in the Australian adult ESL sector have also developed a
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model for genre-based curricula within a competency framework promoted by national workplace training reforms (Hagan et al., 1993; National Training Board, 1992). The NSW AMESs Certificate in Spoken and Written English outlines specific English language competency areas for migrant English programs in terms of genres (Hagan et al.). As shown in Figure 2, one of the competencies in the vocational English strand is described as the ability to write a procedural text. The elements of this competency are defined as the essential linguistic features of the text (Hagen et al., p. 69), including purpose, schematic structure, vocabulary, and grammatical forms. For each genre competency, the Certificate describes a set of performance criteria indicating students mastery of the text elements as well as sample texts and tasks for assessing learner facility with the genre. Reasons for Differences in Instructional Frameworks The differences in the attention given to genre-based instructional methodology in ESP, New Rhetoric, and Australian systemic functional linguistics can be attributed to several factors, including the publication forums and consumers of these different bodies of research as well as researchers beliefs about the efficacy of explicit genre teaching for language classrooms. Different Audiences In ESP, a significant amount of work on genre has been published in research journals such as English for Specific Purposes (Gosden, 1992; Hanania & Akhtar, 1985; Hopkins & Dudley-Evans, 1988; Love, 1991, 1993; Nwogu, 1991; Salager-Meyer, 1994; Tarone et al., 1981; Thompson, 1994; Weissberg, 1993) and Text (Salager-Meyer, 1990), which are geared toward academic readers with a strong interest in discourse analysis. Similarly, New Rhetoric work on genre has been published in scholarly journals such as College Composition and Communication (Devitt, 1993), Quarterly Journal of Speech (Miller, 1984), and Written Communication (Berkenkotter & Huckin, 1993; Schryer, 1993) as well as books directed at academic audiences (Bazerman, 1988; Freedman & Medway, 1994a, 1994c; Killingsworth & Gilbertson, 1992). The scholarly nature of these publications and their readers helps account for the focus of much ESP and New Rhetoric research on genre theory and text analyses rather than on programmatic teaching models and materials. Although it shares some of the types of research forums and audiences of ESP and New Rhetoric work, Australian genre literature has been aimed at different consumers as well, leading to a greater emphasis on 706 TESOL QUARTERLY

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instructional frameworks. Audiences for Australian genre work have included academic readers of such journals as Australian Review of Applied Linguistics (Hammond, 1987) and Annual Review of Applied Linguistics (Christie, 1992; Martin, 1993b) as well as a number of books discussing genre theory, the history of the genre movement, and systemic functional linguistics (Christie, 1990; Cope & Kalantzis, 1993b; Halliday & Martin, 1993). Outside of these forums, however, Australian genre scholarship also reflects a strong partnership with schoolteachers and adult language and literacy instructors, some of whom work outside of academic research networks. The connection with these audiences has led to the development of pedagogical models, like the LERN teachinglearning cycle, and other classroom materials that meet the pragmatic concerns of teachers interested in applying genre in the classroom (Christie at al., 1990; Knapp, 1992; LERN, 1990a, 1990b, 1990c, 1990d; Literacy and Learning Program, 1992). LERN, for example, has created a four-volume set of teacher guidebooks for implementing a genre-based approach in primary schools. Book 1 of the series gives examples of student texts illustrating several school genres, presents the teachinglearning cycle, and suggests links between genres and curriculum areas. Books 2 and 3 offer sample lessons (at each stage of the cycle) for teaching factual and story genres, and Book 4 describes key systemic functional concepts and gives accounts of teachers experiences with the LERN materials. Knapps (1992) teacher guidebook also provides descriptions of school genres and guidance for lesson planning. In the adult ESL sector, Hammond, Burns, et al. (1992) have created a genre-based handbook (English for Social Purposes) for teachers working in the context of adult ESL and adult literacy education (p. vi). This book presents the teaching-learning cycle and outlines sample lessons in terms of goals, objectives, and specific classroom tasks for teaching such genres as recipes, letters of complaint, and requests for service. Manuals have also been developed for teachers in adult migrant English and workplace training programs (Hagan et al., 1993; Joyce, 1992). Note that the practitioner audience of Australian genre work has consisted mainly of Australian teachers, as many of these materials are difficult to access outside of the country. Different Beliefs About Effectiveness Across the three genre schools, the differences in energy given to pedagogical applications are also linked to researchers beliefs about the usefulness of explicit genre instruction for language learning. In New Rhetoric fields, a number of researchers have expressed doubts over whether classroom instruction about genres can actually help students become better writers and readers of texts (Berkenkotter & Huckin, 708 TESOL QUARTERLY

1993; Dias, 1994; Freedman, 1993, 1994; Freedman & Medway, 1994b, 1994d). Berkenkotter and Huckin, for example, have argued that genre knowledge and its use in social contexts is not explicitly taught but is acquired through enculturation as apprentices become socialized to the ways of speaking [or writing] in particular disciplinary communities (p. 482). Similarly, Dias suggests that induction into the genres of ones field is not primarily a matter of being taught the conventions of those genres (p. 195) but rather a matter of becoming a member of the community that uses them. In a recent debate with Williams and Colomb (1993) and Fahnestock (1993), Freedman (1993) proposes that explicit genre teaching has only restricted value in improving students writing. She argues that, although such teaching may be useful for some students whose learning style is appropriate, it is generally unnecessary (p. 245) and can even be dangerous if the instructor has inaccurate knowledge of the target genres. Much of genre knowledge, she contends, can be acquired tacitly as students are exposed to genres in their course readings and given contexts that lead them to write in appropriate text types. Reservations like Freedmans (1993) explain the shying away of some New Rhetoric scholars from genre-based instructional models like the Australian teaching-learning cycle. In fact, Freedman (1994) says that she is deeply concerned lest precisely such teaching become attractive in North American jurisdictions (p. 192). As alternatives to explicit instruction, she and other New Rhetoric scholars encourage teachers to expose students to a variety of academic genres in their readings and provide assignments and class discussions that naturally motivate students to respond in certain genres (Dias, 1994; Freedman, 1994; Hunt, 1994). Dias, for example, argues that in his graduate seminar class, responsive writing and peer-group discussions about course readings induct students into disciplinary genres without explicit instructor modeling of text features. ESP and Australian genre scholars have not shared these concerns about explicit teaching and have thus been more invested in constructing models and materials for teaching genres. The development of the LERN teaching-learning cycle in Australia, in fact, emerged as a reaction against certain process writing pedagogues that reemphasize direct instruction about text form (Cope & Kalantzis, 1993a; Cope et al., 1993). Systemic functional researchers have criticized the inattention of these process approaches to explicitly teaching about language structures and functions, arguing that if students are left to work out for themselves how language works . . . then a number of students are likely to fail (Hammond, 1987, p. 176; see also Reid, 1987, for an overview of the genre vs. process debate). GENRE IN THREE TRADITIONS: IMPLICATIONS FOR ESL 709

SCOPE OF IMPLEMENTATION Across the three genre schools, applications of genre research, whether or not they have been realized in explicit teaching, have differed in the degrees to which they have affected classrooms. In New Rhetoric work, it is in fact difficult to measure the ways in which genre scholarship has affected classroom practices, not only because of the paucity of genre-based instructional guidelines but also because applications have been reported on a case-by-case basis rather than in terms of larger initiatives affecting multiple classrooms (Coe, 1994b; Dias, 1994; Hunt, 1994; Miller, 1994, Smart, 1993). Miller, for example, refers to how her work organizes much of my teaching (p. 67) without indicating its influence on larger curricula. Similarly, in professional writing, Smart focuses on his own uses of genre in training writers at the Bank of Canada. In ESP, although some research has also concentrated on how genrebased pedagogy plays out in individual classrooms (Flowerdew, 1993; Swales, 1990a) or has made general recommendations without discussing actual curriculum projects (Gosden, 1992; Hopkins & Dudley-Evans, 1988; Nwogu, 1991; Weissberg, 1993), other work indicates broader implementation. Bhatias (1993) EBT materials, for example, are used in courses at two polytechnic universities in Singapore. Swales and Feaks (1994) rhetorically oriented Academic Writing for Graduate Students has also recently been adopted by several EAP programs (John Swales, personal communication, May 1996). Of the three schools discussed in this article, however, the educational impact of genre is most readily measured in Australian systemic functional contexts, where genre-based pedagogy has influenced entire state educational systems. In New South Wales, for example, the four LERN volumes (1990a, 1990b, 1990c, 1990d) were developed to support the Writing K12 syllabus of the New South Wales Department of School Education (Cope et al., 1993; LERN, 1990a). In addition, the efforts of systemic functional scholars working with instructors to bring genres into their lesson plans have facilitated the implementation of genre in schools (Cope et al., 1993; Martin, 1989; Rothery, 1989). In-service teacher training has also introduced genre-based pedagogy and systemic functional linguistics to a number of Australian adult ESL and adult literacy programs. McCormack (1990), for example, states that at his institutionFootscray College of Technical and Further Education (TAFE),4 the staff. . . hired a university lecturer for a week to take us through Hallidays latest book (p. 7). Curriculum certification processes in the adult sector have also encouraged the use of genre applications.
4

TAFE is a major government-funded provider of adult occupational training.

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The AMES, for example, has a policy specifying that, to be accredited, a course must adhere to the text-based approach outlined in its Certificate curriculum (Helen Joyce & Susan Hood, personal communication, May 1993). Genre-based pedagogy in Australia has raised the concerns of some North American scholars, who are wary of the explicit style of teaching promoted by the Sydney School (Freedman, 1994). However, whether one would fear or welcome Australian-style genre education, there are several reasons why it has not had (and is not likely to have) the same degree of impact in North America. 1. As discussed earlier, the broad implementation of genre-based pedagogy in Australia is attributed in part to the stronger partnership between genre researchers and school and adult education instructors than that found in North American New Rhetoric or ESP genre circles. 2. Australia has only 6% of the population of North America (18 million vs. 293 million), making it easier for researchers to reach significant portions of the educational community. 3. Genre proponents in Australia have operated within national workplace training and migrant English programs, such as the AMEP, which has enabled them to effect far-reaching changes in these educational contexts (Hagan et al., 1993; Joyce, 1992). Genre researchers have also occupied positions of leadership in school systems. In 1988, Mary Macken, one of LERNs founding members, was appointed to the Directorate of Studies for the New South Wales Department of Education (Cope et al., 1993). North American ESP and New Rhetoric genre scholars, in contrast, have had fewer opportunities to influence curricular policy on state and national levels because of differences in governmental and educational structures. 4. Australian genre scholars form a more unified group than North American researchers do, enabling them to make a stronger impact on educational arenas. Unlike North American scholars, who come from a broad base of disciplines with unique pedagogical concerns, Australian genre researchers have shared a background in Hallidayan systemic functional linguistics and have worked together on pedagogical projects, like LERN, from the start of the genre movement. This unity has allowed them to present a mobilized front in various sectors. Note, however, that as the genre movement has evolved in Australia, some members of LERN and others connected to the systemic functional school have disagreed with certain principles of Martin-style, genre-based GENRE IN THREE TRADITIONS: IMPLICATIONS FOR ESL 711

pedagogy (Cope & Kalantzis, 1993a; Luke, in press). These dissenters have been concerned that the LERN teaching-learning cycle, with its focus on modeling and subsequent construction of mainstream texts, represents transmission pedagogy that presents texts such as report and exposition uncritically and excludes other, nonmainstream genres that might be culturally important in students lives (Cope & Kalantzis, 1993a, p. 15). Cope and Kalantzis, two of the original LERN members, advocate a more critical approach to genre teaching, one that leads students to challenge principles found in some mainstream texts. According to Cope et al. (1993), Cope and Kalantzis have proposed the need to make the learning of different genres not a matter of duplication of a standard form, but mastery of a tool which encourages development and change (even disruption) rather than simply reproduction (p. 245).5 IMPLICATIONS FOR ESL The different approaches to genre theory, analysis, and pedagogy in ESP, New Rhetoric, and Australian systemic functional linguistics hold a number of insights for ESL instruction. Below I discuss the contributions of these different approaches, concentrating on their relevance for university and professional English instruction. Linking Form and Function The ESP and Australian definitions of genres as structured, communicative events and as staged, social processes, respectively, are useful for sensitizing ESL instructors to links between formal and functional properties of texts that they teach in the classroom. Bhatia (1993) suggests that it is important for writing teachers to connect these two elements in order to help students understand how and why linguistic conventions are used for particular rhetorical effects. The descriptions of genre microstructure and grammatical features in ESP and systemic functional research also provide important information about the linguistic features of various text types that ESL instructors can convey to their students. The ESP and Australian genre schools have offered less detailed descriptions, however, of the contexts in which different genres are used and the specialized purposes of texts within these situations.
5 Appropriately entitled Strictly Genre?, the 1993 LERN Working with Genre conference was devoted significantly to discussions about the role of critical literacy in the teaching of genres (Cazden, 1993; Cazden, Cranny-Francis, Knapp, Kress, & Martin, 1993).

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New Rhetoric scholarship, on the other hand, with its focus on genre as social action, draws special attention to the functions of genres and their institutional settings. The ethnographic descriptions of genres in scientific communities (Bazerman, 1988), medical colleges (Schryer, 1993, 1994), and financial institutions (Smart, 1992, 1993) provide the field of ESL with rich perspectives on what actions genres perform in various communities and how these groups come to value certain text types. Language instructors can use these insights in planning classroom discussions and other tasks that help students recognize the purposes of genres in their own disciplines and professions and the relationships between these functions and the larger goals and activities of their communities. Converting Theory Into Practice Scholars in the three genre schools also offer useful perspectives on converting genre theory and analysis into classroom practice. In ESP, the language analysis tasks outlined by Bhatia (1993), Flowerdew (1993), Swales (1990a), Swales and Feak (1994), and Weissberg and Buker (1990) illustrate activities for helping students gain awareness of the communicative purposes and linguistic features of texts that they need to read and write in their disciplines and professions. Although many of the Australian genre applications have been geared toward school and adult literacy curricula, some of their frameworks and materials are germane to academic and professional English instruction as well. The LERN teaching-learning cycle, for example, provides language instructors with a schema for sequencing tasks leading students to write in various genres on their own. Teacher resource books developed for adult language and literacy instructors also offer a number of suggestions for how to teach genres at different phases of this cycle (Hammond, Burns, et al., 1992; Joyce, 1992). Out of the New Rhetoric tradition, direct teaching applications of genre have been fewer, although the recent work of some composition scholars, such as Coe ( 1994b), describes helpful tasks for sensitizing students to the influence of rhetorical contexts on genres that they write. With respect to some New Rhetoric doubts about the effectiveness of explicit genre teaching (Berkenkotter & Huckin 1993; Dias, 1994; Freedman, 1993, 1994), much L2 research suggests that such skepticism is unwarranted for ESL instruction. A body of schema research on L2 reading, for example, indicates that explicit training in rhetorical structure significantly improves L2 reading comprehension (Carrell, 1985; Davis, Lange, & Samuels, 1988). Benefits of rhetorical instruction have also been reported for ESL writing development (Swales, 1990b). GENRE IN THREE TRADITIONS: IMPLICATIONS FOR ESL 713

QUESTIONS FOR FURTHER INVESTIGATION The work on genre and genre-based pedagogy by ESP, New Rhetoric, and Australian systemic functional scholars thus offers a number of insights for L2 teaching. ESL researchers and teachers can gain from ESP and Australian analyses of genre forms as well as from New Rhetoric descriptions of the functions and contexts of genres in academic and professional discourse communities. In addition, the pedagogical materials developed in the ESP and Australian schools provide teachers with instructional frameworks and activities for presenting genres in classrooms. In creating improved pedagogical applications for genre, the field of ESL could also benefit from further investigation of questions not yet fully addressed by current genre studies. I outline three such questions below and, although I direct their implications toward university ESL instruction, they could be discussed with respect to other teaching contexts as well. 1. What are the effects of genre-based pedagogy on ESL students reading and writing skills? Although much research, particularly in ESP and Australian systemic functional linguistics, has discussed how genre can be used as a pedagogical tool, little work has actually investigated the impact of genrebased pedagogy in the classroom. In her critique of the Sydney School movement (as well as certain trends in North American writing instruction), Freedman (1994) urges educators to resist the impulse to teach genres without first asking what grounds we have for believing that such explication will in fact enhance their learning (p. 193). In responding to such a challenge, ESL researchers can conduct controlled teaching experiments on the effects of genre training on nonnative students reading and writing abilities as well as case studies tracking individual students progress through genre-based courses. In studies of ESL reading development, Hewings and Henderson (1987) and Hyon (1995) both report positive effects of genre instruction on students understanding of text structure and overall reading effectiveness, although Hyon observes that such teaching may be limited in developing certain types of knowledge important for reading comprehension. Additional studies are needed on the impact of genre-based teaching on both ESL reading and ESL writing development.

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2. At what level of specificity are genres best presented in the language classroom? In both ESP and New Rhetoric, the texts types central to genre theory and pedagogy have been fairly specialized, with scholars focusing on such texts as the experimental research article (Bazerman, 1988; Gosden, 1992; Swales, 1990a), the sales promotion letter (Bhatia, 1993), and the banks system-evaluation report (Smart, 1992). The genres defined as elemental in the Australian school (AMES, 1992), on the other hand, have reflected much broader categories such as procedure, report, explanation, discussion, exposition, recount, and narrative (LERN, 1990a Martin, 1989; Cope et al., 1993). Hermine Scheeres, an Australian researcher involved in teacher training, believes that these broader genre categories are useful for adult language classrooms because they allow learners to see connections between these genres and many texts (personal communication, May 1993). Widdowson (1993) has also cautioned that instruction in specialized genres may not provide nonnative speakers with transferable language knowledge. Bhatia (1993), however, argues in favor of specific genre description and teaching, observing that in language teaching for specific purposes, it is more realistic, and often desirable, to find pedagogically useful form-function correlations within, rather than across, specific genres (p. 11). As these discussions indicate, further research on genre-based pedagogy for ESL will need to address the levels of generality at which genres are most usefully identified during teaching (Allison, 1994, p. 702). 3. How critical should genre-based pedagogy be of the genres it teaches? In Australia, there has been a movement among some genre researchers to push for more critical pedagogy that reconstructs and challenges mainstream texts that students are required to read and write in educational contexts (Cope & Kalantzis, 1993a; Cranny-Francis, 1993; Gilbert, 1994). In New Rhetoric studies, there are also signs that a more reflexive and critical turn is in the making (Freedman & Medway, 1994d, p. 15; see also Coe, 1994a; Schryer, 1994). Freedman and Medway note that there are a number of ways, we might hypothesize, in which genres can have ethical and political implications (p. 12). They challenge future genre studies to consider the potential of some mainstream genres to marginalize certain groups: What, for instance, about the exclusiveness of academic genres? What about the arguably gendered nature of scientific discourse? (p. 11).

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To date, little attention has been given to the ideological dimensions of genre in the ESL classroom. ESP researchers have generally adopted a pragmatic and uncritical approach to analyzing and teaching academic and professional texts, which has recently been the focus of some criticism (Benesch, 1993). Although not specifically addressing genre research, Benesch argues that the focus of EAP on mainstream academic literacy reflects an accommodationist ideology that aims to assimilate ESL students uncritically into academic life and U.S. society (p. 714). She calls on EAP to adopt instead a pedagogy of critical academic ESL (p. 715) that encourages resistance to academic practices that limit the full social participation of ESL students. In responding to such a challenge, ESL genre researchers can consider the place, if any, of a critical, ideological approach in the teaching of academic and professional texts, including the types and levels of classrooms in which such an approach is most usefully introduced. These three questions canvas some of the issues left open for future ESL research on genre. For now, the comparison of ESP, New Rhetoric, and Australian systemic functional approaches reveals ways that genre theory and pedagogy have responded to the interests of different scholars, teaching contexts, and learner populations. The field looks to the next wave of genre studies to continue to expand the understanding of this dynamic area of inquiry.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I am grateful to John Swales, Ron Chen, Betty Samraj, and the anonymous TESOL Quarterly reviewers for their insightful comments on earlier drafts of this article. I also thank Brigid Ballard, Anne Burns, Helen Drury, Sandra Gollin, Sue Hood, Helen Joyce, Hermine Scheeres, Patricia Ward, and Carolyn Webb for their help throughout this project.

THE AUTHOR Sunny Hyon received her PhD in linguistics from the University of Michigan and is Assistant Professor in the English Department at California State University, San Bernardino. Her research interests include genre theory and pedagogy and ESL reading instruction. REFERENCES Adult Migrant Education Service. (1992). Literacy for further studies: Project report. Queensland, Australia Author. 716 TESOL QUARTERLY

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