UNIX Bourne Shell Scripting

UNIX Bourne Shell Scripting

Ken Steube Earth Systems Science Computational Centre The University of Queensland Brisbane, Australia uuencode test.txt test.txt | mailx -s "without x" nishantp@techmahindra.com These notes teach you how to write and run Bourne shell scripts on any UNIX computer. What do you need to know to follow along? This was originally written as a second class in UNIX. The first class taught how to use the basic UNIX commands (like sed, grep and find) and this class teaches how to combine these tools to accomplish bigger tasks. In addition to the material in this course you might be interested in the Korn shell (ksh) and the Bourne again shell (bash), both of which are excellent shells that enchance the original Bourne shell. These alternate shells are upwardly-compatible with the Bourne shell, meaning that a script written for sh can run in ksh or bash. However, there are additional features in bash and ksh that are not available in the Bourne shell. The focus of this guide is to get you to understand and run some Bourne shell scripts. On several pages there are example scripts for you to run. On most of these pages there is a link you can click on (with the right mouse button) and download the script to your computer and run it. You will learn several things:
Ability to automate tasks, such as o Software install procedures o Backups o Administration tasks o Periodic operations on a database via cron o Any repetetive operations on files Increase your general knowledge of UNIX o Use of environment o Use of UNIX utilities o Use of features such as pipes and I/O redirection
For example, I recently wrote a script to make a backup of one of the subdirectories where I was developing a project. I quickly wrote a shell script that uses /bin/tar to create an archive of the entire subdirectory and then copy it to one of our backup systems at my computer center and store it under a subdirectory named according to today's date.
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As another example, I have some software that runs on UNIX that I distribute and people were having trouble unpacking the software and getting it running. I designed and wrote a shell script that automated the process of unpacking the software and configuring it. Now people can get and install the software without having to contact me for help, which is good for them and good for me, too! For shell script experts one of the things to consider is whether to use the Bourne shell (or ksh or bash), the C shell, or a richer scripting language like perl or python. I like all these tools and am not especially biased toward any one of them. The best thing is to use the right tool for each job. If all you need to do is run some UNIX commands over and over again, use a Bourne or C shell script. If you need a script that does a lot of arithmetic or string manipulation, then you will be better off with perl or python. If you have a Bourne shell script that runs too slowly then you might want to rewrite it in perl or python because they can be much faster. Historically, people have been biased toward the Bourne shell over the C shell because in the early days the C shell was buggy. These problems are fixed in many C shell implementations these days, especially the excellent 'T' C shell (tcsh), but many still prefer the Bourne shell. There are other good shells available. I don't mean to neglect them but rather to talk about the tools I am familiar with. If you are interested also in learning about programming in the C shell I also have a comparison between features of the C shell and Bourne shell.
Table of Contents:
1. Review of a few Basic UNIX Topics (Page 1) 2. Storing Frequently Used Commands in Files: Shell Scripts (Page 6) 3. More on Using UNIX Utilities (Page 9) 4. Performing Search and Replace in Several Files (Page 11) 5. Using Command-line Arguments for Flexibility (Page 14) 6. Using Functions (Page 30) 7. Miscellaneous (Page 38) 8. Trapping Signals (Page 43) 9. Understanding Command Translation (Page 50) 10. Writing Advanced Loops (Page 59) 11. Creating Remote Shells (Page 67) 12. More Miscellaneous (Page 73) 13. Using Quotes (Page 75)
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Section 1: Review of a few Basic UNIX Topics

Shell scripting involves chaining several UNIX commands together to accomplish a task. For example, you might run the 'date' command and then use today's date as part of a file name. I'll show you how to do this below. Some of the tools of the trade are variables, backquotes and pipes. First we'll study these topics and also quickly review a few other UNIX topics.
Variables

Topics covered: storing strings in variables Utilities covered: echo, expr To try the commands below start up a Bourne shell:
/bin/sh
A variable stores a string (try running these commands in a Bourne shell)

name="John Doe" echo $name
The quotes are required in the example above because the string contains a special character (the space) A variable may store a number
num=137
The shell stores this as a string even though it appears to be a number A few UNIX utilities will convert this string into a number to perform arithmetic
expr $num + 3
Try defining num as '7m8' and try the expr command again What happens when num is not a valid number? Now you may exit the Bourne shell with
exit
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I/O Redirection

Topics covered: specifying the input or capturing the output of a command in a file Utilities covered: wc, sort The wc command counts the number of lines, words, and characters in a file
wc /etc/passwd wc -l /etc/passwd
You can save the output of wc (or any other command) with output redirection
wc /etc/passwd > wc.file
You can specify the input with input redirection

wc < /etc/passwd
Many UNIX commands allow you to specify the input file by name or by input redirection
sort /etc/passwd sort < /etc/passwd
You can also append lines to the end of an existing file with output redirection
wc -l /etc/passwd >> wc.file
Backquotes

Topics covered: capturing output of a command in a variable Utilities covered: date The backquote character looks like the single quote or apostrophe, but slants the other way It is used to capture the output of a UNIX utility A command in backquotes is executed and then replaced by the output of the command Execute these commands
date save_date=`date` echo The date is $save_date
Notice how echo prints the output of 'date', and gives the time when you defined the save_date variable
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Store the following in a file named backquotes.sh and execute it (right click and save in a file)
#!/bin/sh # Illustrates using backquotes # Output of 'date' stored in a variable Today="`date`" echo Today is $Today
Execute the script with

sh backquotes.sh
The example above shows you how you can write commands into a file and execute the file with a Bourne shell Backquotes are very useful, but be aware that they slow down a script if you use them hundreds of times You can save the output of any command with backquotes, but be aware that the results will be reformated into one line. Try this:
LS=`ls -l` echo $LS
Pipes

Topics covered: using UNIX pipes Utilities covered: sort, cat, head Pipes are used for post-processing data One UNIX command prints results to the standard output (usually the screen), and another command reads that data and processes it
sort /etc/passwd | head -5
Notice that this pipe can be simplified

cat /etc/passwd | head -5
You could accomplish the same thing more efficiently with either of the two commands:
head -5 /etc/passwd head -5 < /etc/passwd
For example, this command displays all the files in the current directory sorted by file size
ls -al | sort -n -r +4
The command ls -al writes the file size in the fifth column, which is why we skip the first four columns using +4. The options -n and -r request a numeric sort (which is different than the normal alphabetic sort) in reverse order
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awk

Topics covered: processing columnar data Utilities covered: awk The awk utility is used for processing columns of data A simple example shows how to extract column 5 (the file size) from the output of ls -l
ls -l | awk '{print $5}'
Cut and paste this line into a Bourne shell and you should see a column of file sizes, one per file in your current directory. A more complicated example shows how to sum the file sizes and print the result at the end of the awk run
ls -al | awk '{sum = sum + $5} END {print sum}'
In this example you should see printed just one number, which is the sum of the file sizes in the current directory.
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Section 2: Storing Frequently Used Commands in Files: Shell Scripts
Shell Scripts

Topics covered: storing commands in a file and executing the file Utilities covered: date, cal, last (shows who has logged in recently) Store the following in a file named simple.sh and execute it
#!/bin/sh # Show some useful info at the start of the day date echo Good morning $USER cal last | head -6
Shows current date, calendar, and a six of previous logins Notice that the commands themselves are not displayed, only the results To display the commands verbatim as they run, execute with
sh -v simple.sh
Another way to display the commands as they run is with -x

sh -x simple.sh
What is the difference between -v and -x? Notice that with -v you see '$USER' but with -x you see your login name Run the command 'echo $USER' at your terminal prompt and see that the variable $USER stores your login name With -v or -x (or both) you can easily relate any error message that may appear to the command that generated it When an error occurs in a script, the script continues executing at the next command Verify this by changing 'cal' to 'caal' to cause an error, and then run the script again Run the 'caal' script with 'sh -v simple.sh' and with 'sh -x simple.sh' and verify the error message comes from cal Other standard variable names include: $HOME, $PATH, $PRINTER. Use echo to examine the values of these variables
Storing File Names in Variables

Topics covered: variables store strings such as file names, more on creating and using variables Utilities covered: echo, ls, wc
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A variable is a name that stores a string It's often convenient to store a filename in a variable Store the following in a file named variables.sh and execute it
#!/bin/sh # An example with variables filename="/etc/passwd" echo "Check the permissions on $filename" ls -l $filename echo "Find out how many accounts there are on this system" wc -l $filename
Now if we change the value of $filename, the change is automatically propagated throughout the entire script
Scripting With sed

Topics covered: global search and replace, input and output redirection Utilities covered: sed Here's how you can use sed to modify the contents of a variable:
echo "Hello Jim" | sed -e 's/Hello/Bye/'
Copy the file nlanr.txt to your home directory and notice how the word 'vBNS' appears in it several times Change 'vBNS' to 'NETWORK' with
sed -e 's/vBNS/NETWORK/g' < nlanr.txt
You can save the modified text in a file with output redirection
sed -e 's/vBNS/NETWORK/g' < nlanr.txt > nlanr.new
Sed can be used for many complex editing tasks, we have only scratched the surface here
Section 3: More on Using UNIX Utilities
Performing Arithmetic

Topics covered: integer arithmetic, preceding '*' with backslash to avoid file name wildcard expansion Utilities covered: expr Arithmetic is done with expr
expr 5 + 7 expr 5 \* 7
Backslash required in front of '*' since it is a filename wildcard and would be translated by the shell into a list of file names You can save arithmetic result in a variable Store the following in a file named arith.sh and execute it
#!/bin/sh
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# Perform some arithmetic x=24 y=4 Result=èxpr $x \* $y` echo "$x times $y is $Result"
Translating Characters

Topics covered: converting one character to another, translating and saving string stored in a variable Utilities covered: tr Copy the file sdsc.txt to your home directory The utility tr translates characters
tr 'a' 'Z' < sdsc.txt
This example shows how to translate the contents of a variable and display the result on the screen with tr Store the following in a file named tr1.sh and execute it
#!/bin/sh # Translate the contents of a variable Cat_name="Piewacket" echo $Cat_name | tr 'a' 'i'
This example shows how to change the contents of a variable Store the following in a file named tr2.sh and execute it
#!/bin/sh # Illustrates how to change the contents of a variable with tr Cat_name="Piewacket" echo "Cat_name is $Cat_name" Cat_name=ècho $Cat_name | tr 'a' 'i'` echo "Cat_name has changed to $Cat_name"
You can also specify ranges of characters. This example converts upper case to lower case
tr 'A-Z' 'a-z' < file
Now you can change the value of the variable and your script has access to the new value
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Section 4: Performing Search and Replace in Several Files
Processing Multiple Files

Topics covered: executing a sequence of commands on each of several files with for loops Utilities covered: no new utilities Store the following in a file named loop1.sh and execute it
#!/bin/sh # Execute ls and wc on each of several files # File names listed explicitly for filename in simple.sh variables.sh loop1.sh do echo "Variable filename is set to $filename..." ls -l $filename wc -l $filename done
This executes the three commands echo, ls and wc for each of the three file names You should see three lines of output for each file name filename is a variable, set by "for" statement and referenced as $filename Now we know how to execute a series of commands on each of several files
Using File Name Wildcards in For Loops

Topics covered: looping over files specified with wildcards Utilities covered: no new utilities Store the following in a file named loop2.sh and execute it
#!/bin/sh # Execute ls and wc on each of several files # File names listed using file name wildcards for filename in *.sh do echo "Variable filename is set to $filename..." ls -l $filename wc -l $filename done
You should see three lines of output for each file name ending in '.sh'
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The file name wildcard pattern *.sh gets replaced by the list of filenames that exist in the current directory For another example with filename wildcards try this command
echo *.sh
Search and Replace in Multiple Files

Topics covered: combining for loops with utilities for global search and replace in several files Utilities covered: mv Sed performs global search and replace on a single file
sed -e 's/application/APPLICATION/g' sdsc.txt > sdsc.txt.new
The original file sdsc.txt is unchanged How can we arrange to have the original file over-written by the new version? Store the following in a file named s-and-r.sh and execute it
#!/bin/sh # Perform a global search and replace on each of several files # File names listed explicitly for text_file in sdsc.txt nlanr.txt do echo "Editing file $text_file" sed -e 's/application/APPLICATION/g' $text_file > temp mv -f temp $text_file done
First, sed saves new version in file 'temp' Then, use mv to overwrite original file with new version
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Section 5: Flexibility
Using
Command-line
Arguments
for
What's Lacking in the Scripts Above?

Topics covered: looping over files specified with wildcards Utilities covered: no new utilities File names are hard-coded inside the script What if you want to run the script but with different file names? To execute for loops on different files, the user has to know how to edit the script Not simple enough for general use by the masses Wouldn't it be useful if we could easily specify different file names for each execution of a script?
What are Command-line Arguments?

Topics covered: specifying command-line arguments Utilities covered: no new utilities Command-line arguments follow the name of a command
ls -l .cshrc /etc
The command above has three command-line arguments

-l .cshrc /etc wc *.sh (an option that requests long directory listing) (a file name) (a directory name)
An example with file name wildcards: How many command-line arguments were given to wc? It depends on how many files in the current directory match the pattern *.sh Use 'echo *.sh' to see them Most UNIX commands take command-line arguments. Your scripts may also have arguments
Accessing Command-line Arguments

Topics covered: accessing command-line arguments Utilities covered: no new utilities Store the following in a file named args1.sh
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#!/bin/sh # Illustrates using command-line arguments # Execute with # sh args1.sh On the Waterfront echo "First command-line argument is: $1" echo "Third argument is: $3" echo "Number of arguments is: $#" echo "The entire list of arguments is: $*"
Execute the script with

sh args1.sh -x On the Waterfront
Words after the script name are command-line arguments Arguments are usually options like -l or file names
Looping Over the Command-line Arguments

Topics covered: using command-line arguments in a for loop Utilities covered: no new utilities Store the following in a file named args2.sh and execute it
#!/bin/sh # Loop over the command-line arguments # Execute with # sh args2.sh simple.sh variables.sh for filename in "$@" do echo "Examining file $filename" wc -l $filename done
This script runs properly with any number of arguments, including zero The shorter form of the for statement shown below does exactly the same thing
for filename do ...
Don't use
for filename in $*
Fails if any arguments include spaces Also, don't forget the double quotes around $@
If Blocks

Topics covered: testing conditions, executing commands conditionally Utilities covered: test (used by if to evaluate conditions) This will be covered on the whiteboard See Chapter 8 of the book
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The read Command

Topics covered: reading a line from the standard input Utilities covered: no new utilities stdin is the keyboard unless input redirection used Read one line from stdin, store line in a variable
read variable_name
Ask the user if he wants to exit the script Store the following in a file named read.sh and execute it
#!/bin/sh # Shows how to read a line from stdin echo "Would you like to exit this script now?" read answer if [ "$answer" = y ] then echo "Exiting..." exit 0 fi
Command Exit Status

Topics covered: checking whether a command succeeds or not Utilities covered: no new utilities Every command in UNIX should return an exit status Status is in range 0-255 Only 0 means success Other statuses indicate various types of failures Status does not print on screen, but is available thru variable $? Example shows how to examine exit status of a command Store the following in a file named exit-status.sh and execute it
#!/bin/sh # Experiment with command exit status echo "The next command should fail and return a status greater than zero" ls /nosuchdirectory echo "Status is $? from command: ls /nosuchdirectory" echo "The next command should succeed and return a status equal to zero" ls /tmp echo "Status is $? from command: ls /tmp"
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Example shows if block using exit status to force exit on failure Store the following in a file named exit-status-test.sh and execute it
#!/bin/sh # Use an if block to determine if a command succeeded echo "This mkdir command fails unless you are root:" mkdir /no_way if [ "$?" -ne 0 ] then # Complain and quit echo "Could not create directory /no_way...quitting" exit 1 # Set script's exit status to 1 fi echo "Created directory /no_way"
Exit status is $status in C shell
Regular Expressions

Topics covered: search patterns for editors, grep, sed Utilities covered: no new utilities Zero or more characters: .*
grep 'provided.*access' sdsc.txt sed -e 's/provided.*access/provided access/' sdsc.txt
Search for text at beginning of line

grep '^the' sdsc.txt
Search for text at the end of line

grep 'of$' sdsc.txt
Asterisk means zero or more the the preceeding character

a* aa* aaa* zero or more a's one or more a's two or more a's
Delete all spaces at the ends of lines

sed -e 's/ *$//' sdsc.txt > sdsc.txt.new
Turn each line into a shell comment

sed -e 's/^/# /' sdsc.txt
Greed and Eagerness

Attributes of pattern matching Greed: a regular expression will match the largest possible string Execute this command and see how big a string gets replaced by an underscore
echo 'Big robot' | sed -e 's/i.*o/_/'
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Eagerness: a regular expression will find the first match if several are present in the line Execute this command and see whether 'big' or 'bag' is matched by the regular expression
echo 'big bag' | sed -e 's/b.g/___/'
Contrast with this command (notice the extra 'g')

echo 'big bag' | sed -e 's/b.g/___/g'
Explain what happens in the next example

echo 'black dog' | sed -e 's/a*/_/'
Hint: a* matches zero or more a's, and there are many places where zero a's appear Try the example above with the extra 'g'
echo 'black dog' | sed -e 's/a*/_/g'
Regular Expressions Versus Wildcards

Topics covered: clarify double meaning of asterisk in patterns Utilities covered: no new utilities Asterisk used in regular expressions for editors, grep, sed Different meaning in file name wildcards on command line and in find command and case statement (see below)
regexp .* . [aCg] wildcard * ? [aCg] meaning zero or more characters, any type exactly one character, any type exactly one character, from list: aCg
Regexps can be anchored to beginning/ending of line with ^ and $ Wildcards automatically anchored to both extremes Can use wildcards un-anchored with asterisks
ls *bub*
Getting Clever With Regular Expressions

Topics covered: manipulating text matched by a pattern Utilities covered: no new utilities Copy the file animals.txt to your home directory Try this sed command, which changes the first line of animals.txt
sed -e "s/big $.*$ dog/small \1 cat/" animals.txt
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Bracketing part of a pattern with $ and $ labels that part as \1 Bracketing additional parts of a pattern creates labels \2, \3, ... This sed command reverses the order of two words describing the rabbit
sed -e "s/Flopsy is a rabbit/" < animals.txt big $.*$ $.*$ rabbit/A big \2 \1
The case Statement

Topics covered: choosing which block of commands to execute based on value of a string Utilities covered: no new utilities The next example shows how to use a case statement to handle several contingencies The user is expected to type one of three words A different action is taken for each choice Store the following in a file named case1.sh and execute it
#!/bin/sh # An example with the case statement # Reads a command from the user and processes it echo "Enter your command (who, list, or cal)" read command case "$command" in who) echo "Running who..." who ;; list) echo "Running ls..." ls ;; cal) echo "Running cal..." cal ;; *) echo "Bad command, your choices are: who, list, or cal" ;; esac exit 0
The last case above is the default, which corresponds to an unrecognized entry The next example uses the first command-line arg instead of asking the user to type a command Store the following in a file named case2.sh and execute it
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#!/bin/sh # An example with the case statement # Reads a command from the user and processes it # Execute with one of # sh case2.sh who # sh case2.sh ls # sh case2.sh cal echo "Took command from the argument list: '$1'" case "$1" in who) echo "Running who..." who ;; list) echo "Running ls..." ls ;; cal) echo "Running cal..." cal ;; *) echo "Bad command, your choices are: who, list, or cal" ;; esac
The patterns in the case statement may use file name wildcards
The while Statement

Topics covered: executing a series of commands as long as some condition is true Utilities covered: no new utilities The example below loops over two statements as long as the variable i is less than or equal to ten Store the following in a file named while1.sh and execute it
#!/bin/sh # Illustrates implementing a counter with a while loop # Notice how we increment the counter with expr in backquotes i="1" while [ $i -le 10 ] do echo "i is $i"
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i=èxpr $i + 1` done
Example With a while Loop

Topics covered: Using a while loop to read and process a file Utilities covered: no new utilities Copy the file while2.data to your home directory The example below uses a while loop to read an entire file The while loop exits when the read command returns false exit status (end of file) Store the following in a file named while2.sh and execute it
#!/bin/sh # Illustrates use of a while loop to read a file cat while2.data | \ while read line do echo "Found line: $line" done
The entire while loop reads its stdin from the pipe Each read command reads another line from the file coming from cat The entire while loop runs in a subshell because of the pipe Variable values set inside while loop not available after while loop
Interpreting Options With getopts Command

Topics covered: Understand how getopts command works Utilities covered: getopts getopts is a standard UNIX utility used for our class in scripts getopts1.sh and getopts2.sh Its purpose is to help process command-line options (such as -h) inside a script It handles stacked options (such as -la) and options with arguments (such as -P used as -Pprinter-name in lpr command) This example will help you understand how getopts interprets options Store the following in a file named getopts1.sh and execute it
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#!/bin/sh # Execute with # # sh getopts1.sh -h -Pxerox file1 file2 # # and notice how the information on all the options is displayed # # The string 'P:h' says that the option -P is a complex option # requiring an argument, and that h is a simple option not requiring # an argument. # # Experiment with getopts command while getopts 'P:h' OPT_LETTER do echo "getopts has set variable OPT_LETTER to '$OPT_LETTER'" echo " OPTARG is '$OPTARG'" done used_up=èxpr $OPTIND - 1` echo "Shifting away the first \$OPTIND-1 = $used_up command-line arguments" shift $used_up echo "Remaining command-line arguments are '$*'"
Look over the script getopts looks for command-line options For each option found, it sets three variables: OPT_LETTER, OPTARG, OPTIND OPT_LETTER is the letter, such as 'h' for option -h OPTARG is the argument to the option, such as -Pjunky has argument 'junky' OPTIND is a counter that determines how many of the command-line arguments were used up by getopts (see the shift command in the script) Execute it several times with
sh getopts1.sh -h -Pjunky sh getopts1.sh -hPjunky sh getopts1.sh -h -Pjunky /etc /tmp
Notice how it interprets -h and gives you 'h' in variable OPT_LETTER Now you can easily implement some operation when -h is used Notice how the second execution uses stacked options Notice how the third execution examines the rest of the command-line after the options (these are usually file or directory names)
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Example With getopts

Topics covered: interpreting options in a script Utilities covered: getopts The second example shows how to use if blocks to take action for each option Store the following in a file named getopts2.sh and execute it
#!/bin/sh # # Usage: # # getopts2.sh [-P string] [-h] [file1 file2 ...] # # Example runs: # # getopts2.sh -h -Pxerox file1 file2 # getopts2.sh -hPxerox file1 file2 # # Will print out the options and file names given # # Initialize our variables so we don't inherit values # from the environment opt_P='' opt_h='' # Parse the command-line options while getopts 'P:h' option do case "$option" in "P") opt_P="$OPTARG" ;; "h") opt_h="1" ;; ?) echo "getopts2.sh: Bad option specified...quitting" exit 1 ;; esac done shift èxpr $OPTIND - 1` if [ "$opt_P" != "" ] then echo "Option P used with argument '$opt_P'" fi
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if [ "$opt_h" != "" ] then echo "Option h used" fi if [ "$*" != "" ] then echo "Remaining command-line:" for arg in "$@" do echo " $arg" done fi
Execute it several times with

sh getopts2.sh -h -Pjunky sh getopts2.sh -hPjunky sh getopts2.sh -h -Pjunky /etc /tmp
Can also implement actions inside case statement if desired
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Section 6: Using Functions
Functions

Sequence of statements that can be called anywhere in script Used for o Good organization o Create re-usable sequences of commands
Define a Function

Define a function
echo_it () { echo "In function echo_it" }
Use it like any other command

echo_it
Put these four lines in a script and execute it
Function Arguments

Functions can have command-line arguments

echo_it () { echo "Argument 1 is $1" echo "Argument 2 is $2" } echo_it arg1 arg2
When you execute the script above, you should see

Argument 1 is arg1 Argument 2 is arg2
Create a script 'difference.sh' with the following lines:

#!/bin/sh echo_it () { echo Function argument 1 is $1 } echo Script argument 1 is $1
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echo_it Barney
Execute this script using

sh difference.sh Fred
Notice that '$1' is echoed twice with different values The function has separate command-line arguments from the script's
Example With Functions

Use functions to organize script

read_inputs () { ... } compute_results () { ... } print_results () { ... }
Main program very readable

read_inputs compute_results print_results
Functions in Pipes

Can use a function in a pipe

ls_sorter () { sort -n +4 } ls -al | ls_sorter
Function in pipe executed in new shell New variables forgotten when function exits
Inherited Variables

Variables defined before calling script available to script

func_y () { echo "A is $A" return 7 } A='bub' func_y if [ $? -eq 7 ] ; then ...
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Try it: is a variable defined inside a function available to the main program?
Functions -vs- Scripts

Functions are like separate scripts Both functions and scripts can: Use command-line arguments
echo First arg is $1
Operate in pipes
echo "test string" | ls_sorter
Return exit status

func_y arg1 arg2 if [ $? -ne 0 ] ...
Libraries of Functions

Common to store definitions of favorite functions in a file Then execute file with
. file
Period command executes file in current shell Compare to C shell's source command
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Section 7: Miscellaneous
Here Files

Data contained within script

cat << END This script backs up the directory named as the first command-line argument, which in your case in $1. END
Terminator string must begin in column one Variables and backquotes translated in data Turn off translation with \END
Example With Here File

Send e-mail to each of several users

for name in login1 login2 login3 do mailx -s 'hi there' $name << EOF Hi $name, meet me at the water fountain EOF done
Use <<- to remove initial tabs automatically
Set: Shell Options

Can change Bourne shell's options at runtime Use set command inside script
set -v set +v set -xv
Toggle verbose mode on and off to reduce amount of debugging output
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Set: Split a Line

Can change Bourne shell's options

set -- word1 word2 echo $1, $2 word1, word2
Double dash important! Word1 may begin with a dash, what if word1 is '-x'? Double dash says "even if first word begins with '-', do not treat it as an option to the shell
Example With Set

Read a line from keyboard Echo words 3 and 5

read var set -- $var echo $3 $5
Best way to split a line into words
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Section 8: Trapping Signals
What are Signals?

Signals are small messages sent to a process Process interrupted to handle signal Possibilities for managing signal: o Terminate o Ignore o Perform a programmer-defined action
Common Signals
Common signals are o SIGINTR sent to foreground process by ^C o SIGHUP sent when modem line gets hung up o SIGTERM sent by kill -9 Signals have numeric equivalents
2 SIGINTR 9 SIGTERM
Send a Signal

Send a signal to a process

kill -2 PID kill -INTR PID
Trap Signals

Handling Signals
trap "echo Interrupted; exit 2" 2
Ignoring Signals
trap "" 2 3
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Restoring Default Handler

trap 2
Where to Find List of Signals

See file
/usr/include/sys/signal.h
User Signals

SIGUSR1, SIGUSR2 are for your use Send to a process with

kill -USR1 PID
Default action is to terminate process
Experiment With Signals

Script that catches USR1 Echo message upon each signal

trap 'echo USR1' 16 while : ; do date sleep 3 done
Try it: does signal interrupt sleep?
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Section 9: Understanding Command Translation
Command Translation
Common translations include o Splitting at spaces, obey quotes o $HOME -> /users/us/freddy o `command` -> output of command o I/O redirection o File name wildcard expansion Combinations of quotes and metacharacters confusing Resolve problems by understanding order of translations
Experiment With Translation

Try wildcards in echo command

echo b* b budget bzzzzz
b* translated by sh before echo runs When echo runs it sees

echo b budget bzzzzz
Echo command need not understand wildcards!
Order of Translations

Splits into words at spaces and tabs Divides commands at

; & | && || (...) {...}
Echos command if -v Interprets quotes Performs variable substitution
Order of Translations (continued)

Performs command substitution Implements I/O redirection and removes redirection characters
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Divides command again according to IFS Expands file name wildcards Echos translated command if -x Executes command
Exceptional Case

Delayed expansion for variable assignments

VAR=b* echo $VAR b b_file
Wildcard re-expanded for each echo
Examples With Translation

Variables translated before execution Can store command name in variable

command="ls" $command file1 file2 dir1 dir2...
Variables translated before I/O redirection

tempfile="/tmp/scriptname_$$" ls -al > $tempfile
Examples (continued)

Delayed expansion of wildcards in variable assignment Output of this echo command changes when directory contents change (* is reevaluated each time the command is run)
x=* echo $x
Can view values stored in variables with

set
Try it: verify that the wildcard is stored in x without expansion
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Examples (continued)

Wildcards expanded after redirection (assuming file* matches exactly one file):
cat < file* file*: No such file or directory
Command in backquotes expanded fully (and before I/O redirection)

cat < ècho file*` (contents of file sent to screen)
Eval Command

Forces an extra evaluation of command

eval cat \< file* (contents of matching file)
Backslash delays translation of < until second translation
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Section 10: Writing Advanced Loops
While loops

Execute statements while a condition is true

i=0 while [ $i -lt 10 ] do echo I is $i i=èxpr $i + 1` done
Until loops

Execute statements as long as a condition is false

until grep "sort" dbase_log > /dev/null do sleep 10 done echo "Database has been sorted"
Example executes until grep is unsuccessful
Redirection of Loops

Can redirect output of a loop

for f in *.c do wc -l $f done > loop.out
Loop runs in separate shell New variables forgotten after loop Backgrounding OK, too
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Continue Command

Used in for, while, and until loops Skip remaining statements Return to top of loop
for name in * do if [ ! -f $name ] ; then continue fi echo "Found file $name" done
Example loops over files, skips directories
Break Command

Used in for, while, and until loops Skip remaining statements Exit loop
for name in * do if [ ! -r $name ] ; then echo "Cannot read $name, quitting loop" break fi echo "Found file or directory $name" done
Example loops over files and directories, quits if one is not readable
Case Command

Execute one of several blocks of commands

case "string" in pattern1) commands ;; pattern2) commands ;;
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*) # Default case commands ;; esac
Patterns specified with file name wildcards

quit) ... qu*) ...
Example With Case

Read commands from keyboard and interpret Enter this script 'case.sh'
echo Enter a command while read cmd do case "$cmd" in list) ls -al ;; freespace) df . ;; quit|Quit) break ;; *) echo "$cmd: No such command" ;; esac done echo "All done"
When you run it, the script waits for you to type one of:
list freespace quit Quit
Try it: modify the example so any command beginning with characters "free" runs df
Infinite Loops

Infinite loop with while

while : do ... done
: is no-op, always returns success status Must use break or exit inside loop for it to terminate
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Section 11: Forking Remote Shells
Remote Shells

Rsh command
rsh hostname "commands"
Runs commands on remote system Must have .rhosts set up Can specify different login name
rsh -l name hostname "commands"
Examples With rsh

Check who's logged on

rsh spooky "finger"
Run several remote commands

rsh spooky "uname -a; time"
Executes .cshrc on remote system Be sure to set path in .cshrc instead of .login
Access Control with .Rhosts

May get "permission denied" error from rsh Fix this with ~/.rhosts on remote system Example: provide for remote shell from spunky to spooky
spunky % rlogin spooky spooky % vi ~/.rhosts (insert "spunky login-name") spooky % chmod 600 ~/.rhosts spooky % logout spunky % rsh spooky uname -a spooky 5.5 sparc SUNW,Ultra-1
May also rlogin without password: security problem!
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Remote Shell I/O

Standard output sent to local host

rsh spooky finger > finger.spooky
Standard input sent to remote host

cat local-file | rsh spooky lpr -
Return Status

Get return status of rsh

rsh mayer "uname -a" echo $?
Returns 0 if rsh managed to connect to remote host Returns 1 otherwise o Invalid hostname o Permission denied
Remote Return Status

What about exit status of remote command? Have to determine success or failure from stdout or stderr
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Section 12: More Miscellaneous
Temporary Files

Use unique names to avoid clashes

tempfile=$HOME/Weq_$$ command > $tempfile
$$ is PID of current shell Avoids conflict with concurrent executions of script Do not use /tmp!
Wait Command

Wait for termination of background job

command & pid=$! (other processing) wait $pid
Allows overlap of two or more operations
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Section 13: Using Quotes
Quotes

Provide control of collapsing of spaces and translation of variables Try it: run three examples No quotes (variables translated, spaces collapsed)
echo Home: $HOME Home: /users/us/freddy
Double quotes (no collapsing)

echo "Home: $HOME" Home: /users/us/freddy
Single quotes (no translation or collapsing)

echo 'Home: $HOME' Home: $HOME
Try it: single quotes within double quotes

echo "Home directory '$HOME' is full..."
Metacharacters

Characters with special meaning to shell

" ' ` $ * [ ] ? ; > < & ( ) \
Avoid special meaning with quoting

echo 'You have $20'
Backslash like single quotes Applies only to next character

echo You have \$20
Examples With Quotes
Bad command line:
_______________________________________________________________________ _ 39

grep dog.*cat file
Shell tries to expand dot.*cat as file name wildcard Use quotes to avoid translation
grep 'dog.*cat' file
Single quotes OK in this case because we don't need variable translation
More Examples With Quotes

Read name and search file for name

read name grep "$name" dbase
Single quotes not OK because we need variable translation
Searching for Metacharacters

Bad command line: search for dollar sign

grep "Gimme.*$20" file
Problem: shell translates variable $20 Solution: use single quotes

grep 'Gimme.*$20' file
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The Vi Editor
This document attempts to list all commands that are to be used for Vi editor in Unix. This can be used by starters as well as by experienced persons who would like to carry this command list along with them in a portable format. THE VI Editor:

vi : cautions:
There are primarily two types of editors available under UNIX: ed is a line editor comparable to EDLIN IN DOS. vi is the full screen editor - vi stands for visual.
Very user unfriendly - no help.
Same keystrokes can have more than on meaning depending on current mode. Also, the key combinations are in no way mnemonic.
Fanatically case-sensitive vi : Salient features : vi is omnipresent - in all UNIX systems. vi is fast. vis got powerful UNDO features.
vis got lots of support . vi : The basics :
vi & ex commands compatible with each other but ex is a line editor only. All editing done in a buffer i.e. , on a copy of original until save. vi works in 3 different modes : Command mode - All keys are interpreted as commands. Insert mode - Keys echoed in edit buffer.
The ex Escape or The Esc colon (:) mode - Keys interpreted as commands & echoed at the command line at the bottom of vi screen. vi : The basics :...
Bottom most line in vi is the command line where all commands in Esc : mode & messages are displayed. No error massages in vi - only beeps,beeps & beeps. (PC speaker vital !).
Never press any control or special keys - no arrow keys for cursor movement on most terminals ! vi : Invoking : vi - Starts an empty edit buffer.
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vi name Edits the named file - creates named file if not exist. Opens & goes to third line. Searches for the first occurrence of bye in the file. vi +3 name vi + /bye name

vi : Invoking : ...
NOTE : The TERM variable to be set right & exported ... Press i now to enter insert mode from initial cmd mode & to enter text.
After, press Esc repeatedly (F11 on Micro vax II !) till beep - this is command mode again. The period . is the repeat insert command.
Come to cmd mode like before , type u to undo. vi : cursor movements (navigating in a file): More cursor control in vi : #w Moves word forward #W Moves word forward till next space #e Goes to last character in word #E Same as #e but ignores punctuation f[character] Upto specified character in current line - right
F[character] Same as above but - left More cursor control : ... t[character] Same as f[c] but one c before T[character] Same as F[c] but one c before #b back a word #B Same as #b , ignores punctuations 0 or ^ beginning of a line #$ end of line #G
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Goto 2G to 2 nd line of file
# indicates repeat count. vi : screen commands (Scrolling):
Ctrl-F Screen forward - except last two lines Screen backwards Forwards - half a screen Backwards - half a screen Re-draw & clear messages Ctrl-B Ctrl U Ctrl-D Ctrl R or Ctrl L Ctrl-G
Status of edit vi : deleting data:

#dd delete current line where cursor #dw delete word from cursor till punctuation #dW Same as #dw but include (i.e., ignore ) punctuation #x delete c at cursor #X delete c before cursor d$ or D delete current line from where cursor d0 delete current line from where cursor - upto start of line vi : text insertion: i invokes insert mode & inserts before character Same as i but insertion at beginning of line opens blank line above current line Same as O but below I O o
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a Same as i but insert after cursor Same as a but append at end of line A
vi : text insertion:... JOINING : The J command causes the lines of text below the current line to get joined with the current line. LINE NUMBERING :
In ex Esc mode the command : set nu sets line numbers & : set nonu removes them. vi : Block moves (colon : commands)Copy 2 nd line after 5 th :2co5 Destination (5) to be greater than source (2) :1,3co$ :6 compare 6G $ for last line, 1,3 is range Multiple lines copyMove to line 6Delete three consecutive lines now (#dd) -
3dd alternative is :6,9d vi : Block moves :...

Yet another way Symbol Means . Current line where cursor + Line after current line - Line before current line Delete 3 lines after current line: .+3d :.,+3d : 1mo3 , denotes range Delete 3 lines below current line including current lineMove line 1 to after line 3 Lines 1,2 & 3 after line 5 -
: 1,3mo5 vi : Saving & Exiting :q! Quit & abandon changes Save & quit :wq
_______________________________________________________________________ _ 44
:x Replace old copy with new & quit
ZZ Save & Quit (from command mode) vi : Replacing existing text: r Replace a single c at current cursor position Invoke insert mode & go on replacing till Esc R s Replace a single c with text - insert mode - continues till Esc - $ appears after c to be replaced S
Replace current line with new text - blanks entire current line - invokes insertion mode vi : Replacing existing text: r Replace a single c at current cursor position Invoke insert mode & go on replacing till Esc R s Replace a single c with text - insert mode - continues till Esc - $ appears after c to be replaced S
Replace current line with new text - blanks entire current line - invokes insertion mode vi : Replacing existing text: ... cw Replaces a word - $ at end of word - replacement continues after end of $ if word size greater than current word C Same as cw but acts on rest of line from current cursor position Same as C but entire line cc
NOTE : Flipping case : Command mode - cursor under c - Press ~ on key-board - c -> C. vi : cut & paste: #yy Yank (cut !) specified number of lines into yank buffer Paste from yank buffer below current line p
_______________________________________________________________________ _ 45

cut. vi : 9 lives !-
P Same as p but above current line NOTE : dd also copies to yank buffers. Imperative for paste to immediately follow
vi offers undo of upto 9 line deletions (each deletion may be a group of lines ) apart from the usual undo u .
This follows the LIFO (Last In First Out ) rule -
#p or #P
# is 1 to 9 vi : User Defined Registers:

vi offers 26 registers (buffers) named a to z to the user into which text may be yanked & put anywhere else in the file using the put commands. These assignments are active during the entire current session a5yy yank 5 whole lines including current & place in user defined buffer a ap
put contents of a below current line vi : Marking & Yanking:

Marking the current cursor positionmk - m for mark , k is block name (In command mode) k - flips cursor to mark k from anywhere else in file dk - deletes block from mark k upto current cursor position
ayk - yanks into register a
ap - puts contents of a vi : Pattern Searching:
Basic commands are : /g search for pattern g forwards search for pattern g backwards ?g n
repeat the last / or ? command vi : Global & Substitute:

These are : (colon) commands. To replace string by string1 on the current line -
_______________________________________________________________________ _ 46
:s/string/string1/ replaces only first occurrence :s/string/string1/g
replaces all occurrences vi : Global & Substitute: ...
Substitution can occur on multiple lines if range is specified :1,9s/string/string1/g :1,$s/string/string1/g OR :g/string/s//string1/g For substituting throughout the file -

vi : Macros:
note the double slash.
vi macros are created using the abbr command :abbr uo UNIX operating system In insert mode press u o & press Spc bar or Enter the macro string is inserted at current cursor position. lists the macros defined :abbr Macros can be unabbreviated or deleted :una uo
deletes macro uo vi : Mapping Keys to Commands:

The map command maps a user defined key to a specific function The cursor movement keys j,k,l,h may be mapped by default to their respective cursor movement keys To map the key ctrl-X to the wq command :map ^X :wq^M -
note that ^M signifies <CR> , in Vi ^ is typed by typing Ctrl-v vi : Mapping Keys to Commands:...
An unmap command is available to cancel assignments: :unmap ^X Mapping in insert mode done using the map! command :map! ^x Sam fox In insert mode Ctrl-x will insert Sam fox in the editor An insert mode map cannot be unmapped unlike abbr NOTE :
:map displays only keys mapped to command mode functions vi : Running shell commands from within :
_______________________________________________________________________ _ 47
: !<command> ! stands for run which will directly run <command> vi : Reading command output from within vi :
:sh temporarily shells out to $ and ctrl-d returns back from the shell
This is done using :r! :r! date reads in output of date at current cursor position
:r! banner Hi there vi : Editing Multiple files Simultaneously: vi can take multiple file arguments $ vi file1 file2 ..... $ vi f* OR metacharacters too :args [file1] file2 file3 - The bracketed file taken for display/edit Switches to next file in list
:n :args
file1 [file2] file3 vi : Editing Multiple files Simultaneously:...

:rew :args [file1] file2 file3-i.e. rew rewinds to file1 discards changes & coercively rewinds :rew! :e file
edits file outside chosen list but :args will not show this file in list vi : Editing Multiple files Simultaneously:...
:rew :args [file1] file2 file3-i.e. rew rewinds to file1 discards changes & coercively rewinds :rew! :e file
edits file outside chosen list but :args will not show this file in list vi : Read & Write across files Write first five lines of text from file1 to file2:1,4 w! file2
_______________________________________________________________________ _ 48
Read same text from file2 to file1:1,4 r file2 vi : The Set Options :
The set option helps customize the vi environment : set all - displays all set options available DEFAULT nonumber noshowmode
The more common options are : SET COMMAND
DESCRIPTION
:set number,nu Line numbers :set showmode
Display vi mode
vi : The Set Options :... :set autowrite,aw Save on n, rew, ! :set autoindent,ai Indent as first line noaw noai
:set beautify,bf nobeautify
Control characters omitted

:set directory,dir dir-/tmp Sets temporary directory :set errorbells,eb noeb
No error beep
vi : The Set Options :... :set ignorecase,ic noic Uppercase as lowercase :set magic magic
Allow all metacharacters

:set mesg nomesg Inhibit Write messages :set redraw noredraw
Act as intelligent terminal

:set scroll scroll=half window No. of lines to scroll vi : The Set Options :... :set shell Set which shell :set term sh=/bin/sh value of TERM
Set which terminal

:set terse noterse Error messages terse :set warn warn
_______________________________________________________________________ _ 49
Warn save on Shell Esc

vi : The Set Options :...
:set window dependentwindow speed No of lines in text window :set wrapscan,ws ws Wrap pattern on find :set warpmargin,wm wm=0
Blank screen margin right

:set writeany, wa nowa Allow writes freely vi : The .exrc file -
vi reads .exrc before loading and all options like map,abbr & set can be entered here so that they are permanent for that vi session $ vi .exrc
set nu set showmode abbr uo UNIX operating system map ^k :r! date^M
UNIX Basic Commands

Note: This file is part of Linux Shell Scripting Tutorial, and contains many Linux/Unix definition, miscellaneous concepts and answer to many shell scripts exercise section.
Free
Linux is free. First ,It's available free of cost (You don't have to pay to use this OS, other OSes like MS-Windows or Commercial version of Unix may cost you money) Second free means freedom to use Linux, i.e. when you get Linux you will also get source code of Linux, so you can modify OS (Yes OS! Linux OS!!) according to your taste. It also offers many Free Software applications, programming languages, and development tools etc. Most of the Program/Software/OS are under GNU General Public License (GPL).
Unix Like
_______________________________________________________________________ _ 50
Unix is almost 35 year old Os. In 1964 OS called MULTICS (Multiplexed Information and Computing System) was developed by Bell Labs, MIT & General Electric. But this OS was not the successful one. Then Ken Thompson (System programmer of Bell Labs) thinks he could do better (In 1991, Linus Torvalds felt he could do better than Minix - History repeats itself.). So Ken Thompson wrote OS on PDP - 7 Computer, assembler and few utilities, this is know as Unix (1969). But this version of Unix is not portable. Then Unix was rewrote in C. Because Unix written in 'C', it is portable. It means Unix can run on verity of Hardware platform (1970-71). At the same time Unix was started to distribute to Universities. There students and professor started more experiments on Unix. Because of this Unix gain more popularity, also several new features are added to Unix. Then US govt. & military uses Unix for there inter-network (now it is know as INTERNET). So Unix is Multi-user, Multitasking, Internet-aware Network OS. Linux almost had same Unix Like feature for e.g.

Like Unix, Linux is also written is C. Like Unix, Linux is also the Multi-user/Multitasking/32 or 64 bit Network OS. Like Unix, Linux is rich in Development/Programming environment. Like Unix, Linux runs on different hardware platform; for e.g. o Intel x86 processor (Celeron/PII/PIII/PIV/Old-Pentiums/80386/80486) o Macintosh PC's o Cyrix processor o AMD processor o Sun Microsystems Sparc processor o Alpha Processor (Compaq)
Open Source
Linux is developed under the GNU Public License. This is sometimes referred to as a "copyleft", to distinguish it from a copyright. Under GPL the source code is available to anyone who wants it, and can be freely modified, developed, and so forth. There are only a few restrictions on the use of the code. If you make changes to the programs , you have to make those changes available to everyone. This basically means you can't take the Linux source code, make a few changes, and then sell your modified version without making the source code available.
Common vi editor command list

For this Purpose Use this vi Command Syntax
_______________________________________________________________________ _ 51
To insert new text To save file To save file with file name (save as) To quit the vi editor To quit without saving To save and quit vi editor To search for specified word in forward direction
To continue with search To search for specified word in backward direction To copy the line where cursor is located To paste the text just deleted or copied at the esc + p cursor To delete entire line where cursor is located esc + dd To delete word from cursor position esc + dw esc + :$s/word-to-find/word-to-replace/g
esc + i ( You have to press 'escape' key then 'i') esc + : + w (Press 'escape' key then 'colon' and finally 'w') esc + : + w "filename" esc + : + q esc + : + q! esc + : + wq esc + /word (Press 'escape' key, type /wordto-find, for e.g. to find word 'shri', type as /shri) n esc + ?word (Press 'escape' key, type wordto-find) esc + yy
To Find all occurrence of given word and For. e.g. :$s/mumbai/pune/g Replace then globally without confirmation Here word "mumbai" is replace with "pune"
To Find all occurrence of given word and Replace then globally with confirmation To run shell command like ls, cp or date etc within vi
esc + :$s/word-to-find/word-to-replace/cg esc + :!shell-command For e.g. :!pwd
How Shell Locates the file

To run script, you need to have in the same directory where you created your script, if you are in different directory your script will not run (because of path settings), For e.g.. Your home directory is ( use $ pwd to see current working directory) /home/vivek. Then you created one script called 'first', after creation of this script you moved to some other directory lets say /home/vivek/Letters/Personal, Now if you try to execute your script it will not run, since script 'first' is in /home/vivek directory, to overcome this problem there are two ways first, specify complete path of your script when ever you want to run it from _______________________________________________________________________ _ 52
other directories like giving following command $ /bin/sh /home/vivek/first
Now every time you have to give all this detailed as you work in other directory, this take time and you have to remember complete path. There is another way, if you notice that all of our programs (in form of executable files) are marked as executable and can be directly executed from prompt from any directory. (To see executables of our normal program give command $ ls -l /bin ) By typing commands like $ bc $ cc myprg.c $ cal etc, How its possible? All our executables files are installed in directory called /bin and /bin directory is set in your PATH setting, Now when you type name of any command at $ prompt, what shell do is it first look that command in its internal part (called as internal command, which is part of Shell itself, and always available to execute), if found as internal command shell will execute it, If not found It will look for current directory, if found shell will execute command from current directory, if not found, then Shell will Look PATH setting, and try to find our requested commands executable file in all of the directories mentioned in PATH settings, if found it will execute it, otherwise it will give message "bash: xxxx :command not found", Still there is one question remain can I run my shell script same as these executables?, Yes you can, for this purpose create bin directory in your home directory and then copy your tested version of shell script to this bin directory. After this you can run you script as executable file without using command like $ /bin/sh /home/vivek/first Command to create you own bin directory. $ cd $ mkdir bin $ cp first ~/bin $ first Each of above commands can be explained as follows: Each of above command Explanation
_______________________________________________________________________ _ 53
$ cd $ mkdir bin $ cp first ~/bin $ first
Go to your home directory Now created bin directory, to install your own shell script, so that script can be run as independent program or can be accessed from any directory copy your script 'first' to your bin directory Test whether script is running or not (It will run)
Answer to Variable sections exercise

Q.1.How to Define variable x with value 10 and print it on screen. $ x=10 $ echo $x Q.2.How to Define variable xn with value Rani and print it on screen For Ans. Click here $ xn=Rani $ echo $xn Q.3.How to print sum of two numbers, let's say 6 and 3 $ echo 6 + 3 This will print 6 + 3, not the sum 9, To do sum or math operations in shell use expr, syntax is as follows Syntax: expr op1 operator op2 Where, op1 and op2 are any Integer Number (Number without decimal point) and operator can be + Addition - Subtraction / Division % Modular, to find remainder For e.g. 20 / 3 = 6 , to find remainder 20 % 3 = 2, (Remember its integer calculation) \* Multiplication $ expr 6 + 3 Now It will print sum as 9 , But $ expr 6+3 will not work because space is required between number and operator (See Shell Arithmetic) Q.4.How to define two variable x=20, y=5 and then to print division of x and y (i.e. x/y) For Ans. Click here $x=20 $ y=5 _______________________________________________________________________ _ 54
$ expr x / y Q.5.Modify above and store division of x and y to variable called z For Ans. Click here $ x=20 $ y=5 $ z=èxpr x / y` $ echo $z Q.6.Point out error if any in following script $ vi variscript # # # Script to test MY knolwdge about variables! # myname=Vivek myos = TroubleOS -----> ERROR 1 myno=5 echo "My name is $myname" echo "My os is $myos" echo "My number is myno, can you see this number" ----> ERROR 2
Following script should work now, after bug fix! $ vi variscript # # # Script to test MY knolwdge about variables! # myname=Vivek myos=TroubleOS myno=5 echo "My name is $myname" echo "My os is $myos" echo "My number is $myno, can you see this number"
Parameter substitution.
Now consider following command $($ echo 'expr 6 + 3')
_______________________________________________________________________ _ 55
The command ($ echo 'expr 6 + 3') is know as Parameter substitution. When a command is enclosed in backquotes, the command get executed and we will get output. Mostly this is used in conjunction with other commands. For e.g. $pwd $cp /mnt/cdrom/lsoft/samba*.rmp `pwd` Now suppose we are working in directory called "/home/vivek/soft/artical/linux/lsst" and I want to copy some samba files from "/mnt/cdrom/lsoft" to my current working directory, then my command will be something like $cp /mnt/cdrom/lsoft/samba*.rmp /home/vivek/soft/artical/linux/lsst
Instead of giving above command I can give command as follows $cp /mnt/cdrom/lsoft/samba*.rmp `pwd` Here file is copied to your working directory. See the last Parameter substitution of `pwd` command, expand it self to /home/vivek/soft/artical/linux/lsst. This will save my time. $cp /mnt/cdrom/lsoft/samba*.rmp `pwd` Future Point: What is difference between following two command? $cp /mnt/cdrom/lsoft/samba*.rmp `pwd` AND $cp /mnt/cdrom/lsoft/samba*.rmp . Try to note down output of following Parameter substitution. $echo "Today date is `date`" $cal > menuchoice.temp.$$ $dialog --backtitle "Linux Shell Tutorial" --title "Calender" --infobox "`cat menuchoice.temp.$$`" 9 25 ; read
Answer to if command.
A) There is file called foo, on your disk and you give command, $ ./trmfi foo what will be output. Ans.: foo file will be deleted, and message "foo file deleted" on screen will be printed. B) If bar file not present on your disk and you give command, $ ./trmfi bar what will be output. _______________________________________________________________________ _ 56
Ans.: Message "rm: cannot remove `bar': No such file or directory" will be printed because bar file does not exist on disk and we have called rm command, so error from rm commad C) And if you type $ ./trmfi, What will be output. Ans.: Following message will be shown by rm command, because rm is called from script without any parameters. rm: too few arguments Try `rm --help' for more information.
Answer to Variables in Linux.

1) If you want to print your home directory location then you give command: (a) $ echo $HOME or (b) $ echo HOME Which of the above command is correct & why? Ans.: (a) command is correct, since we have to print the contains of variable (HOME) and not the HOME. You must use $ followed by variable name to print variables cotaines.
Answer to Process Section.

1) Is it example of Multitasking? Ans.: Yes, since you are running two process simultaneously. 2) How you will you find out the both running process (MP3 Playing & Letter typing)? Ans.: Try $ ps aux or $ ps ax | grep process-you-want-to-search 3) "Currently only two Process are running in your Linux/PC environment", Is it True or False?, And how you will verify this? Ans.: No its not true, when you start Linux Os, various process start in background for different purpose. To verify this simply use top or ps aux command. 4) You don't want to listen music (MP3 Files) but want to continue with other work on PC, you will take any of the following action: 1. Turn off Speakers 2. Turn off Computer / Shutdown Linux Os _______________________________________________________________________ _ 57
3. Kill the MP3 playing process 4. None of the above Ans.: Use action no. 3 i.e. kill the MP3 process. Tip: First find the PID of MP3 playing process by issuing command: $ ps ax | grep mp3-process-name Then in the first column you will get PID of process. Kill this PID to end the process as: $ kill PID Or you can try killall command to kill process by name as follows: $ killall mp3-process-name
Linux Console (Screen)

How can I write colorful message on Linux Console? , mostly this kind of question is asked by newcomers (Specially those who are learning shell programming!). As you know in Linux everything is considered as a file, our console is one of such special file. You can write special character sequences to console, which control every aspects of the console like Colors on screen, Bold or Blinking text effects, clearing the screen, showing text boxes etc. For this purpose we have to use special code called escape sequence code. Our Linux console is based on the DEC VT100 serial terminals which support ANSI escape sequence code. What is special character sequence and how to write it to Console? By default what ever you send to console it is printed as its. For e.g. consider following echo statement, $ echo "Hello World" Hello World Above echo statement prints sequence of character on screen, but if there is any special escape sequence (control character) in sequence , then first some action is taken according to escape sequence (or control character) and then normal character is printed on console. For e.g. following echo command prints message in Blue color on console $ echo -e "\033[34m Hello Colorful World!" Hello Colorful World! Above echo statement uses ANSI escape sequence (\033[34m), above entire string ( i.e. "\033[34m Hello Colorful World!" ) is process as follows 1) First \033, is escape character, which causes to take some action 2) Here it set screen foreground color to Blue using [34m escape code. 3) Then it prints our normal message Hello Colorful World! in blue color. Note that ANSI escape sequence begins with \033 (Octal value) which is represented as ^[ in termcap and terminfo files of terminals and documentation. _______________________________________________________________________ _ 58
You can use echo statement to print message, to use ANSI escape sequence you must use -e option (switch) with echo statement, general syntax is as follows Syntax echo -e "\033[escape-code your-message" In above syntax you have to use\033[ as its with different escape-code for different operations. As soon as console receives the message it start to process/read it, and if it found escape character (\033) it moves to escape mode, then it read "[" character and moves into Command Sequence Introduction (CSI) mode. In CSI mode console reads a series of ASCII-coded decimal numbers (know as parameter) which are separated by semicolon (;) . This numbers are read until console action letter or character is not found (which determines what action to take). In above example \033 [ 34 m Escape character Start of CSI 34 is parameter m is letter (specifies action)
Following table show important list of such escape-code/action letter or character Character or letter h l m Use in CSI Examples
s u
Set the ANSI mode echo -e "\033[h" Clears the ANSI mode echo -e "\033[l" Useful to show characters in different colors or effects such echo -e "\033[35m Hello World" as BOLD and Blink, see below for parameter taken by m. Turns keyboard num lock, caps lock, scroll lock LED on echo -e "\033[2q" or off, see below. Stores the current cursor x,y position (col , row position) echo -e "\033[7s" and attributes Restores cursor position and echo -e "\033[8u" attributes
m understand following parameters Parameter Meaning 0 Sets default color scheme Example
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(White foreground and Black background), normal intensity, no blinking etc. $ echo -e "I am \033[1m BOLD \033[0m Person" I am BOLD Person Prints BOLD word in bold intensity and next ANSI Sequence remove bold effect (\033[0m) $ echo -e "\033[1m BOLD \033[2m DIM \ 033[0m" $ echo -e "\033[5m Flash! \033[0m"
Set BOLD intensity
2 5 7
Set dim intensity
11
25 27
30 - 37
40 - 47
Blink Effect Reverse video effect i.e. Black foreground and white $ echo -e "\033[7m Linux OS! Best OS!! \ background in default color 033[0m" scheme Shows special control character as graphics character. For e.g. Before issuing this command press alt key (hold down it) from $ press alt + 178 numeric key pad press 178 $ echo -e "\033[11m" and leave both key; nothing $ press alt + 178 will be printed. Now give $ echo -e "\033[0m" $ press alt + 178 --> command shown in example and try the above, it works. (Hey you must know extended ASCII Character for this!!!) Removes/disables blink effect Removes/disables reverse effect Set foreground color 31 - RED 32 - Green $ echo -e "\033[31m I am in Red" xx - Try to find yourself this left as exercise for you :-) Set background color xx - Try to find yourself this $ echo -e "\033[44m Wow!!!" left as exercise for you :-)
q understand following parameters _______________________________________________________________________ _ 60
Parameters 0 1 2 3
Meaning Turns off all LEDs on Keyboard Scroll lock LED on and others off Num lock LED on and others off Caps lock LED on and others off
This is just quick introduction about Linux Console and what you can do using this Escape sequence. Above table does not contains entire CSI sequences. My up-coming tutorial series on C Programming Language will defiantly have entire story with S-Lang and curses (?). What ever knowledge you gain here will defiantly first step towards the serious programming using c. This much knowledge is sufficient for Shell Programming, now try the following exercise :-) I am Hungry give me More Programming Exercise & challenges! :-) 1) Write function box(), that will draw box on screen (In shell Script) box (left, top, height, width) For e.g. box (20,5,7,40)
Hint: Use ANSI Escape sequence 1) Use of 11 parameter to m 2) Use following for cursor movement row;col H or rowl;col f For e.g. _______________________________________________________________________ _ 61
$ echo -e "\033[5;10H Hello" $ echo -e "\033[6;10f Hi" In Above example prints Hello message at row 5 and column 6 and Hi at 6th row and 10th Column.
Shell Built in Variables

Shell Built in Variables $# $* $@ $$$ $! Meaning Number of command line arguments. Useful to test no. of command line args in shell script. All arguments to shell Same as above Option supplied to shell PID of shell PID of last started background process (started with &)
echo Command
Use echo command to display text or value of variable. echo [options] [string, variables...] Displays text or variables value on screen. Options -n Do not output the trailing new line. -e Enable interpretation of the following backslash escaped characters in the strings: \a alert (bell) \b backspace \c suppress trailing new line \n new line \r carriage return \t horizontal tab \\ backslash For e.g. $ echo -e "An apple a day keeps away \a\t\tdoctor\n"
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Shell Arithmetic
Use to perform arithmetic operations. Syntax: expr op1 math-operator op2 Examples:
$ $ $ $ $ $ expr expr expr expr expr echo 1 + 3 2 - 1 10 / 2 20 % 3 10 \* 3 èxpr 6 + 3`
Note: expr 20 %3 - Remainder read as 20 mod 3 and remainder is 2. expr 10 \* 3 - Multiplication use \* and not * since its wild card. For the last statement not the following points (1) First, before expr keyword we used ` (back quote) sign not the (single quote i.e. ') sign. Back quote is generally found on the key under tilde (~) on PC keyboard OR to the above of TAB key. (2) Second, expr is also end with ` i.e. back quote. (3) Here expr 6 + 3 is evaluated to 9, then echo command prints 9 as sum (4) Here if you use double quote or single quote, it will NOT work For e.g. $ echo "expr 6 + 3" # It will print expr 6 + 3 $ echo 'expr 6 + 3' # It will print expr 6 + 3
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UNIX Bourne Shell Scripting

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