Dimensional Micro and Nano Metrology

H.N. Hansen1(2), K. Carneiro2, H. Haitjema3(2), L. De Chiffre1(1) Department of Manufacturing Engineering and Management, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark 2 Danish Fundamental Metrology Ltd., Matematiktorvet 307, DK-2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark 3 Mitutoyo Research Center Europe, De Rijn 18, NL-5684 PJ Best, Netherlands

Abstract The need for dimensional micro and nano metrology is evident, and as critical dimensions are scaled down and geometrical complexity of objects is increased, the available technologies appear not sufficient. Major research and development efforts have to be undertaken in order to answer these challenges. The developments have to include new measuring principles and instrumentation, tolerancing rules and procedures as well as traceability and calibration. The current paper describes issues and challenges in dimensional micro and nano metrology by reviewing typical measurement tasks and available instrumentation. Traceability and calibration issues are discussed subsequently. Finally needs and gaps are identified based on these observations. Keywords: Dimensional metrology; Micro technology; Nano technology

1 INTRODUCTION The emergence of micro and nanotechnologies has set new agendas for discussions in almost all scientific societies during the last 10-15 years. Consequences for existing technologies and development of new solutions have been debated in parallel with societal and ethical issues. The increasing economic importance of these areas is beyond any doubt. Also within CIRP, micro and nanotechnology has been the subject of intense work. A series of prior keynote papers on these issues discuss specific technologies as well as more generic problems and challenges [1]-[7]. Furthermore the creation of a working group on micro and nanotechnology within CIRP has concentrated the discussions during the last couple of years [8]. Miniaturisation has been one of the driving forces of technology during the last 20 years. As predicted by Taniguchi in 1983 by now the technologies have moved into the nano-processing era and even for precision machining processes sub-m precision is achievable [9]. Fig. 1 illustrates Taniguchis prediction. This development has been made very clear in the semiconductor industry during the last 30 years, where the number of components on a chip has been doubled each 18 months approximately. This phenomenon is usually referred to as Moores law. Today the semiconductor industry is moving below 90 nm in pitch and need for proper process and quality control is evident [10]-[12]. The emergence of micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) has mainly been based on the advances of the semiconductor technologies allowing mechanical based systems manufactured using production systems developed for electronics. The number of new products based on these technologies is increasing and some of the main areas of application have been collected in Figure 2. The development has furthermore been pushed into non-semiconductor materials like polymers and metals, and this has resulted in more traditional

manufacturing technologies being applied to micro and nano manufacturing. Integration of micro scaled features and components on meso or macro scale devices as well as nano scale integration on micro scaled devices push all technologies to the limits of their capability, and at the same time the integration over several orders of magnitude on the length scale poses enormous problems for quality assurance and control. Metrology in general is traditionally regarded as a key discipline in making industrial manufacture of components possible. In particular metrology enables process control on the basis of measurands either defined on the components or on some specific process characteristics. In this way parts are described using absolute values combined with tolerances. Dimensional metrology covers measurement of dimensions and in principle also geometries based on distance measurements. The traditional manufacturing environment dimensional metrology is an integral part of all quality assurance systems, and the available tools in terms of instrumentation, calibration artefacts, standards and well established procedures all support the increasing demands for production in global networks of highly complex components and products. As absolute dimensions are decreased to micrometer or even nanometer level metrology becomes even more challenging. It is the scope of this paper to describe state-of-the-art in dimensional micro and nano metrology. In this paper dimensional nano metrology is considered to be the part of dimensional metrology that concerns measurement and calibration of dimensional quantities on components with at least one critical dimension or functional feature below 100 nm for which the uncertainty can be usefully expressed in nm. Dimensional micro metrology is in this paper defined in a similar way considering at least one critical dimension or functional feature in the micrometer range.

Annals of the CIRP Vol. 55/2/2006

Figure 1: The development of achievable machining accuracy by Taniguchi [9]. The current keynote paper will focus on the following points: Metrology tasks and metrology requirements in nano and micro technology (dimensions, geometries, tolerancing, quality assurance needs) In the micro regime a classification according to product groups has been proposed previously [6]. It can be supplemented by additional information about specific components types that can be characterised by size in three dimensions as well as geometry. Figure 2 illustrates such a classification inspired by [6]. The generic measurement tasks to be performed in micro and nano metrology are [37]: Distance as defined between two surfaces oriented in the same direction. Example: distance between two lines of a line grating or two planes in a microstructure. Width as defined by the distance between two opposing surfaces. Example: width of a channel. Height as defined by the distance between two surfaces of same orientation but placed in a vertical direction. Example: depth of microfluidic channel. Geometry (or form) as defined by the distance between the surface of the object and a pre-defined reference. Example: flatness of wafer. Texture and roughness defined as geometries of surface structures whose dimensions are small compared to the object under investigation. This poses a particular challenge for micro or nano sized objects because the surface becomes dominant with respect to object volume.. Thickness of layers

Technical solutions for micro and nano metrology (quantitative and qualitative solutions, traceability and calibration, production related solutions) The paper will deal with these overall topics in the following structure: Section 2 describes various measurement tasks in these relatively large scientific areas. Section 3 deals with instruments and set-ups capable of measuring dimensions of micro and nano systems. Section 4 contains a discussion on establishment of traceability in micro and nano metrology: Finally section 5 discusses issues connected to dimensional micro and nano metrology such as tolerancing. 2 MEASUREMENT TASKS IN MICRO AND NANO TECHNOLOGY A discussion about various measurement tasks in micro and nano technology inevitably will contain elements of classification. The most straightforward classification is based on dimensions only. Such a classification is often used when referring to nanotechnology as research and technological development at the atomic, molecular or macromolecular levels, in the length scale of approximately 1-100 nm. Other definitions as for example given in [13] are somewhat broader and encompass also integration into larger systems (the production and application of physical, chemical and biological systems at scales ranging from individual atoms or molecules to submicron dimensions, as well as the integration of the resulting nanostructures into larger systems). However, due to the large diversity of components and the span over several decades of the length scale, we feel that a definition based purely on dimensions in some cases may be less than adequate.

Aspect ratio as defined by the depth of a structure divided by its width. In the following sections typical measurement tasks are described based on examples in the following fields: Semiconductors Microsystems Nanotechnology

Figure 2: Micro product categories. Inspired by [6]. 2.1 Semiconductor related measurement tasks The International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors describes expected development trends in this particular sector over the next 15-20 years [10]. An executive summary is the main document [11], and a special issue on metrology describes relevant information for this particular paper [12]. The basic manufacturing sequence for integrated circuits contains a series of subsequent patterning and processing steps. The patterning steps usually are based on photolithography where a mask is projected onto a photoresist on a silicon wafer thereby creating the desired pattern. Wafer steppers or scanners are usually employed to be able to cover the entire surface of the wafer. Processing steps include photoresist development and bake, etching, doping, deposition and planarization. By applying different combinations of photolithography and processing steps, integrated circuits are formed in a layerby-layer manner. The obtainable resolution of structures produced by photolithography is defined (and thereby limited) by the type and wavelength of the light, the numerical aperture of the optics used and local settings of process conditions. Dimensional metrology in relation to this manufacturing setup is, besides the fact that the dimensions are in the nanometer range, complicated by the fact that metrology has to be in-process. The parameters of interest related to dimensional metrology in the semiconductor field are the following [12]: Critical Dimensions (CD) referring to the width of the smallest structures in an integrated circuit. Overlay referring to precision of mask repositioning. Film thickness and profile. capability are identified. Selected requirements are given in Table 2. It is not possible to go into a detailed description of all possible requirements. Further details are given in [12]. Precision values in the roadmap are mostly specified as 3 standard deviation values and should include metrology tool-to-tool matching influences. Moreover materials, shapes and density are not specifically defined, and the measurement tool performance should be stated independently from these error sources. This fact further increases the demand for the metrological capability. Nevertheless, Table 2 gives an indication of the requirements set by the foreseen development. In [12] indication is given as to known solutions for these requirements. In general no solutions exist at the moment for the requirements beyond 2010. Other references already have described and commented this general trend [38]-[39]. Size in nm DRAM pitch MPU/ASIC pitch Flash uncontacted Poly Si pitch MPU printed gate length MPU physical gate length 2005 80 90 76 54 32 2007 65 68 57 42 25 2010 45 45 40 30 18 2015 25 25 23 17 10 2020 14 14 13 9 6

Table 1: Key lithography-related characteristics by product. Adapted from [12]. DRAM = Dynamic Random Access Memory. MPU = MicroProcessor Unit. ASIC = Application Specific Integrated Circuit. Size in nm CD control (wafer dense line) Wafer CD metrology tool precision (isolated lines) Line width roughness Wafer overlay 2005 8.8 0.67 2007 6.6 0.52 2010 4.7 0.37 2015 2.6 0.21 2020 1.5 0.12

Line width roughness. Besides these obvious dimensional metrology measurands, fields such as material and contamination analysis, dopant profile, in situ sensors for process control, reference materials as well as correlation of physical and electrical properties are dealt with in the metrology roadmap [12]. Furthermore, the repeatability and process stability across the wafer is a critical quality parameter which needs to be considered for all types of measurands. The roadmap identifies development trends for specific products as illustrated in Table 1. It is clear that the critical dimensions to be measured are foreseen to decrease dramatically during the next 15 years. On this basis the derived needs for dimensional metrology

2.6 15

2.0 11

1.4 8

0.8 4.5

0.5 2.5

Table 2: Selected metrology requirements for semiconductor products based on lithography wafer metrology technology. Adapted from [12].

2.2 Microsystems related measurement tasks Micro Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS) MEMS can be defined as small components having both an electrical and a mechanical functionality [40]. Traditionally MEMS have been designed based on the semiconductor manufacturing platform as already described briefly in section 2.1. However during the last decade new products have emerged up that have been labelled MEMS in some way. This section contains a presentation of different microproducts including traditional MEMS and a discussion of the dimensional measurement tasks connected to these products. Traditional MEMS products are usually characterised by higher aspect ratios than conventional integrated circuits. Due to the relatively small absolute dimensions, high aspect ratios pose metrological challenges. Furthermore, the presence of mechanical and moving parts increases the sensitivity towards mechanical deformations due to measurements. Typical measurands are dimensions and step heights as well as surface texture [41]. The geometries under consideration are essentially 2 dimensional, but will contain free-standing beams and possibly also voids and inclusions (example Figure 3). As indicated in [42] MEMS techniques itself might play a role in the challenge to measure such features.

Microfluidics Products for chemical and biochemical analysis of fluid have become a major research topic during the last decade. These so-called lab-on-a-chip components are manufactured both in silicon and polymer material. However, a trend is seen towards polymer based products and therefore new manufacturing schemes are developed. Manufacturing of tools for micro injection moulding and hot embossing of microfluidic systems can be realized by several different process sequences. When classified according to the substrate material and whether the pattern is obtained by means of additive or subtractive processes, four main fabrication schemes are identified. Three are based on combinations of photolithography, etching and electrodeposition and the fourth uses thermal or mechanical processes for material removal [44]. As indicated previously standard manufacturing processes for semiconductors are essentially 2 or 2 dimensional. With the introduction of processes from the precision engineering domain, real 3D features can be generated, removing the main limitation of the other manufacturing schemes. Table 3 contains an overview of obtainable features with different manufacturing schemes thereby also implying the metrological requirements for quality assurance [45]-[46].

Figure 3: Example of electroplated comb-drive fingers (nickel), before dissolution of the sacrificial layer (copper) [43]. Scale indicates 2 m. Substrate material Method Fabrication scheme Geometry Number of layers that can be stacked Features accuracy XY in m and alignment Z in m Min. channel width in m Max. channel depth in m Max. aspect ratio Side angle Range in Accuracy in 1-5 1-5 1-5 1 2D 1-3 2 1-5 5 200 20 Metal Photoresist 2a 2D 1-3 2 1-5 5 200 20 2b 2D 1 2 1-5 5 200 20

(a) (b) Figure 4: (a) Example of micro milled inserts for injection moulding of microfluidic device. Dimensions of functional area of plastic part 32 mm x 28 mm (Technical University of Denmark). (b) Corresponding polymer part with channels of cross section 600 m x 600 m. Silicon Advanced Si etch. 3a 2D 1-3 5 1-5 10 500 10 0-20 1-2 3b 2D 1-3 5 1-5 10 500 10 0-20 1-2 4a 3D 1-10* 3-10 20-200 ** 7.5 0-90 0.3 Metal or polymer Milling or laser 4b 3D 1-20* 3-10 20-200 ** 7.5 0-90 0.3 200-300 4c 3D 1-10* 3-10 20-200 ** 7.5 0-90 0.3

Surface roughness Sq Rms in nm

Table 3: Comparison of the capabilities of 4 basic fabrication schemes for mould inserts for injection moulding of microfluidic devices. Values refer to the average capabilities of the single schemes. Table adapted from [44]. * For micromilling this value strongly depends on the type of material and feature (concave or convex). ** For micromilling this value depends on the tool diameter.

Micro optics Micro-optics ranging from tens to hundreds of m in absolute dimensions are key enabling technologies for telecommunications, medical imaging/diagnostics etc. For optics three-dimensional form accuracy is a key measurand and furthermore precision assembly is critical to the performance of the component. Manufacturing of micro-optics has so far been dominated by lithography based methods resulting in 2 dimensional structures with relatively low aspect ratios. Other manufacturing techniques such as ultraprecision machining enable the production of 3 dimensional structures for optical applications [47]. To be cost effective, ultraprecision machining must be combined with a bulk parallel process such as moulding, - either directly of glass at high temperatures or of polymers. Some characteristic measurands are, depending on the type of optical component: surface roughness (Ra required to be less than 5 nm), grating characteristic distances, alignment accuracy (for fibres) etc. Micro tools Real 3-dimensional micro metrology problems occur for example when micro tools for machining have to be verified. The absolute values and variability of the tools geometrical parameters directly influence the performance of the milling process. Conventional measuring methods face strong limitations already for conventional size milling tools and tool size reduction greatly increases the difficulties in the dimensional and geometrical characterization of milling tools. In [45] and [48]relevant properties of micro milling tools are identified and discussed. They include effective tool diameter, cutting edge radius, helix angle rake face roughness. Figure 5 illustrates typical SEM pictures of a 200 m ball nose end milling tool. Also in connection with the detection and quantification of wear of such tools, dimensional metrology needs to be developed [49]

hard-disk-drive industry has made a fundamental transition from a laboratory-based instrument to an in-line production control: the trend today is to use up to 100% in-line metrology testing, whereby manufacturing parameters such as pitch and roll are being brought in to tighter tolerances. Integrated systems are capable of measuring height, thickness, profile, pitch, roll etc. in order to verify hard disc drive suspensions [50]. 2.3 Measurement tasks in nanotechnology The definition of nanotechnology was briefly touched upon previously. However, nanotechnology emerges from a broad range of scientific fields that converge due to the continuous miniaturization. Figure 6 depicts some of the essential features of nanotechnology as a continuation and eventual merging of several traditional disciplines, namely mechanics, biology, and chemistry. Following the trend of miniaturisation, mechanics passed a landmark fine mechanics in the 1960s when critical dimensions reached the level of 100 m; and 20 years later micromechanics reached 1 m. During this evolution fabrication tools were changed significantly, and models of our understanding developed into finer and finer details. But the basic understanding was based on continuum mechanics, where the atomic structure of matter is mostly neglected or at most implicitly imbedded in theoretical models, for instance through the varying macroscopic mechanical properties of different crystalline phases. When critical dimensions reached the 100 nm level around year 2000, traditional machining became technically problematic. The concept of continuum mechanics broke down as the atomic structure of materials becomes directly relevant for the mechanical properties of materials. This is the scientific challenge of nanotechnology: the traditional concepts break down, and so do the terminology and parameters that we use to describe the phenomena. New concepts and terminology have to be developed, and these are likely to be significantly more complex than we have been used to. This aspect is further amplified when the second evolutionary trend in Figure 6 is analysed. Traditionally a macroscopic science, the basis of cellular biology was developed more than 150 years ago; but it was only when the electron microscope became available around 1960 that it became a quantitative science. Subsequently, molecular biology has developed, and recently, due to modern biochemical synthetic techniques molecular engineering has been established. And as biology and mechanics are currently merging in the nano-era, common concepts and terminology will have to be developed, possibly with significant cross-linking between the two sciences from which they originate. Thirdly, Figure 6 depicts the evolution of chemical science. Here the building blocks are atoms of sizes between 100 nm to 200 nm, so that molecules of some nm diameter contain about 1000 atoms, leading to considerable complexity in the theoretical understanding based on first principles. Hence, also here when molecules enter the nanometre range, our theoretical understanding becomes complicated. These considerations illuminate some of the challenges in the development of a proper scientific terminology to describe the phenomena of importance for understanding nanotechnology. These challenges are currently addressed in standardisation committees, where proper terminology for nanotechnology is being worked out. Nanotechnology includes the investigation and manufacture of any mechanical, electronic, chemical, and biological system by molecular assembly, the so-called bottom-up approach, as well as the so-called top-down approach by miniaturization of processes and products,

Figure 5: Tool radius, helix angle, rake face roughness and cutting edge radius on a 200 m ball nose end mill [45]. Hard disc drive suspension The evolution of the suspension assembly for hard disk drive (HDD) has seen many changes driven by constant improvements in drive design due to area density constant growth. The metrology in the data storage of

Structure

Material

Dimensional measurement task Layer thickness Roughness Dimension Form Dimension Form Distance Roughness

Hard disc layer Magnetic structures on hard discs Nanopowders Nano optics

Organic, inorganic Metal

Metals, oxides, carbon Semiconductor, insulators

Table 4: Examples of dimensional metrology tasks in the nano regime. Figure 6: Development of the traditional scientific fields such as Physics, Biology and Chemistry into nanoscience and technology. Inspired by [51]. like machining and multi step processes of bulk materials, e.g. optical components of form precision and surface integrity with nanometer and even subnanometer accuracy for ultra violet (UV) and extended ultraviolet (EUV) lithography. In nanotechnology the critical dimension is to be read as that interesting dimension of a specimen that is important for its function, and not necessarily restricted to very small-sized samples. Examples of critical dimensions are: Roughness of a sheet metal for car body production where paintability is the required function The edge in an optical filter for telecommunication, where the edge itself may be several m Porosity of polymer molecular membranes for advanced drug delivery Figure 7: Nano photonic structure containing topology optimised Y-junction and 60 bends. Typical dimensions are less than 1 m [52]-[53]. 2.4 Summary Features with aspect ratios below 1, will, in the following, be referred to as 2D techniques. An example of two dimensional tasks is given by surface metrology in three dimensions. Measurement of features with aspect ratios of one or bigger, is referred to as 2D. An example of such measurement task is given by high aspect ratio SU8 MEMS structures. Measurement of undercuts, freeforms or features within cavities, will be described as 3D measurement tasks. Two important characteristics are connected to the wide range of tasks just discussed. The first one considers the level of miniaturisation. The smaller the absolute scale, the more challenging the measurement task. The second important feature considers the geometrical complexity, i.e. the complexity will increase when going from 2D to 2D and subsequently 3D measurement tasks. Furthermore the integration of several orders of magnitude of length scale into a component increases the complexity of dimensional metrology. For example, consider a microfluidic system that is based on analysis using an array of cantilevers (with dimensions in the nmrange). The fluidic channels might be several 100s of m wide and deep, and the overall polymer chip including fluid connection devices several mm large. The required dimensional measurements, in order to secure a proper functionality of such a device, span over at least 4-6 orders of magnitude and it is clear that not one single instrument will be able to cover this range. Figure 8 shows a proposed illustration of selected measurements tasks based on the classification in Figure 2. Figure 8 is based on the principles of a typical Stedman diagram, and therefore it holds no information about geometrical complexity.

Distances in molecules, where the function is associated with a particular configuration Nanotechnology products are now found in pharmaceutical industry, microelectronics, and in precision engineering. Nanotechnology is not only a simple continuation of micro technology. It marks the ultimate end of materials science, namely the dimensions where materials properties stop and molecular properties start. One can also say that nanotechnology is where molecular features (including atoms) and materials meet. However, the relevance of molecular features is often implicit. Whereas the study of DNA is obviously related to nanotechnology, the nano-aspects of sheet metal for its paintability, and the nano-aspects of a honed car-engine cylinder easily escaped the uninitiated eye. Nevertheless the two latter examples have been projects within measurement and testing under previous framework programs in the European Union [51]. Many measurement tasks in nanotechnology are related to surfaces as described in [7]. This concerns not only dimensional and geometrical properties but as well chemical properties. With respect to pure dimensional metrological tasks Table 4 has been compiled to illustrate typical problems. A comprehensive overview is complicated by the nature of nanotechnology as discussed above. A specific example is given in Figure 7. Here a photonic nano structure is shown that allows to manipulate light with a very little loss of signal. The geometry as well as distribution of nano structures have been determined using topology optimisation as introduced in [6].

interferences in a classical Michelson interferometer setup, where the plane mirrors are replaced by retroreflectors, also called corner-cubes. In Figure 9 the common set-up is displayed, together with the common variations in the realisation. The optics can be polarizing and non-polarizing, where polarizing is most common. In that, the major distinction is the system working with one frequency, called the homodyne interferometer, and the system working with two frequencies, called the heterodyne interferometer. Manufacturers can have long arguments about the advantages of the one system over the other [56], but here it is important to note that both systems finally measure a displacement d which is counted as a number N of half wavelengths plus a fraction that is usually called the phase change . The displacement d is given by

d=
Figure 8: Selected components for dimensional micro and nano metrology. 3 SOLUTIONS FOR DIMENSIONAL MICRO AND NANO METROLOGY The description of available technologies for carrying out dimensional micro and nano metrology will follow in this section. The technologies will be described summarising working principle, range, resolution, degree of industrial application, examples of applications etc. The description is divided into the following sections based on the main measurement principles: Technologies based on inteferometric solutions Microtopography measuring instruments Scanning electron microscopy Micro and nano coordinate metrology

N + 2 2

(1)

This equation indicates already the major error sources: the wavelength, the count number and the phase difference. In modern systems, the resolution will be between 10 and 0.1 nm. This resolution does not readily mean that nanometrology can be carried out with these systems. The beams concerned in Figure 9 are mm in diameter, thus macroscopic. The nanometer resolution is only obtained in the direction of beam-propagation. Therefore displacement laser-interferometry is a 1-D technique. For the final measurement and detection of micro- and nanosized features laser-interferometry always must be combined with mechanisms and probe/detection techniques.

1 or 2 wavelengths

Other techniques Scanning probe microscopy and scanning force microscopy will only be described shortly since the STC S 2006 keynote paper will deal with the use of SPM/SFMs for dimensional metrology. 3.1 Interferometric solutions Primary length standards are usually Iodine stabilised lasers that produce a stable optical frequency that can be used for interferometry [54]. The laser cavity itself usually consist of two high-reflectance mirrors, so this laser itself obtains its stable frequency actually from a Fabry-Perot cavity [55]. This illustrates that interferometry appears anywhere where the accurate and traceable measurement of displacements and dimensions is concerned. Capacitive and inductive sensors can also achieve sub-nm resolution in a small range and linear scales rival the interferometric techniques at longer ranges; still when it comes to uncertainty and traceability also these sensors need to be calibrated by some interferometric technique. Nevertheless, also in interferometric techniques there are sources of systematic deviation that can give unexpected deviations in measurements when uncertainties at the nanometer-level are concerned. In this section the most often used interferometric measurement techniques - displacement interferometry and surface interferometry - will be treated and their major sources of errors will be discussed. Displacement interferometry Displacement interferometry is based on the light-dark transitions corresponding to constructive and destructive

polarizing/non polarizing

Figure 9: Basic set-up of a displacement interferometer system. The range depends on the coherence length of the source used and can be of the order of 300 nm for white light, cms for spectral lamps, one to tens of metres for commercially available laser interferometers, and further: e.g. kms for interferometric gravity wave detection. Atmospheric effects The wavelength depends on the frequency f and the refractive index of air n as

c n f

(2)

where c is the speed of light. The refractive index of air depends on the air pressure, temperature, humidity and CO2-content. Once these data are known, there are standard equations that calculate the refractive index with an uncertainty of a few times 10-8 [57]-[60]. The deviation in each of the environmental parameters to get a deviation of 110-6 in length are for the pressure 4 hPa, for air temperature 1.1 C, for humidity 100 % and for CO2 content 0.6%. The latter two are unrealistic values; these factors only become important for relative uncertainties far below 110-6. In this area, the direct measurement of the refractive index of air can be useful; this field is commonly referred to as air refractometry [58]-[64].

The frequency f is usually obtained from a stabilised HeNe laser source with a stability below 110-8, the commonly used stabilisation techniques are well developed and seldom give problems. If the source is a laser diode this can be a point of concern. Periodic errors Periodic errors are errors in determining the fraction of a wavelength; the phase , that are periodic as they repeat for each value of N in (1) with the same phase . These kinds of errors are also called nonlinearities. Usually the phase is determined by taking the in-phase and out-of phase measurement of signals measured in phase-quadrature. In heterodyne interferometry this comes down to an electronic phase measurements. In homodyne interferometry, the intensity is measured where at the same time the intensity is measured where the phase is shifted 90. Errors occur when the contrast of the interferometer signal is not perfect and also when the phase-shifted signal is not shifted with exactly 90 degrees. In general, homodyne interferometers are somewhat more sensitive to this effect. On the other hand, correction is easier for homodyne interferometers. The general error model and a compensation method that became commonly used was given by Heydemann [64]. Other error sources that give this kind of periodic deviations are imperfect polarization beam splitters and retarders, and imperfectly polarised incoming beams in the case of heterodyne interferometry. Without measures, these can give deviations up to soms tens of nanometres for homodyne and a few nm for heterodyne systems. Extensive research into the modelling and correction for these effects is carried out in the literature [66]-[79]. A problem with these methods is that they take the Heydemann-ellipse as complete model and give as such a traceabilty in itself that is appealing but is difficult to verify independent and can be incomplete, e.g. when ghost-reflections occur [80]. Therefore also alternative routes for determining, or calibrating the were exploited; such as sharpening the interference peak by using a Fabry-Perot interferometer and using either a capacitive transducer [81], or a frequency-shift of the laser source [73], [82]. Also frequency shifting a laser and using its changing cavity length was exploited [83]-[86]. Another field of interferometry with sub-nm resolution is X-ray interferometry. Here the effective wavelength is shortened to 0.2 nm by using an X-ray interferometer, achieving picometer resolution. The range of this very sensitive and delicate instrument is usually limited to a few hundred micrometers, therefore it is often combined with other techniques, e.g. the above mentioned laser interferometry [87]-[92]. Applications of displacement-interferometry Laser interferometers are used in numerous applications where uncertainties down to the sub-nm level are required. Their most straightforward application in nanometrology is the calibration of 1-D scales. This can take place on the microscopic scale with sub-nm resolution [93], but also at larger length-scales a nmresolution and uncertainty can be obtained [94]-[96]. In wafer-steppers and scanners, laser interferometers form the measurement basis for the chip-production, that is nanometrology and technology in mass volumes. If nanometre-uncertainty must be kept at scanning speeds of metres per second, even relativistic effects may become relevant [97]. In micro- and nano coordinate metrology they can deliver direct traceability when detecting the displacement of the axes. When it comes to traceability to international standards, laser interferometers systems are almost always the link to

primary (laser) standards [98]. In [99] a XYz surface encoder with 20 nm resolution based on displacement interferometry is described. Surface interferometry Surface interferometry can be considered as a kind of displacement interferometry, just in this case a whole array of photodetectors, i.e. a CCD-camera, is used and the (static) phase difference between several areas on the surface is considered to represent the surface features. Surface interferometry can be carried out in the classical Michelson and Fizeau set-ups. Now, equation (1) is valid for the distance between the reference surface and the surface to be measured. For an optimum contrast, the intensity is proportional to:

I 1 + cos

(z );

I ( x, y ) 1 + cos[ ( x, y )]
(3)

with ( x, y ) =

2z( x, y )

As in displacement interferometry, the z-coordinate in the beam direction can be detected with sub-m up to subnm resolution. This is a reasearch field of its own and is already covered in previous CIRP keynote papers [100]-[101]. Here some aspects related to micro- and nanometrology are mentioned. When it comes to macroscopic mirrors (100 mm up to metres diameter) of which a form deviation (from flatness, sphericity, parabolicity, etc.) is calibrated with nanometre uncertainty it might be questioned whether this should be called nano-metrology. One parameter, form deviation, can be usefully expressed in nanometres, but the lateral resolution may be many millimetres in such cases. Therefore this issue is discussed briefly; also in relation to the measurement of mirrors for deep-UV applications where sub-nm deviations from an ideal form are required, that must be calibrated at the edge of the technological possibilities, but still macroscopic sizes are involved with lateral resolutions of many micrometres. When it comes to interferometric microscopy, a sub-nm resolution can be achieved in the direction of the beam propagation, however if sub-micrometer and subnanometer resolution in the x- and y lateral directions are required, direct optical detection methods fail because of the diffraction limit. The diffraction limit is given by

2 NA

(3)

with d the resolution, the wavelength and NA the numerical aperture of the objective. This illustrates that in visual light, where lateral resolution is needed, optical microscopy can be just used for micro-metrology, but certainly not for nano-metrology. In contrast to the displacement interferometry, the range is small here because of a limited focal depth. This range can be reduced on purpose in order to get a higher and unambiguous sub-nm resolution by extending the light wavelength range: this is called white-light interferometry. When the surface is moved relative to the objective along the beam direction, a complete surface profile can be obtained by recording the white-light interference position for every pixel; thus extending the range. This is, next to confocal microscopy, the most commonly technique in optical surface profiling. As these techniques are already extensively treated in the mentioned CIRP keynotepapers, they will not be further treated here.

3.2 Microtopograhy measuring instruments Next to the optical microscopic techniques mentioned in section 3.1, the principal methods of surface topography measurement are stylus profilometry, optical scanning techniques, and scanning probe microscopy (SPM). These methods, based on acquisition of topography data from point by point scans, give quantitative information of heights with respect to position. All these types of instruments are well-known and therefore only a short description will be given followed by examples of application for dimensional micro and nano metrology. For detailed information about the optical methods please refer to [101]. In a stylus profilometer, the pick-up draws a stylus over the surface at a constant speed, and an electric signal is produced by the transducer. This kind of instrument can produce very accurate measurements in the laboratory as well as in an industrial environment, covering vertical ranges up to several millimetres with resolutions as good as nanometric, with lateral scans up to hundreds of millimetres being possible. The stylus is typically provided with a diamond tip with a cone angle (total included angle) of 60 or 90 and a tip radius in the range 1-10 m. The maximum detectable slopes using a stylus instrument are, respectively, 60 or 45. The spatial resolution achieved by this method, generally in the 2-20 m range, is limited by the tip geometry, and depends on the actual surface slopes and heights in the neighbourhood of the point of contact. Moreover, the force applied by the stylus on the surface can generate plastic deformation on the surface, making this method inapplicable to surfaces that are soft or where even light scratches cannot be accepted. Optical scanning techniques encompass most typically optical profilometers, confocal microscopes, and interferometers. The optical methods are non-contacting which allows measurements on soft surfaces. However, this kind of instrument is subject to measurement errors related to achieving a useful reflection signal from surfaces that are shiny or transparent to the light source. Optical styli for profilometry can be based on the autofocusing signal of a laser beam detector. The beam has a spot diameter of about 1 m, and this kind of instrument is similar in use to conventional stylus instruments, with a vertical resolution of approximately 5 nm. The maximum detectable slope of the surface or surface features using an auto-focusing stylus instrument is approximately 15. Laser scanning confocal microscopy is another optical technique based on the focus detection principle, where one surface picture element (pixel) is imaged at a time. Topography is reconstructed as a stack of vertical optical sections, in a fashion similar to computer tomography. Confocal microscopes allow steep surface details to be assessed, the maximum detectable slope being up to 75. Confocal microscopes have a limited lateral resolution, and some commercially available instruments even have a limited vertical resolution. Interference microscopy combines an optical microscope and an interferometer objective into a single instrument. These optical methods allow fast non-contacting measurements on essentially flat surfaces. Interferometric methods offer a subnanometre vertical resolution, being employed for surfaces with average roughness down to 0.1 nm and peak-to-valley heights up to several millimetres. Interferometric microscopes are all limited with respect to the surface slopes from the finite numerical apertures. Moreover, the lateral resolution is limited by diffraction. The maximum detectable slope using interferometry amounts to about 30 [41]. General considerations about measurement capabilities of these types of instruments can be summarised as for example in Table 5. For all optical instruments the non-

contact nature is a clear merit. For the same type of instruments a lack of traceable calibration specimens and procedures is present. Few examples have been found where different instruments were actually compared on the basis of measuring micro components. In [102] such a comparison is reported involving a focus detection laser scanning profiler, a confocal scanning laser microscope and a white light interferometer for the measurement of plastic surfaces. A more thorough investigation of the focus detection profilometer was reported in [103] where both random microstructures as well as deterministic micro structures were investigated. Laser confocal microscopy was reported in [104]-[105] for 3D analysis of microstructures such as die inserts for micro injection moulding, lab-on-a-chip structure, micro cavities, micro end mills etc. The dilemma of high resolution requirements and desired large range was solved by applying a three-dimensional stitching procedure with high-magnification optics. In [106]-[109] a method for 2D profiling of high aspect ratio microstructures is reported. The instrumentation is based on a specially developed silicon micro probe (length 1 mm, cross section 20 m x 20 m) which is vibrated by means of a piezo actuator. The method is called vibro scanning, and a measurement resolution of less than 35 nm [106]. The length of the tip reported was 7.2 m with a radius of curvature less than 50 nm. The technique was used to probe micro holes of diameter 80 m and depth 200 m. See Figure 10 for an illustration.

Figure 10: Example of measurement of microholes ( 80 m) with micro probe [106]. In [110] the description of an instrument based on a high accuracy 3D positioning device combined with a fixed optical focus detection sensor used for DVDs. Additionally a stationary STM sensor is used as a so-called nullindicator. The 3D positioning device is equipped with laser interferometers and the probing systems only used to trigger the read-out of the laser interferometers. The 3D positioning device has a range of 25 mm x 25 mm x 5 mm with a resolution of 0.1 nm. 3.3 Scanning electron microscopy Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) is a microscopy method existing for several decades. It is based on scanning an electron beam on the specimen. The interaction between the beam and the specimen surface leads to several emissions, which can be detected and used to characterize physical and chemical properties of the sample under investigation. Among others, it is possible with the SEM, to obtain topography images. As regards topography, SEM has some unique properties that, combined together, are not matched by any other microscopy technique. These include: magnification levels (100x to 100.000x), resolution down to 2 nm (for highest magnification), large depth of field, long working distance (allowing multiple positioning measurement strategies), elemental analysis capability and minimum diffraction effects [112]. Some disadvantages compared to optical microscopy include usually high vacuum requirement, relatively low throughput, potential for sample charging, electron beam/sample interaction etc. [112]. The principle is illustrated in Figure 11.

Principle Stylus

Merits Traceability Large range (XY and Z)

Limitations Mechanical contact force Tip geometry Limited lateral resolution Max. detectable slope appr. 15 Limited lateral resolution Max. detectable slope appr. 30 Limited lateral resolution Limited vertical resolution Slow Limited range (XY and Z)

Examples of application Industrial surfaces

Autofocus

Point by point probing

Soft materials

White light interferom.

Fast High vertical resolution (sub-nm)

Roughness of flat surfaces Film thickness Low aspect ratio MEMS High aspect ratio MEMS

Confocal

High aspect ratio structures Max. detectable slope up to 75 nm resolution

SPM

nano

Table 5: Surface microtopography instruments and their use for dimensional micro and nano metrology. Inspired by [41].

electronic representation of the sample (the image or micrograph). This means that all distortions of the image directly influence the measurement accuracy. In the case of a 40 nm transistor gate the industry specifies a measurement bias of less than 4 nm and a repeatability of 0.7 nm. In a SEM the edge bloom is typically tens of nanometers wide and of course this calls for specific actions. SEM images generally show lines such as photoresist on silicon with characteristically bright edges. Much of the uncertainty in linewidth or critical dimension (CD) measurements is due to the fact that the bright regions that represent a line's (or gate's) edge in a SEM image are not sharp at the nanometer scale. Each edge "zone" may be tens of nanometers wide, and the variation of image intensity within this region depends upon characteristics of the edge shape and instrument parameters [114]. Several instrument parameters influence this performance [115]. The position of the electron probe ideally needs to be known within less than 1 nm in order to make possible accurate measurements of small sample sizes. Vibrations and drift determine the obtainable accuracy. The brightness of the electron source determines the maximum amount of current capable of being focused into the spot. Finally the electron source size determines the level of resolution. For this reason nanotips were developed and tested as electron sources (Figure 12). In order to be able to optimise measurement accuracy modelling of the electron gun performance as well as the electron beam/sample interaction is necessary. As compared to macro scale objects the amount of physical matter that can generate the electron signal is limited for nanostructures. In [115]-[116] a simulation approach based on a model based library is described. The model comprises physical models for electron beam interaction with the sample, a library of pre-computed models for interaction as well as a capability of performing a nonlinear least squares best match between observed intensity profiles and the library contents. In a comparison of the simulation method with analysis of cross sections, agreement within 2 nm for linewidth and 0.2 for sidewall angles were observed (Figure 13). Other approaches to the prediction of edge effects are described in [117]-[118]. A further development towards elimination of un-desirable effects is the use of variable pressure/environmental scanning electron microscopes. This type of instrumentation offers the advantage of higher landing energies (imaging at higher resolutions), different contrast mechanisms and charge neutralisation (imaging of nonconducting specimens without metallic coatings) [119][120].

Figure 11: Principle of SEM measurement [113]. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) can also be used for qualitative surface topography analysis, primarily based on the fact that SEM allows an excellent visualisation achieved through the very high depth of focus of this technique. However, SEM photographs are still inherently 2D, and no height information can be extracted directly from the images. Furthermore calibration of scales and uncertainty estimation is a prerequisite for the use of SEM pictures for quantitative evaluations. 2D SEM The use of SEM for highly accurate dimensional measurements is reliant upon the interpretation of the Figure 12: Tungsten nano-tip cold field emission electron gun filament. The field-of-view is 500 m and 500 nm for the insert [115].

Z [nm]

X [nm]

Figure 13: Graphical comparision of the modeled and the experimental results of the cross section of polycrystalline test strucures with the predicted shape [116]. 3D SEM SEM images are in fact purely two-dimensional as they are built up of intensity variations displayed in an array of pixels obtained as the electron beam is scanned rectilinearly over the specimen surface. In order to reconstruct the third dimension of surface features, photogrammetry methods can be used. Photogrammetry based on SEM, have been studied for some time [121][126]. 3D information can be achieved by reconstruction from stereo pairs or triplets of SEM image scan be used for the evaluation of surface topography but is limited by a number of factors. First of all, SEM measurements require conductive sample materials, or sample preparation through deposition of a gold layer on the surface. A major limitation is that roughness parameters should be calculated over a relatively large area while, in the case of large magnifications, the area is relatively small. Another limitation is that smooth surfaces are hard to reconstruct due to few or no recognizable features. In [41], [127]-[128] results of 3D imaging with SEM are reported with focus on the establishment of traceability. Figure 14 illustrates the results of the 3D reconstruction of an ISO type C roughness standard. It was estimated that the lateral dimensions were determined satisfactorily while deviation of the order of 20% were observed for the vertical dimensions [41].
Z

smaller probes to enable a true 3-D measurement of nanometre features. We mention true 3-D capabilities as surface profiling instruments can however deliver data points in 3 dimensions, but with these techniques have a strong limitation in the maximum slope of a surface they can measure. We speak of true 3D measurement when features can be measured from aside and partly from inside; e.g. small holes. Already some years ago an ultimate surface measuring instrument was developed at the NIST, called the Molecular Measuring Machine: M3 [129]-[130] This instrument is basically an STM with a largely extended x-y range of 50 x 50 mm. The x- and y-axes are read out by laser interferometers. On a surface-area, molecules can be identified individually, and after that, the distances between any two molecules can be determined. When it comes to measuring even micrometre-areas with molecular resolution, measuring times become very large. This sounds like the ultimate end of dimensional metrology. Of course there is always more to wish: measure in air, a larger (z-) range, and an instrument that can be afforded by larger industries, and measuring features rather than a surface. Regarding a nano-CMM as a miniaturised CMM, concerning accuracy there are some demands that are hard to fulfil in a traditional CMM-size and structure. Some set-ups have been developed that satisfy Abbes principle in 2D and even in 3-D. For a high accuracy in the coordinates, either laser interferometers or highly accurate linear scales are used. Here a number of measurement frames are listed with their characteristics. Systems in universities and institutions: Vermeulens Machine Vermeulen, at the Eindhoven University of Technology in the group of prof. Schellekens, made a design in which the Abbe-principle is fulfilled in two axes: the use of linear scales is enabled by using an intermediate body. Air bearings are used [131]-[132]. The measuring volume is 100 x 100 x 100 mm. Ruyls machine Ruyl developed a 3-D CMM in the Philips centre for Manufacturing research. Its measuring volume is 100 x 100 x 40 mm. It has a design that delivers measurement according to the Abbe principle in all 3 axes. The measurement reference is a solid zerodur block that moves with the workpiece in 3 directions, while being measured by 3 flat-mirror laser interferometer systems [133]. Van Seggelens machine (Eindhoven University) As a further improvement and miniaturisation of the Vermeulen machine, van Seggelen is developing a CMM with a measurement volume of 50 x 50 x 4 mm. A major difference is the use of a double flexible hinge system that gives a strictly straight movement in the z-direction. It has a feed-back loop and a positioning repeatability within a nm was demonstrated. [134]. Ilmenau Machine A nanomeasuring machine has been developed at the Ilmenau University of Technology. Like the Ruyl machine, it is equipped with 3 laser interferometers [135]-[136]. PTB PTB has developed a 3D micro measuring device (3DMME), which allows coordinate measurements on microstructures to be carried out with an uncertainty <100 nm. The range of measurement is 25 mm x 40 mm x 25 mm. The 3D-MME is based on a CMM which is available on the market and whose accuracy is increased as highresolution scales (10 nm resolution) and improved air

Y X

Figure 14: Example of 3D reconstruction of ISO type C roughness standard measured with SEM [41]. Scales: X 520 m, Y 60 m, Z 16.5 m. 3.4 Micro and nano coordinate metrology Metrology frames Once considering the common coordinate measuring machines (CMMs) and thinking of micro- and nanometrology one would tend to miniaturize such a machine; especially its probe, so that smaller sizes can be measured. A smaller frame than the usual metre-sizes might provide the necessary stiffness and stability to achieve sub-um uncertainties in all 3 directions. Coming from the other side and considering AFMs one might wish these instruments to have millimetre ranges instead of micrometres, and be more efficient in measuring specific features instead of a total surface. These two worlds come together in what we will call micro and nano coordinate metrology. In the last few years there is a trend in University groups but also at CMM manufacturers to build smaller CMMs and especially

bearings are used. The basic unit is supplemented by a measuring system to determine the relative position and location of measurement object and measuring system during measurement and to correct the tracing coordinates. [137] University of Tokyo This device has a measuring range of 10 x 10 x 10 mm and a resolution of 10 nm. The measuring device has a symmetrical construction with a double V-groove guiding mechanism and employs a position sensing method using an optical scale to achieve high stability [138]. Commercially available machines Several of the above-mentioned machines are being commercialised: The Vermeulen machine has appeared as the F25 machine of Zeiss; the Ruyl machine is produced by IBS and sold under the name ISARA. The Ilmenau machine is related to the SIOS company. Panasonic sells a measurement machine called UA3P for measurement volumes up to 400 x 400 x 90 mm, with a metrology frame and measurements based on laser interferometers. It is mainly intended for surface measurements. Mitutoyo has developed the Nanocoord measuring machine that covers a 300 x 200 x 100 mm measurement volume with uncertainties starting at 0.2 m. It can be equipped by ball probes from 30 m diameter on, by a roughness measuring probe and by several kinds of optical probes. The reason why it is difficult to cite uncertainties with all these machines, is that the performance is almost fully determined by the used probe. Probes for micro-coordinate measuring machines In general, the CMM-like frames in the previous section establish a precision positioning and measuring base that can be used for a variety of probes. Apart from optical areal and point-sensing, also STM-like and conicalshaped roughness probes can be used. For true 3-D measurements the cone-shaped probes, that can have sharp tip with 10 nm diameter, are not useful as they cannot probe from aside. So for 3-D metrology the typical probing element will be some kind of ball probe. An overview of probing principles is given by Weckenmann [139], here we restrict ourselves to a short summary of 3D probes that use a small ball as probing element. The problems with reducing 3-D probes to small ball sizes are: Stick-slip effects, uncertainty in the probe form and diameter and low stiffness of the probing shaft. From the metrology side to this the problem of determining the exact probe position is added. Of the many approaches we mention: making a hinge system with very low stiffness so the shaft can be thin [140]-[143]. The problem of orientation-dependent stiffness was rigorously treated in [144] with a symmetrical set-up. The metrology problem of shaft-bending was treated by Schwenke by measuring the probe position independent optically [146]. A drastic approach, leaving out the shaft, laser-trap the probe and measure its position by optical microscopy was taken by Takaya [147]-[149], with a 8 m diameter probe. The stick-slip problem is avoided by Mitutoyos UMAP-probe, that is like Takayas system - based on small vibrations at its natural frequency, with triggering and probe removal as soon as the amplitude changes near an object. Probe diameters can be as small as 30 m [150]. 3.5 Scanning probe microscopy Scanning probe microscopy (SPM), including scanning tunneling microscopes (STMs), atomic force microscopes (AFMs), magnetic force microscopes, near field optical scanning microscopes, and others, is a powerful tool for sub-nanometric acquisition of topography data on very

fine surfaces. SPMs use a sharp probe scanning (the tip) over the surface while maintaining a very close spacing to the surface. SPMs allow measurements on surfaces with an area up to approximately 100 m x 100 m and having local variations in surface height which are less than approximately 10 m. SPM is a 2D microscopy technology in which the resolution is not limited by the diffraction of light. The vertical resolution of SPMs is about 0.1 nm while the horizontal resolution for most AFMs is typically 2 nm to 10 nm, but can be atomic. SPMs require minimal sample preparation [151]. Whereas the different SPM-techniques are based on different force-fields, such as tunnelling current between a conducting tip and the scanned surface, van der Waals forces, magnetic forces etc, the scanning mechanism is universally based on the piezoelectric effect that allows positioning within fractions of a nm. In consequence, all SPMs suffer from the intrinsic deficiencies of piezoelectric materials such as hysteresis and creep. This has lead to a number of correction techniques based on for instance capacitive sensors as well as on specialised calibration software. Hence, SPM offers a range of possibilities, and even with its limitations it is a most versatile tool for nanometrology. It should be noted that SPM is a non-destructive technique that works equally well on metals, semiconductors and even on biological specimens. Further it may be combined with other techniques; for instance an SPM has successfully been mounted on a ordinary CMM to extend the range, although with some costs in resolution [152]. Readers are referred to the CIRP STC S keynote paper 2006 on this subject. 3.6 Other techniques In this section other techniques reported for dimensional micro and nano metrology will be shortly presented. The description will not cover all possible methods, but is limited to selected methods reported to the authors in relationship with the preparation of the current paper. Digital holography The surface of typical micro systems consists very often of flat, reflective material, e. g. aluminium, silicon or copper. With the help of digital holography it is possible to measure the topography of the micro system or their behaviour under load [153]-[155]. The results can be compared with numerical calculations and functional parameters or the behaviour of the material can be obtained. The advantages of using digital holography are fast, planar and non-contact measurements with a resolution of a fraction of the used wavelength. By using digital holography the object is illuminated with coherent light and the backscattered light interferes with a reference beam on the CCD-target [156]-[157]. The hologram can be numerically reconstructed in any depth and hence the geometry of the object can be obtained by analysis of the phase distribution in the reconstruction plane. To get metrical results an adequate geometry model and the properties of the object surface have to be considered. For measuring deformations of objects under load the phase distribution with and without load are measured and subtracted. The typical size of micro systems is less than 1x1 mm. Here the classical digital holography is disturbed by the fact that all optical components (illumination, beamsplitter) have to be mounted between object and sensor. Experimental measurements of shape and deformation of a HF-switch show the potential of this technique: In Figure 15a the reconstructed intensity is shown. The used wavelength is =532 nm and the microscope objective

has a numerical aperture of N.A.=0,25. By superimposing the phase distribution with the transfer function of the microscope objective the height distribution can be determined. Figure 15b and 15c displays the height profile after transfer in metric coordinates. The results correspond well to the data of the manufacturer.

Camera

Zoom lens

Focusing lens

Focusing lens Reflector Grating

a b c Figure 15: Shape measurement of test component HFSwitch. a) reconstructed intensity plot b) height profile plot c) unwrapped height profile. Optical diffraction microscopy Recently optical diffraction microscopy (ODM) has been introduced as a novel tool in nanometrology. It is based on white light diffraction, where both the direct beam (0th order) and all orders of scattered light are analysed. With no moving parts and based on optical signal processing, it offers a fast and astonishing accurate tool for a variety of optical gratings An example of a practical construction is shown below [158]. The principle is as follows: White light is shone on to the sample, and scattered light as well as the 0th order are collected and analysed spectroscopically (Figure 16). The spectra are analysed by simulating spectra from model gratings and then fitting the model parameters to the observed spectra. Hence, the ODM is a promising technique for productions control of gratings, since it is much faster than AFM techniques. Comparisons with both AFM and cross-sectional SEM prove that the technique is very selective and robust [159]. It shares with the SPMtechniques that it is non-destructive. Micro computer tomography Based on existing Medical X-ray Tomography systems (which have resolutions of 1 to 2mm), micro computer tomography instruments have recently been developed. State of the art systems have resolution down to 0.15 m [41], [160]. The unique feature of this measuring technique consists in that it is fully three dimensional. It has in fact no limitations related to probe access, because of the high penetration power of x rays. A micro-focused X-ray source illuminates the object of interest, which is positioned on a precision manipulator. X-ray shadow images are acquired by an X-ray sensitive camera. Such x-ray radiographies consists of two dimensional shadow images of the complete internal three dimensional structures, but in a single two dimensional shadow projection the depth information is not discernible. Therefore, during image acquisition, the sample is rotated stepwise through 180 degrees, and images are recorded at each position. Based on the X-ray intensity 2D shadow images are calculated for each position and a 3D model of the object is finally achieved by combination of 2D shadow images. 3.7 Summary Methods for dimensional micro and nano metrology were reviewed in the chapter. They can be divided into the following categories, though a clear border line between them is not always possible to draw. Technologies based on inteferometric solutions Microtopography measuring instruments

X-y table Pinhole Polarizer Collimating lens Light source Spectrometer Switch

0 Order - Orders + Orders

Figure 16: Optical diffraction microscopy. Principle of setup. Scanning electron microscopy Micro and nano coordinate metrology

Other techniques Especially many interferometric principles are being applied in microtopography measuring instruments as well as micro and nano CMMs. Interferometry in general is capable of delivering accuracies and measurement uncertainties in the nm range. However, the nature of distance interferometry is one dimensional, so solutions containing multiple interferometers are often seen. Microtopography measuring instruments are capable of delivering three dimensional topography data sets. Surface topography measuring instruments are all somewhat limited in their performance on the vertical axis mainly due to the probe-specimen interaction (mechanical contact probe) or the optical characteristics (optical probe). High aspect ratio features, such as deep trenches, are critical; moreover undercuts cannot be measured. SEM is a powerful tool for obtaining sharp images with high magnification. These technologies are widely used for dimensional metrology of 2D structures in the m and nm regime. However, proper care has to be taken with respect to establishment of traceability for the use of SEM for dimensional metrology. Application of conventional CMMs to quality assurance in the context of microtechnology is limited either by lack of accuracy or probe size. New machines equipped with small, high accuracy probes are being developed for this purpose. Figure 17 shows a classification of measuring techniques related both to dimension and complexity. In the figure, surface topography measuring instruments are regarded

as a whole. Specific instruments may therefore actually have capabilities not indicated in the figure. In general a variety of 2D and 2D metrology systems are currently available. They are relatively expensive and slow. From the standpoints of both robustness and inspection speed, metrology systems lack the ability to be used in a production setting. Measurement challenge increases from left to right and from the top to the bottom of the table. The field covered by compact - ultraprecision CMMs is highly relevant in industry. Techniques as 3D SEM and computer tomography are of great interest, though their traceability is still not well established through universal calibration procedures (please refer to next chapter). There are a few truly 3D metrology systems in this domain. Full three dimensional characterization in the nm regime is not possible through the use of any of the reviewed techniques. Figure 18 holds a comparison of the discussed techniques in a Stedman-like diagram.

Figure 17: Classification of equipment. Inspired by [41]. Definition of 2D, 2D and 3D according to section 2.4.

Figure 18: Measurement instruments for dimensional micro and nano metrology. Inspired by [7]. 4 CALIBRATION AND TRACEABILITY Measurement standards and standard instruments have turned out to being very important measures for establishing reliability and confidence. This seems to be a particular challenge and is combined with manifold difficulties, because the nanometer range (0.1 nm till 100 nm) is that area where the atomic world starts and

continuum mechanics ends. This transient area is the socalled mesoscopic area, where it is extremely difficult to describe the interaction of sensors with the measurand precisely. But this is a necessary precondition to derive from this interaction correct and reliable measurement results. The macroscopic world has its own traditions in achieving traceability and normally uses artefacts such as scales, laser interferometers, stepgauges, ball plates, straight edges, optical flats etc. For linear dimensions, gauges or laser interferometers are used, for form measurements some form standard, if necessary combined with a reversal technique. In the microscopic world far less standard are in use: step heights, scales, 2D scales, and for STM-measurements a crystalline mica or silicon surface is usually considered as a suitable calibration artefact for achieving traceability. In order to illustrate some of the challenges, we consider measurement of form accuracy in the mesoscopic world: the reversal methods used in the traditional dimensional metrology are practically hardly possible because the artefacts cannot be handled so easy or can hardly be prepared. For example, there is no microscopic equivalent of a straight edge, and though one could imagine one, how to calibrate such an object by some reversal method is hard to imagine. There is no microscopic equivalent of a ball plate that can be calibrated by a reversal method as it can not be approached from two sides. A 3-flat method for obtaining an absolute flatness calibration can hardly be designed in a mesoscopic world. Also for linear dimensions: there is not yet a microscopic equivalent for a step gauge or for a gauge block. The used step heights are equivalent to a gauge block wrung on a platen. In the macroscopic world that is considered a poor standard as the artefact is always approached from the same side and 2-sided probe effects do not become visible. Type-D roughness standards exist down to Ra = 15 nm, however with a cutoff length of 80 m, but these do not exist for a typical measurement area of an AFM of 20 x 20 m. Besides those standards made of inorganic materials, equivalent standards are very desired for nanotechnology in all kind of processes (manufacture, monitoring, measurement) of organic materials including living cells in special cases [51]. Although the issue of traceability has only been addressed at a few specialised places, some attempts to establish global traceability in the nm-range have been made. However, they are mostly focused on SPM. Under the consultative committee for length CIPM-CCL within the metre convention, four global comparisons between national metrology institutes have been initiated on step height, line scales as well as 1D and 2D gratings with between 11 and 14 participants. Three have been finished, and one has been extended to Europe with five participants. Some results are given in Figure 19. It shows the results for a 1D grating where three techniques were employed, namely optical diffraction, optical microscopy, and SPM. The comparison demonstrates good correspondence between the classical optical techniques and SPM and it gives an impression of the uncertainties associated with this technique. On a 290 nm grating the 95% confidence level corresponds to an uncertainty U~0.5 nm.

Figure 19: Comparison of one-dimensional grating. Nominal value 290 nm. Uncertainty bars correspond to the expanded uncertainty at a 95% confidence level [161]. More interestingly is the step height comparison shown in Figure 20, since the traceability in the z-direction is notoriously difficult for SPMs. Here a step height of nominally 20 nm offers considerable scatter and relatively large uncertainties. However, these results show immense improvements between results obtained just a few years ago, where even stepheights measured by conventional stylus techniques were not comparable within a few percent [162]. Few national institutes offer calibrations of artefacts or standards for the use in production environments; and only one offers measurements in accordance with procedures that are accredited according to ISO/EN 17025. Hence, there is a need for standardised procedures.

Figure 20: Comparison of step height measurements. Nominal value 20 nm. Uncertainty bars correspond to the expanded uncertainty at a 95% confidence level. 4.1 Calibration artefacts A number of calibration artefacts have been produced and characterised as a result of EU-sponsored projects; and several commercial companies sell similar standards. They are mostly based on semiconducting materials. But there is no tradition for the maintenance of traceability outside national metrology institutes. The artefact that was used in the step height comparison mentioned above is shown in Figure 21. It is generally agreed that an optimum standard for use in an AFM or a similar-sized instrument, can be calibrated with an independent instrument that is designed for larger dimensions. An example is the step-height standard of Figure 21 that can be calibrated independently by an interference microscope, as long as the surface does not give phase change effects (as is the case between Si and SiO2), and as long as the step width is larger than the microscopes lateral resolution. Another example is

Figure 21: Example of calibration artefact for step height measurement used in an international comparison. Nominal step height value 20 nm [163]. the pitch of a grid that can be calibrated by diffraction; however diffraction is obviously averaging over many gridlines and may say little about just a few gridlines within the small range of an STM or AFM. In general it is difficult for small area-measurement to have a traceable reference in the literal sense that it can be calibrated and reproducibly found at a specified location. Available standards are groove depths and step heights, 1-D and 2-D grids and scarcely a flatness reference. A traceable calibration can regularly be obtained for groove depths/step heights and the pitch of 1-D grids e.g. [164][168]. Straightness, flatness and squareness become rare and squareness between all 3 axes of an STM or AFM has to our knowledge only been reported in few cases [41], [169]. In case of both 2D and 3D SEM calibration is also challenging. The calibration is complicated by the fact that SEM can span over many orders of magnitude in terms of dimensions, and that the interaction between electron beam and specimen is influencing the measurement especially in the nanometer range e.g. [115]. Examples of establishment of traceability for SEM instruments may include magnification calibration, tilt angle calibration (3D), vertical elevation calibration (3D), Lateral calibration on three dimensional data sets (3D) etc. In [41], [127], [128] a model for uncertainty estimation in 3D SEM was proposed. In [41] a new calibration artefact containing multiple step heights for the vertical elevation of 3D SEM is presented. In the case of using pitch standards for calibration the issue of measuring over one or many grid lines and the related uncertainty might involve correlation considerations or considerations similar to the Allanvariance in frequency calibrations [92]. 4.2 Summary As already discussed establishment of traceability through calibration is an important issue in micro and nano metrology. Physical standards are urgently needed along with calibration procedures. Furthermore modelling of task specific uncertainties is an enormous challenge in this dimensional regime. An important activity in order to establish a coherent knowledge on traceability is the organisation of interlaboratory comparisons. Different calibration artefacts can be positioned into a Stedman-like diagram as Figure 22. It is quite obvious that relatively large areas of the diagram are uncovered indicating the need for calibration artefacts. In particular

all standards seem to represent low aspect ratios hence no real 3D standards are available in this regime. Physical standards for surface roughness, subsurface properties, form (flatness, sphericity, asphericity) glass, ceramics and metals are therefore urgently needed. As already discussed also standards made of inorganic materials are needed.

For many components and products in this regime the use of tolerances is very poor if existing at all. See section 5.2 for a more detailed discussion on this issue. Instrumentation (gaps): The review reveals a large number measuring principles and instrumentation capable of performing dimensional measurements in the regime under consideration. However the different instruments have merits and limitations. From this perspective it is clear that no real solutions exist for rendering 3D results in a scale below 1-10 m. Probe developments are necessary in order to overcome current manufacturing limitations and subsequent performance limitations. At this scale the interaction between the probe and the object becomes critical. Physical models are needed to describe this interaction for various measurement set-ups. There is an increasing need for performing measurements in different length scales on the same workpiece (i.e. nanoroughness, micro channel width, mesoscopic alignment etc.). This results in the need for using a larger variety of instruments because one single instrument is not capable of covering the needs. New developments integrating different principles may be an alternative to this. Development of special equipment for measurements in the nanometer regime with focus on traceability is necessary. In-process capability of the measuring equipment will become extremely important as micro and nanotechnologies evolve into industrially implemented manufacturing (IC industry is an example).

Figure 22: Calibration artefacts for dimensional micro and nano metrology. Inspired by [7]. 5 DISCUSSION In this section an identification of possible gaps will be initiated based on the discussions in sections 2-4. Furthermore, a discussion on tolerancing issues in micro and nano metrology will be initiated. 5.1 Gap analysis The structure of this paper is based on an identification of relevant measurement tasks in the micro/nano regime. Tasks were identified both in terms of industrially relevant components and products and on the basis of research initiatives. Then the paper addressed relevant measuring techniques to use in this particular scale. Finally the establishment of traceability through calibration or intercomparisons was discussed. In this approach a series of needs or gaps were identified (see below). In [10]-[12] and [175] other gap analysis also connected to neighbouring fields are found. Measurement tasks (needs): Micro- and nanosized components constitute a very heterogenic group including a large range of different materials, different measurands and of course a large dimensional span. This implies that the span of metrology techniques also needs to be very large in order to find the best suited method. High aspect ratio applications do exist, but many applications are still with aspect ratios below 2. Nevertheless, small absolute dimensions (<1 m) pose difficulties for dimensional metrology also with aspect ratios around 1. The need for 3D analysis exists but is expected to increase especially for absolute dimensions below 100 nm. It is rather typical that specifications for dimensions and/or geometry of products or components in this particular regime actually span over several orders of magnitude.

Cleaning technology of both samples and instrumentation will become critical since the effect of contamination in this length scale will totally distort the measuring result. Traceability (gaps): Suitable standards for transfer of traceability and calibration of the same are needed. The standards available today are all miniaturisation of macro-scale standards. Especially for nanotechnology new materialised standards will have to be developed (also in in-organic materials). Models for uncertainty estimation need to be developed for the different types of measuring principles and instrumentation International comparisons needs to be strengthened in order to have a common basis for evaluation of new technologies as well as uncertainties.

5.2 Tolerancing in micro and nano technology A fundamental issue is that in the macro world the most frequently occurring functions of construction elements are the mating capability, the sliding and rolling capability, the load rating and different surface finishes. To ensure these functions the specifications are given in terms of maximum deviations from an ideal geometric form. Various ISO standards regulate this field in terms of geometrical product specifications (GPS). Moreover, in conventional machining processes the specifications of the parts as well as the variables for adjusting the dimensions and geometry of the manufactured part are linear dimensions (for instance the correction to compensate for deflections or tool wear), which means that the primary closed loop control is based on linear

dimensions. For the tolerancing in micro- and nanometrology it looks most straightforward to use the ISO standards of the GPS-series even though some obvious problems occur: for example tolerance grades have not been defined for nominal sizes below 3 mm. In drawings, micro-sizes and tolerances will be preceded by quite some zeros when still expressed in mm, but that problem can easily be overcome. More serious is the problem that the ISO-GPS system is set-up with the traditional workshop dimensional metrology in mind. This means that at many places measuring elements are prescribes of mm-size so obvious measuring smaller sizes is not possible when interpreting these standards strictly. An example is 2D roughness measurement, where the probe size is set as 2 m and where the bandwidth of surface measurements starts at 2.5 m at its smallest. This does not keep manufacturers of AFMs from putting a Ra-value in their analysis software, also where the whole area under concern is just a few square m. This leads to confusion when Ra values obtained from these instruments are compared to measurements taken by instruments that measure according to the ISOstandards. Also in other measurements, such as flatness and roundness there is a tendency to prescribe sizes of probes and workpieces. In [170] an approach for the development of a tolerance system for micro- and nano-sized features obtained with the micromilling and sputtering. A limiting factor identified in this work was the availability of calibration standards to ensure traceability. According to [171]-[173], three different integration techniques can be distinguished in micro and nano technology: Hetero integration: the integration is based on the same concept as for the macro mechanical assemblies. Therefore, geometric tolerances are required to achieve the functionality of the assembly. Hybrid integration: in this category micro components are placed, fixed and assembled on a substrate, resulting in fully functioning micro systems. For the hybrid integration technique, the positional accuracy of the components on the substrate is the most important control parameter. Monolithic integration: in this case, all the process steps are integrated on one single substrate. This means that the mating capabilities are no longer required since there are no components to be mated. According to [171]-[172] using this approach geometric measurements are not of primary importance, neither to achieve the functionality of the product nor to control the production process. For monolithic micro products and to some extent also for hetero integrated micro products, the manipulated variables and the functionality parameters are no longer linear or geometric dimensions. In the case of etching processes the primary manipulated variables for the approximation to the ideal geometric form are not geometrical dimensions, but process parameters as for instance composition of the etchant, etching time etc. Based on these observations, Weckenmann et al. suggest a function-oriented tolerancing concept. According to this concept, a tolerance is associated to the overall function of the micro component. If the calculated performance deviations during the various process steps are larger than the product tolerances, the parameters of the currently active manufacturing step will be corrected, so that the final product is situated within the expected product tolerances as defined by the functional behaviour. The use of GPS standards in nanometrology is discussed in [174]. Here a top-down approach based on the macroscopic GPS approach is evaluated in a nanocontext. It is proposed to adapt the traditional approach

when applied to nanometrology. In particular this involves fundamental studies regarding when surfaces begin/end with respect to the bulk material. Single atoms of the surface may become dominant and hence assumptions based on continuum mechanics are no longer valid. Tolerancing is linked closely together with metrology since a general rule of thumb indicates that the measurement uncertainty should be 1/10 of the specified tolerance. It is very hard to comply with this rule when the absolute dimensions are in the m and especially in the nm range. As discussed previously very few calibration artefacts and methods exist at this scale and therefore a sound evaluation of measurement uncertainty is difficult. However, a prerequisite is that it is possible to specify a tolerance, and there still is a long way to go with respect to this issue. 6 CONCLUSION AND OUTLOOK The current paper has described issues and challenges in dimensional micro and nano metrology. This has been achieved by reviewing typical measurement tasks followed by a discussion about available instrumentation. Traceability and calibration issues were discussed subsequently. Finally needs and gaps were identified based on these observations. The need for dimensional micro and nano metrology is evident, and as critical dimensions are scaled down and geometrical complexity of objects increased the available technologies appear not sufficient. Major research and development efforts have to be undertaken in order to answer these challenges. The developments of course have to include new measuring principle and instrumentation, but an equally important issue is related to tolerancing rules and procedures. Finally the issue of traceability and calibration is of outmost importance if the micro and nanotechnologies have an ambition of developing into industrial environments. 7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors would like to thank to the following persons who have contributed to this paper (alphabetical order, CIRP members denoted by *): E. Brinksmeier* J. Corbett* M. Davies* C. Evans* W. Gao* C. von Kopylow T. Masuzawa* M. Postek P.H.J. Schellekens* P.T. Tang E. Uhlmann * A. Weckenmann* 8 REFERENCES [1] Masuzawa, T., 2000, State of the art of micromachining, Annals of the CIRP, 49/2:473-488. [2] Corbett J. et al, 2000, Nanotechnology: International developments and emerging products, Annals of the CIRP, 49/2:523-546. [3] Van Brussel H. et al, 2000, Assembly of microsystems, Annals of the CIRP, 49/2:451-472. [4] Geiger M. et al, 2001, Microforming, Annals of the CIRP, 50/2:445-462.

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